Microsoft Word FINAL Natalie McKenna Thesis Equella FINAL docx Gender stereotyping and bullying in Australia Experiences and strategies of female managers A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requi[.]
Introduction
Research question
The primary research question for this study is: How do women managers in Australia address their experience of gender stereotyping and bullying to advance their careers?
In order to unpack this question, I asked:
1 What strategies do women adopt to overcome gender stereotyping?
2 What strategies do women adopt to overcome bullying?
3 Do professional women adopt any type of behaviour in order to succeed in business in Australia?
Scope of this study
This study explores effective strategies employed by women in Australia to combat gender stereotyping and workplace bullying, focusing on networking, mentoring, impression management, and adopting traditionally masculine behaviors Through interviews with eight female and five male managers, it highlights women's personal experiences and insights regarding these issues, while also providing contrasting perspectives from male participants Although not all participants were directly asked about their experiences with bullying, it was revealed that four women and three men reported having faced bullying during their careers Future research could investigate the prevalence of bullying among women in Australian organizations, their coping mechanisms, and any differences in experiences compared to their male counterparts.
While there has not been a consensus as to the effect of gender on bullying (Samnani
Research indicates that workplace bullying affects a significant portion of employees, with 24% of females and 17% of males reporting experiences of bullying in the public sector (Singh, 2012; Lewis & Gunn, 2007) Additionally, studies show that women are often overrepresented among those identifying as victims of bullying, and the prevalence of such behavior tends to increase with higher positions within the organization (Salin, 2001).
(2003) also found that women made up 80 per cent of people bullied, and were more likely to be bullied by other women in 63 percent of cases
The study involved thirteen participants, primarily in their forties, with one in her 30s, two in their 50s, and two in their 60s Twelve participants are married with children and have held high-middle to executive management positions across diverse sectors, including accounting, law, academia, healthcare, printing, construction, air transport, and automotive.
All the women in this study experienced gender stereotyping, except one who worked in healthcare
Out of thirteen participants, seven experienced bullying, including four women and three men Notably, one female participant faced both bullying and sexual harassment from a male perpetrator All identified bullies were men, either peers or superiors within the workplace.
This thesis examines bullying and sexual harassment as a unified category, highlighting that women employ similar strategies to address both issues despite their distinct legal definitions The study reveals that women face gender stereotyping and barriers to career advancement, while men offer insights on strategies women should adopt for professional growth Key strategies identified include networking and mentoring, often linked to impression management, which encompasses presentation, education, and communication Additionally, women are observed to adopt traditionally male behaviors, such as openly expressing ambition and adopting specific communication and leadership styles, to further their careers by leveraging male stereotypes.
In Chapter 2, I analyze existing literature on gender stereotyping and workplace bullying, focusing on the effectiveness of strategies such as networking, mentoring, impression management, and adopting masculine behaviors The literature review is organized according to the study's questions outlined in section 1.1 and concludes by identifying the research gap this thesis intends to fill Additionally, I outline the methodological approach, detailing the open-ended interview style, as well as the data collection and analysis processes.
3 I detail and analyse my data in chapters 4 and 5 This is organised around the study questions My conclusions from this study and recommendations for future research are contained in chapter 6.
Literature review: Gender stereotyping and bullying Experiences and strategies
Gender stereotyping
Gender stereotyping perpetuates the subordination of women in the workplace, hindering their career success and justifying ongoing discrimination Key stereotypes suggest that women lack the capability for management and leadership roles, associating these positions primarily with men Additionally, women are often labeled as having weak communication styles, and motherhood is wrongly perceived as a sign of reduced commitment This contributes to the misconception that women do not aspire to be CEOs, further explaining the lack of gender diversity in senior management Research by Rudman and Phelan highlights that gender stereotypes create an impression management dilemma for professional women, as they risk backlash when challenging these stereotypes.
Research on gender stereotypes reveals that men are often viewed as more achievement-oriented, competent, and confident, embodying agentic traits, while women are seen as more people-oriented, warm, and kind, reflecting communal characteristics These perceived differences stem from traditional gender role expectations, where men are expected to be breadwinners and women caregivers, alongside gender socialization that discourages behaviors deemed typical of the opposite sex.
Despite women making up 46 percent of the Australian workforce as of 2016, traditional gender stereotypes persist, associating men with agency and provider roles while linking women to communality and caretaker roles.
2.1.1 What are gender stereotypes and how are they influential?
The term "stereotype," introduced by American journalist Walter Lippman in 1922, describes the mental images we hold of different social groups Initially, social psychologists viewed stereotypes negatively, considering them as rigid, oversimplified, and biased perceptions linked to prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behaviors.
