NGUYEN PHUONG NGAN EFFECTS OF SCHEMA-BASED ACTIVITIES ON EFL LEARNERS’ READING COMPREHENSION Field: Theory and Methodology of English Language Teaching Code: 8140111 Supervisor: Assoc
INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Recent advancements in understanding the reading process have revitalized the field of second and foreign language reading Carrel (1988) emphasizes that for many students, reading is the most crucial skill in learning a second language (L2), particularly in English as a Second Language (ESL) or English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Proficient reading comprehension is essential for achieving educational goals and meeting classroom expectations Additionally, reading plays a vital role in expanding knowledge and vocabulary, which significantly enhances other language learning aspects.
Comprehension is essential in our lives as it helps us make sense of new information by connecting it to our existing knowledge (Mikulecky & Jeffries, 1996) To enhance reading skills, it is crucial to prepare learners before they engage with reading tasks One effective approach is the use of schema-based activities, which activate students' prior knowledge during the pre-reading stage This theory posits that combining background knowledge with new information is vital for understanding texts (Adams & Collins, 1977) By involving individual experiences, schema-based activities not only engage students in reading but also boost their motivation, increase reading speed, and improve their ability to make informed reading judgments.
In the context of integration and globalization in Vietnam, enhancing English proficiency has become a top priority However, English language teaching faces significant challenges, particularly in reading comprehension Many students struggle with reading materials that contain complex vocabulary and unfamiliar topics, leading to confusion and demotivation (Ha, 2021) Additionally, some teachers overlook the importance of students' backgrounds, which affects comprehension Consequently, many students lack awareness of the content they are reading and the tasks they need to complete.
Limited research has been conducted on the use of schema-based activities for language teaching and reading comprehension in Vietnam To address this gap, the current study explores the implications of schema-based activities in enhancing reading comprehension and examines their effects on EFL learners Additionally, the study investigates students' perceptions of using these activities in their reading comprehension learning process.
Aim and objectives of the study
This study aims to examine the effects of schema-based activities on EFL learners’ reading comprehension
• to test the effects of schema-based activities on EFL learners’ reading comprehension
• to investigate the EFL learners’ perceptions of using schema-based activities in learning reading
Research questions
In order to achieve the above objectives, the following questions are proposed:
1 To what extent does the use of schema-based activities affect EFL learners’ achievement in reading comprehension?
2 What are the EFL learners’ attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in learning reading?
Significance of the study
Despite numerous studies on schema activation in language teaching, there is a lack of research in Vietnam, particularly in Khanh Hoa Province Therefore, conducting this research is crucial for addressing this gap.
The study's findings may serve as a foundation for future research utilizing schema theory, while also offering teachers valuable insights into how schema influences students' reading comprehension.
Based on the findings, teachers are likely to prefer schema-based activities over traditional bottom-up methods to enhance student engagement Additionally, students may adopt more schema-based activities in their self-study routines Furthermore, if a link exists between students' reading comprehension and schemas, materials developers should integrate more schema-based activities into textbooks, encouraging both teachers and students to focus on these effective strategies.
Scope of the study
This study focuses on a specific group of 80 grade 10 students from two intact classes at a language center in Khanh Hoa Province, which limits the generalizability of the findings Consequently, the results may not accurately represent the broader population of EFL students in the region.
Definitions of terms
- reading comprehension: reading comprehension can be briefly as “the process of making meaning from text” (Wolley, 2011, p 15)
A schema, or schemata in plural, is defined as an active organization of past reactions or experiences that influences well-adapted organic responses (Barlett, 1932, p 201).
Schema theory posits that readers utilize their existing knowledge to interpret and create meaning from printed text, forming representations of expected meanings (Hudson, 1982, p 1).
- schema-based activities: additional patterning activities that are needed to activate stored information and build new connections to successfully consolidate new and prior knowledge (Kennedy & Ebner, 1996, p 38).
Structure of the thesis
The thesis is presented in five chapters: Introduction, Literature Review, Research Methodology, Findings and Discussion, Conclusion and Implications
Chapter 1, Introduction , presents the rationale, aim and objectives, research questions, significance, scope, definitions of terms, and the structure of the thesis
Chapter 2, the Literature Review, delves into the theoretical constructs that underpin this study, focusing on three key areas: EFL reading comprehension, the implementation of schema-based activities to enhance reading comprehension, and existing research on the application of schema-based activities in language learning.
Chapter 3, Research Methodology, outlines the research approach by first presenting the research questions and hypotheses It then details the research design and participant selection, followed by an introduction to the data collection instruments and materials used for the intervention The chapter concludes with a description of the study's procedural steps and the data analysis methods employed.
Chapter 4, Findings and Discussion , reports the results of the study
The study begins by establishing the reliability of the instruments used It then compares the reading comprehension scores of the experimental and control groups Following this, the data gathered from the questionnaire is analyzed Finally, the findings are further elucidated through an analysis of six face-to-face semi-structured interviews, which are compared with previous research to enhance the understanding of the results.
Chapter 5, titled "Conclusion and Implications," encapsulates the study's findings, highlighting the key results It also discusses the implications of the research, addressing its significance in the field Additionally, this chapter outlines the study's limitations and offers recommendations for future research endeavors.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Reading comprehension
Reading is a multifaceted cognitive process that involves various strategies employed by readers to engage with different types of information presented in texts, as highlighted by numerous researchers (Dole et al., 1991; Hedgcock & Ferris).
Reading is an interactive process between the reader and the text, where letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs encode meaning The reader employs knowledge, skills, and strategies to interpret this meaning Additionally, reading involves decoding words and functionally identifying the meaning of a text.
Reading comprehension goes beyond merely recognizing and decoding words; it involves making sense of the text and connecting new information with prior knowledge (Mikulecky & Jeffries, 2007, p 74) As such, reading comprehension is regarded as the primary purpose of reading (Grabe, 2002, p 277), and can be succinctly defined as 'reading and understanding.'
Reading comprehension is defined by various scholars, with Ahmadi et al (2013) describing it as the ability to grasp both the explicit and implicit meanings of a text through meta-cognitive strategies Benati (2020) emphasizes that successful comprehension requires readers to effectively utilize appropriate skills and strategies, as well as to recognize and construct the meanings of words This perspective is echoed