Gender stereotypes are beliefs regarding the psychological traits, characteristics, and activities associated with men and women They shape gender roles, which are defined by behaviors, and influence societal perceptions of masculinity and femininity These stereotypes create social categories that reflect how individuals think, often persisting even when they diverge from reality (Brannon, 2004) Gender stereotyping simplifies complex human behaviors into generalizations, leading to the imposition of negative personal values on society (Dimnik & Felton, 2000; Lippman, 1922).
Stereotypes play a crucial role in shaping social groups and influencing interactions with their members (Oakes, Haslam & Turner, 1994) In the workplace, these stereotypes significantly affect attitudes, particularly among emerging managers who often feel compelled to conform to masculine stereotypes linked to effective leadership and management (Powell & Butterfield, 2002; Dimnik & Felton, 2000).
Popular representations significantly impact women's self-perception Repeated portrayals of a group in cultural contexts shape how its members view themselves and others Consequently, these representations affect the treatment they receive from society (Dyer, 1993).
Despite an increased presence of women in middle management, they still encounter significant challenges in breaking the glass ceiling and advancing to higher organizational levels A 2013 survey by the Committee for Economic Development of Australia revealed that 93.2% of respondents identified barriers to women's workplace equality, with 51% reporting gender-based discrimination The study highlighted corporate culture issues, such as the association of leadership with male norms, rigid working hours, domestic responsibilities, and misconceptions about women's career ambitions as obstacles to female success Similarly, a Catalyst study found that senior women in the U.S., U.K., and Canada recognized male stereotyping and family commitments as significant barriers to their professional advancement.
2.1.2 How do gender stereotypes become barriers to career advancement?
Women encounter significant barriers in the workplace that hinder their ability to achieve their full potential, including preconceived notions that limit career opportunities and a lack of recognition for their skills (Howard & Wellins, 2008) Deep-rooted stereotypes imply that women have inferior capabilities and are unfit for high-responsibility roles These gender role stereotypes reflect a cultural and social perspective on traditional expectations of women's abilities.
‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ roles and functions and might influence women and men’s work choices as well as create the labour market that is divided under genders (Kiausiene et al.,
In every culture, societal perceptions of gender create significant barriers for women in the workplace, often linking their professional performance to their private lives, such as home and family responsibilities, while men are primarily associated with public and professional roles (Jankauskaite, 1999) These stereotypes, which suggest that a woman's role is confined to the family and that a man must be the primary provider, shape the upbringing and education of individuals, perpetuating traditional gender roles.
The stereotype that "a woman is a dependent" and "a man cannot cry" persists, despite evidence to the contrary Research, including a survey by Bain and Chief Executive Women (Sanders et al., 2011), challenges the myth that women lack ambition for senior management roles The survey revealed that 76 percent of senior female executives in Australia aspire to leadership positions, highlighting the need to reassess these outdated beliefs.
Women hoping for career advancement must defeat such gender stereotypes by presenting themselves as competent, confident and assertive and ambitious (Dodge, Gilroy,
& Fenzel, 1995; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Glick, Zion, & Nelson, 1988) Leadership is often seen as a contrast to the feminine stereotypes (Biernat & Fuegen, 2001; Foschi, 2000; Heilman,
Women face a dilemma in the workplace where displaying agentic behavior can lead to backlash, making them less likable and hireable compared to men exhibiting similar traits While they are encouraged to act assertively to be seen as qualified, they often face penalties for doing so Consequently, some women may opt to prioritize likability over assertiveness, which can ultimately undermine their status and power.
Gender stereotypes manifest in various forms, including the exclusion of women from knowledge acquisition processes through all-male clubs and the old-boy network Discrimination is often justified by claiming client aversion to female professionals, while rigid working conditions, such as frequent travel and late hours, are used as performance appraisal criteria The stereotype that men are managers and women are mothers reinforces traditional views that undermine women's managerial capabilities Additionally, these stereotypes are perpetuated by society, governments, organizations, individuals, and researchers, highlighting their pervasive nature.
Research indicates that many individuals are unconsciously influenced by traditional male leadership traits, often favoring leaders with deep voices and above-average height (Fox, 2012, p 91).
Rosabeth Moss Kanter, whose research is influential in gender stereotyping in the workplace, asserted that
Organizations tend to perpetuate themselves by favoring individuals who mirror the characteristics of those in power, predominantly masculine men Consequently, the few women who attain senior positions often share similar traits with their male counterparts, as they must adopt a masculine approach to advance within the organization.
Bullying
Bullying is characterized by repeated actions aimed at harming or demeaning an individual, which can manifest through verbal, physical, or social means over time (Goldsmid & Howie, 2014) It typically involves an imbalance of power between the bully and the victim, influenced by various factors such as physical, verbal, or social status (Olweus, 1992) In the workplace, bullying behaviors may include humiliation, sarcasm, rudeness, excessive workload, threats, and violence (Dierickx, 2004; Djurkovic et al., 2004) Additionally, it can encompass name-calling, sexual harassment, scapegoating, and undue work pressure (Harvey et al., 2006).
Researchers have identified seven types of bullying in the workplace: direct physical bullying, direct verbal bullying, relational aggression, scapegoating, sexual harassment, increased work pressure, and workplace destabilization through failure to recognize individual achievements or by setting individuals up for failure Additionally, various forms of organizational misconduct contribute to negative workplace events, with some acts of workplace bullying also classified as workplace corruption.
Workplace bullying prevalence is challenging to determine due to varying estimates A survey conducted by the Victorian government in Australia revealed that 20% of 14,000 public sector workers reported being bullied or harassed by managers or colleagues in the past year, while an additional 40% witnessed such abuse.
A survey conducted in the UK revealed that nearly 25% of nurses experienced bullying or harassment at work in 2005, an increase from 17% in 2000 (Lipley, 2006) Similarly, studies in the United States have shown that workplace bullying rates can range from 38% to 90% over individuals' careers (Glendinning, 2001).
In a qualitative study conducted in 2006, ten British women working in professional public sector jobs shared their experiences of bullying Through interviews analyzed via grounded theory methods, key themes emerged regarding their struggles to identify and cope with bullying These themes included minimizing interpersonal difficulties, preserving self, maintaining commitments to professional values, sickness explanations, and naming the problem While some strategies, such as preserving self and upholding professional commitments, may appear positive, others are maladaptive and fail to address the underlying cultural issues within the organization.
Career advancement strategies: Networking, finding a mentor and impression
Current literature highlights the significance of networking and mentoring, especially for women who leverage these connections to secure new job opportunities (Sheridan, 2001; Portes, 1998) Additionally, it emphasizes the role of impression management strategies in facilitating career advancement.
Mentoring programs are gaining traction in graduate and leadership programs, with research indicating that women often achieve greater success when paired with male mentors compared to female mentors (Dougherty et al., 2013; Kumra & Vinnicombe, 2010) Additionally, literature on impression management, including studies by Goffman (1959), Leary & Kowalski (1990), and Wayne & Kacmar (1991), highlights the importance of cultivating a positive image for career advancement.
Access to networking and informal networks may have influence on female career advancement in business (Hoddinott & Jarratt, 1998; Cannings & Montmarquette, 1991) A
2001 study of female directors of public companies found the importance of networks in finding board positions (Sheridan, 2001) Portes (1998) found social networks to be important and effective
Research by Dougherty et al (2013) and Kumra & Vinnicombe (2010) highlights the significant advantages of having a mentor, especially a high-status senior male, for women's career progression and salary Such mentors enhance women's visibility, legitimacy, and credibility while providing essential organizational sponsorship, particularly in male-dominated fields It is crucial for mentors to possess a strong reputation within the organization and access to valuable career-enhancing resources, including challenging assignments.
‘clout at board level’.” (Kumra & Vinnicombe, 2010, p 538)
Tymon and Stumpf (2003) emphasize that career success is significantly influenced by the quality of personal relationships, commonly known as social capital Research indicates that managers with strong social capital, particularly connections with individuals in other organizations, experience greater career advancement These relationships offer essential information, exclusive access to support and resources, and opportunities for career sponsorship.
Access to social capital is crucial for advancing to senior management and board positions, as highlighted by Metz and Tharenou (2001) Managers with extensive social networks tend to achieve greater returns on their human capital, which encompasses their knowledge and experience Being well-connected allows individuals to identify and seize career-enhancing opportunities, facilitating the acquisition of essential skills and experience (Anderson-Gough et al., 2005).
Women often face exclusion from both formal and informal networking opportunities, which hinders their ability to build essential human and social capital Historically, they have been denied access to key organizational circles, making it more challenging for them to advance compared to their male counterparts While networking can aid in their professional growth, the obstacles women encounter are significantly greater than those faced by men.
Impression management involves techniques used by individuals to create a favorable image, particularly in public relations and professional communications This process, essential in the era of social media, focuses on personal branding and the establishment of a specific identity both in and out of the workplace.
Impression management is a powerful strategy for enhancing career progression, particularly for women, as research indicates a correlation between favorable image management and increased career advancement (Wayne & Kacmar, 1991; Leary & Kowalski, 1990) This concept encompasses various elements and characteristics, with men and women employing different tactics tailored to their specific goals and contexts.
The work of Erving Goffman is influential in this research, namely his seminal work of
In 1959, Erving Goffman introduced the concept of impression management in his work "The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life." This involves various strategies such as self-promotion, opinion conformity, and defensive behaviors aimed at repairing or protecting one's image, as noted by van Iddekinge et al (2007).
Effective communication skills and styles play a crucial role in impression management and leadership, rooted in non-verbal communication Research by Alex Todorov from Harvard University reveals that individuals form initial assessments within just 100 milliseconds of meeting someone, evaluating traits such as attractiveness, likeability, trustworthiness, competence, and aggressiveness These impressions tend to become entrenched over time To manage one's image effectively, it is essential to balance warmth and competence through both verbal and non-verbal communication Warmth can be conveyed through eye contact, nodding, smiling, and open body language, while competence is often inferred from expansive postures and firm handshakes Additionally, adopting powerful postures before high-pressure situations can enhance feelings of competence and project a stronger impression during speeches, negotiations, and job interviews.
Charismatic leadership literature highlights the importance of self-image and self-presentation in creating a charismatic persona (Conger & Kanungo, 1998; Gardner & Avolio, 1998; de Vries, 1988) Self-image refers to an individual's perception and description of themselves based on relevant traits, characteristics, and identities (Schlenker, 1980).
Impression management consists of two key processes: impression motivation and impression construction Impression motivation refers to the extent to which individuals wish to influence how they are perceived by others, influenced by the relevance of their goals, the importance of desired outcomes, and the gap between their current and ideal self-image On the other hand, impression construction is shaped by five factors: self-concept, desired and undesired identity images, role constraints, the values of the target audience, and the individual's current social image When individuals are motivated to shape specific impressions, they may adjust their behaviors to impact how others perceive them.
Men and women employ distinct strategies of impression management to achieve power and success within organizations Research indicates that men are more likely to apply for positions even if they meet only three out of five key selection criteria, while women typically refrain from applying unless they fulfill all criteria (Swift & Gruben, 2000) Additionally, women tend to underreport their accomplishments compared to their male counterparts.
Managing the impression of availability is crucial for women in leadership roles, as highlighted by Kumra & Vinnicombe (2010) in their study "Impressing for Success." The research indicates that women managers prioritize the perception of being present and fully available at work, largely due to societal assumptions about their family responsibilities This expectation aligns with the implicit model of the ideal employee, characterized by availability, personal sacrifices, and a willingness to travel or relocate for organizational needs Unfortunately, women often struggle to meet this standard, as they are frequently viewed as less suitable candidates due to their family obligations Even women without children may be unfairly judged based on the perception that they could become mothers, further complicating their ability to conform to the ideal employee archetype (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
Gender inequality remains a significant issue within organizations Since the 1980s, there has been a growing focus on the experiences, performances, and negotiations of masculinity in the workplace, as highlighted by various studies (Godfrey et al., 2012; Kerfoot & Knights, 1993; Morgan, 1992; Simpson, 2004; Whitehead & Barrett).
Research gap
Female professionals face various obstacles to career advancement, as highlighted by this study, which addresses a limited aspect of this intricate issue Previous research has examined topics such as gender stereotyping, bullying, impression management, female leadership, and the dynamics of gender, money, and power, shedding light on the challenges women encounter in the workplace.
Research indicates that gaps exist in understanding the relationship between barriers like gender stereotyping and bullying Specifically, women who express ambition or act contrary to traditional gender norms may face bullying Heilman (2001) highlights that prescriptive gender stereotypes negatively impact women's career advancement When women display competence or assertiveness, they often encounter criticism, which hinders their opportunities for upward mobility.
Addressing barriers in career advancement requires effective strategies, such as early intervention in bullying Learning to manage bullying at the start of one's career can be crucial for developing networking skills that facilitate future growth Additionally, mentoring plays a vital role in helping women navigate challenges like gender stereotyping and bullying, ultimately supporting their professional development.
This lack of emphasis on strategies used to overcome barriers also means that
‘behaving like a man’ is not recognised as a strategy to overcome gender stereotyping or bullying
The existing literature reveals significant gaps in understanding the interplay between gender stereotyping, bullying, networking, mentoring, and impression management, leaving several critical questions unanswered Key inquiries include the strategies women employ to combat gender stereotyping in the workplace, the significance of networking and mentoring for their professional advancement, the most effective impression management tactics for navigating gender biases, the impact of adopting traditionally masculine behaviors on women's careers, and the ways organizations can adapt their cultures to empower women in the workplace.
In this thesis I addressed the first three questions.
Methodology
My rationale for this study
My personal experiences have driven my research, highlighting the necessity for researchers to recognize how their identities and beliefs shape knowledge creation Understanding the influence of personal characteristics—such as gender, age, race, and individual experiences—on research outcomes is crucial This self-awareness allows researchers to monitor the impact of their biases and preferences on their work, ensuring a more objective approach to their studies.
The researcher's position significantly influences the study, as noted by Berger (2015) Participants are often more inclined to share their experiences with researchers they perceive as empathetic (De Tona, 2006), leading to a more open dialogue Additionally, the researcher's worldview and background shape their approach to constructing knowledge, including language use, question formulation, and information filtering, ultimately impacting the study's findings and conclusions (Kacen and Chaiten, 2006).
As the founder and director of a communications agency and a lecturer in media and communications, my research has been significantly influenced by my professional experiences I believe that impression management and personal branding are essential for enhancing female career advancement, a perspective shaped by my observations in the media and business sectors Notably, I have witnessed a disparity in pay and seniority between men and women, with females often facing specific appearance expectations for on-camera and administrative roles.
With extensive field experience in personal branding, I help individuals enhance their career success through effective image and impression management My training encompasses both verbal and non-verbal communication, and I have worked with politicians, executives, and celebrities to refine their physical presentation and public image This journey inspired my research question: "Do influence, image, and impression management play a role in female career success in business and politics in Australia?"
Methodological framework
Research is typically conducted using two main paradigms: the logical-positivist paradigm, which employs quantitative and experimental methods to test hypothetical-deductive generalizations, and the phenomenological inquiry, also known as the interpretive paradigm, which utilizes qualitative and naturalist approaches to gain an inductive and holistic understanding of human experiences in specific contexts My study adopts a qualitative-interpretive approach, aiming to uncover both implicit and explicit behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge through interviews.
Interpretivism utilizes inductive reasoning, starting with specific observations to understand complex situations, necessitating deep immersion in the data without imposing preconceived theories (Urquhart, 1997; Patton, 1998) It aligns closely with grounded theory, where theories emerge post-data collection (Glaser, 1978) My interpretivist approach focuses on identifying themes while avoiding personal biases during data analysis This methodology emphasizes interpreting meanings and perspectives, highlighting how individuals construct and share their realities (Trujillo, 1992; Hallebone & Priest, 2009) It advocates for analyzing from the actor's viewpoint to gain empathetic insights into others' beliefs and attitudes (Tracy, 2012), making it suitable for studies aimed at understanding interviewees' experiences and meanings.
Qualitative research employs various methods such as interpretive, naturalistic, phenomenological, and ethnographic approaches to explore the essence of phenomena (Huberman & Miles, 2002; Taylor & Trujillo, 2001) This methodology focuses on inductive and interpretive techniques to describe and understand everyday events (Taylor & Trujillo, 2001) The study prioritizes words, narratives, and lived experiences over quantification or statistical analysis, aiming to uncover significant factors affecting real people in authentic situations rather than testing predefined hypotheses Two primary methodological approaches utilized in this research are grounded theory and interpretivism.
Grounded theory, used as an approach in this study, is a term referring to both a research methodology and the end theoretical product (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Weed,
Grounded theory emerged in the 1960s as a revolutionary approach in social sciences, challenging the dominance of quantitative research methods At that time, qualitative research was often viewed as lacking rigor and scientific validity Pioneers Glaser and Strauss focused on generating theories based on individuals' perceptions of their circumstances, emphasizing that these perceptions could be reshaped through social interactions The core principle of grounded theory involves employing various techniques to align data with theory, primarily through the organization of data using coding methods.
Categories arise from the analysis of coded data, where codes serve as descriptive labels for the information The term 'category' denotes theoretical concepts that classify patterns within the data, allowing researchers to explain and predict behaviors Each category possesses distinct properties that define and elaborate on its meaning (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).
Qualitative research primarily focuses on identifying and abstracting significant themes from complex data This process includes highlighting important text, distinguishing various data threads, and making reflective notes on subtle insights that often serve as the foundation for theoretical development.
In this research, I organized and coded the data to extract themes while taking notes and reflecting on the findings Grounded theory poses a risk of the researcher’s analysis being influenced by the respondents’ assumptions and beliefs (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) Additionally, the researcher’s training and education can impact the theoretical sensitivity of grounded theory research (Glaser, 1978) The researcher’s experiences lead to the formulation of broad questions that are crucial for conceptualizing and developing a theory during data analysis Furthermore, theoretical sensitivity requires the researcher to be passionate about the study, possess familiarity with the research area, and be skilled in deriving insights from past experiences or potential future occurrences (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
Evolution of the research question
My personal stories and experiences drive my research into significant and troubling issues This approach aligns with the perspective that examining personal life experiences can yield valuable insights into broader societal structures and challenges (Tracy, 2012).
My fieldwork and observations have shaped my original research question While my career experience informed my interactions with participants, I have made a conscious effort to stay aware of these dynamics throughout the project.
This study's focus evolved during data collection, revealing unexpected themes Initially centered on career advancement and impression management, it shifted to highlight gender stereotyping and bullying Consistent with a grounded theory and interpretivist approach, key topics of interest transformed throughout the research process.
This research initially aimed to explore impression management in relation to dress During a fourth interview, a participant revealed that she was advised to change her attire to secure a promotion to the executive team She noted that the male candidate who received the position excelled in impression management, being tall, charming, and suited However, he was also a bully, and at the time of the interview, he was intimidating the participant and her colleagues.
During my study, bullying first became a significant topic during the fifth interview, where a participant recounted her experiences of being bullied early in her career This issue persisted in subsequent interviews, including those with male participants, prompting me to examine bullying and gender stereotyping more thoroughly As a result, I revised the interview guide to better address the implications of these issues.
Women are employing similar strategies to combat both bullying and gender stereotypes, as illustrated by one participant's determination to prevent future bullying by obtaining two Master's degrees and adopting traditionally masculine behaviors Consequently, my study's focus evolved to examine the experiences of Australian women in navigating bullying and gender stereotypes, along with the strategies they utilize to manage these challenges.
The literature review has played a crucial role in shaping the research process and theory development of my project While some researchers view existing literature as mere supplementary data (Glaser 1978; 1992; 2001; 2003), others argue that it can inform research and theory development, although pre-existing knowledge may bias the analysis Strauss and Corbin (1990; 1998) recommend an initial preliminary literature review, followed by a more comprehensive review as grounded theory begins to emerge In my study, as data on bullying and gender stereotyping surfaced, I conducted a focused literature review on these topics.
Participant selection
Initially, the participant selection was to be from the big four accounting firms Extensive contact was made with partners, HR managers and employees at Deloitte, KPMG,
EY, Price Waterhouse Coopers, and a legal committee from Deloitte convened twice regarding my request for staff interviews Ultimately, access was denied, leading to a significant expansion of the participant selection criteria The revised criteria now focus on professionals in business and government who hold senior executive or director positions within their organizations.
I approached both familiar and unfamiliar participants within the Australian business community, utilizing my network and employing a snowball sampling method This technique involves leveraging individuals and groups to advocate for a cause, thereby facilitating access to potential participants (Faugier & Sargeant, 1997) However, this method may introduce a self-selection bias, as those who choose to participate might be more engaged and interested in the topic than the broader population (Costigan & Cox, 2001).
I initiated my recruitment process by reaching out to individuals on LinkedIn to share my research objectives and request interviews; however, this method did not yield any interviews Instead, I found success by directly contacting former colleagues, acquaintances from my non-executive and managing director roles, and connections made during my MBA studies Early participants expressed enjoyment in their interviews and referred me to other potential candidates, whom I subsequently approached via phone or email to schedule meetings.
This study revealed that men were more likely to complete the interviews compared to women, who showed interest and enthusiasm for the topic but faced challenges in scheduling The difficulty in arranging interviews with women often led to multiple rescheduling, making it unclear why these issues arose, although the interviews ultimately took place.
A total of fourteen managers, comprising eight females and five males from senior and executive levels across government, corporate, education, and health sectors, were selected for the study To ensure confidentiality, the names, occupations, and statuses of the participants have been altered The accompanying table outlines the research sample and offers general information about each participant, providing context for their experiences and opinions.
Anna 40s Married Has children Healthcare Principal
Catherine 50s Married Has children Academia Executive Leader
Ciara 40s Married No children Pharmaceutical Executive
Erin 30s Married Has children Science/Law Senior Management
Jane 40s Married Has children Air transport Director
Margaret 40s Married Has children Professional Services Director
Rani 40s Married Has children Accounting Director
Susan 40s Married Has children Construction Executive Leader
Bernie 60s Married Has children Automotive Director
David 60s Partnered No children Professional Services Managing Director
Jack 40s Married Has children Printing Director
Mike 40s Married Has children Construction CEO
Tim 50s Married Has children Accounting CEO
Participants were invited to schedule a one-hour interview at their preferred location, with a consent form detailing the project's aims and themes provided The project received ethics committee approval, and interviews were conducted either face-to-face or via Skype, taking place in the participants' offices or at RMIT University.
Interviews and data collection
The interviews aimed to be open-ended, allowing participants to share their opinions, thoughts, and experiences freely The approach involved starting with broad questions and then following up on the interviewees' responses to accurately capture their meanings without imposing personal values.
An interview guide was created to explore participants' opinions and experiences in their current or past professional environments, as detailed in Appendix A However, early interviews revealed that rigidly following the guide hindered open communication Consequently, in subsequent interviews, the guide was used flexibly to facilitate discussion, allowing conversations to flow naturally and encouraging interviewees to share their experiences and opinions without interruption.
The interviews began with a commitment to confidentiality and an outline of the study's purpose Participants were informed about the consent forms, which were then explained and signed, adhering to the university's ethical guidelines.
Female participants shared their experiences, perceptions, and beliefs, while male participants discussed their roles as managers, leaders, and employers of women The male participants were questioned about the presence of female leaders in their organizations, perceptions of women, and the impact of image, leadership, and communication styles on the career advancement of female professionals The open-ended format aimed to enable participants to narrate their stories in their own way.
The interviews were recorded to facilitate transcription and analysis, as tape recording enhances the researcher's attentiveness (Minichello et al., 1995) Research indicates that recording interviews, even on sensitive subjects, does not significantly impact responses, with most interviewers noting that participants quickly forget about the recording device (Sudman et al., 1996) In my experience, participants were generally unconcerned about the recording Initially, both the participant and I felt a degree of formality and nervousness, which may not have been solely due to the recording device As rapport built during the interviews, the atmosphere became more relaxed, suggesting that the initial tension stemmed from a natural apprehension of the unknown rather than the presence of the recording equipment.
In the initial interviews, my nervousness led to a controlling approach that hindered participant openness My background in media, particularly as a journalist for television and radio, influenced my interview management style, emphasizing quick and controlled interactions Additionally, my expertise in business shaped my consulting sessions, where I carefully manage impressions to lead confidently I prepared the interview environment with water, consent forms, and demographic questionnaires, strategically positioning chairs to foster rapport However, participants often appeared nervous for the first twenty to thirty minutes, displaying closed body language and formal vocal tones, indicating their own impression management.
Most interviews were restricted to one hour due to participants' busy schedules and meeting room regulations Rapport was typically established after about 50 minutes, leading female participants to share significant insights on gender stereotyping and bullying Unfortunately, this was often when the interviews had to conclude However, interviews that exceeded the allotted time yielded more valuable data for the study.
In light of time constraints, I aimed to steer the interview to address key topics related to impression management However, as I allowed participants to express themselves freely, a wealth of rich and profound data began to surface For instance, the discussion evolved from physical presentation and attire to significant issues such as bullying and gender stereotyping, highlighted by a participant's experience of being told to conform to certain expectations.
The topic of "dressing like a teacher" prompted a discussion about bullying experiences, which surfaced in multiple interviews Notably, this issue was not directly addressed by my questions but was identified as a significant concern for six participants during data analysis Consequently, this insight necessitated a revision of my research question.
During the interviews, I took notes on my iPad or laptop, ensuring to ask each participant for their consent Although the sound of keystrokes might have been a potential distraction, none of the participants expressed any concern I made it a priority to expand on my notes immediately after each interview, often writing them up on the spot if I had access to a meeting room On occasions when I had to relocate, I even completed my notes in my car This practice allowed me to capture detailed accounts of the interviews, including spoken words and non-verbal cues, forming my comprehensive field notes.
Research indicates that female interviewees tend to exhibit greater vulnerability during interviews compared to their male counterparts, potentially due to a deeper personal connection to the subject matter Women displayed significant passion and openness, with some responses being unexpectedly candid While men also expressed honesty and concern, particularly regarding the challenges faced by their family members in career advancement, they appeared less personally affected Participants noted that despite feeling vulnerable, discussing these topics was a valuable experience, as such in-depth conversations are seldom held.
Data analysis
I transcribed several interviews, both independently and with the help of a transcription service While reviewing the transcripts, I analyzed the data, developed matrices, and organized the information into distinct themes.
I utilized the NVivo software to input my transcriptions and field notes, allowing me to effectively organize and analyze the data This program enabled me to identify common themes, categorize the data into various categories and sub-categories, and compare the opinions and remarks of each participant on these themes.
In my analysis using NVivo's text searching functions, I compared data between male and female participants, identifying significant negative cases where perspectives diverged Notably, one female participant in Healthcare expressed that she did not view impression management as crucial for her career advancement, attributing this to the female-dominated nature of her workplace Additionally, the study revealed instances of bullying, with women sharing experiences of being bullied by men One participant recounted her experience of sexual harassment early in her career while simultaneously managing two bullying cases as a manager—one involving a female perpetrator and the other a male, both targeting individuals of different genders Further details on these cases are discussed in chapters four and five.
3.6.1 How the NVivo themes changed
Throughout the study, the themes evolved, particularly in July 2015, when the parent nodes in NVivo were updated to reflect the elements of impression management derived from interview transcripts As bullying and gender stereotyping surfaced during the fourth and fifth interviews, new child nodes were established under impression management, including gender stereotyping and bullying Participants utilized various impression management strategies to address these issues, leading to a significant transformation in the parent nodes, which now included strategies related to bullying and gender stereotyping The table below illustrates this change.
Impression Management Strategies to overcome gender stereotyping and bullying
Ethics
I applied for and was granted ethics approval from the RMIT Human Research Ethics Committee for this study in 2014
Prospective interview participants received a Consent Form detailing the project's objectives and interview themes Before signing the Consent Form at the start of their interviews, I clarified the project's goals and the purpose of the recording device.
Before each interview, I informed participants about the RMIT Human Research Ethics Committee's role and outlined the measures taken to ensure confidentiality, such as using pseudonyms and modifying identifying details in the thesis Four participants expressed that they appreciated sharing their experiences while remaining anonymous.
Reflection
As a researcher, my experiences and perceptions have influenced my interviews and analysis, leading to a deeper understanding of my strengths and weaknesses I recognize that I may have missed opportunities to ask participants about their emotional responses to bullying, likely due to my own stoic nature and leadership style Having been bullied myself, I find it difficult to discuss these experiences openly, which may have affected the depth of our interactions My participants were unaware of my background, and I may have subconsciously expected them to have fully recovered from their experiences, similar to how I managed my own Reporting bullying to human resources in two organizations ultimately harmed my career, prompting me to leave both workplaces This has shaped my belief that it is often best to navigate such challenges privately.
To effectively address bullying, it is essential to take proactive measures and implement strategies for management, as intervention from others is often unlikely Notably, it has been observed that individuals who engage in bullying behavior may sometimes receive promotions, highlighting the need for a more vigilant approach to tackle this issue.
In my experience working within a large organization, I witnessed a peer bullying a colleague, which ultimately harmed the victim's career while the bully faced no repercussions This incident has significantly shaped my views and beliefs regarding workplace bullying.
Time constraints often caused me to rush through interview topics, which may have made my anxiousness apparent to participants This urgency likely influenced them to hasten through questions as well My goal was to cover a variety of questions within an hour, but this approach may have given the impression that I was merely chairing a meeting.
I am known for conducting timely meetings that address all agenda items However, this skill may not have been beneficial during the interviews, as the one-hour time constraint poses a challenge that could arise in future research Senior business professionals, who make up this participant group, are typically unwilling to dedicate more than an hour to their participation.
In the initial interviews, the focus was more on quantitative data, with demographic questions that proved challenging for participants The interview guide lacked sufficient open-ended questions, reflecting my inclination towards a structured, 'Excel spreadsheet' approach While planning a mixed-method study, I was simultaneously teaching public relations research at RMIT University, which involved survey development using Qualtrics and SPSS My reluctance to allow the interviews to flow freely stemmed from a desire to maintain control and project confidence as a media commentator However, after five interviews, I recognized that allowing the interviewees to guide the conversation led to significant insights, particularly regarding the connection between dress, bullying, and gender stereotyping This realization shifted my perspective, revealing that deeper analysis could not overlook these critical issues, and impression management emerged as a strategy to navigate the challenges of bullying and gender stereotypes.
This study focuses on gender stereotyping and bullying; however, the current data is insufficient for deeper analysis due to a small sample size of only six bullying cases The one-hour interviews conducted were inadequate for uncovering the necessary insights, as this topic demands more extensive discussions, ideally outside the participants' workplaces Four female participants shared their experiences of bullying and gender stereotyping, but these sensitive topics were not initially prioritized in the research questions.
By reflecting on my experiences, I can identify both my strengths and areas for improvement This insight will guide the next phase of my PhD research, enabling me to tackle the challenges I encountered as a researcher.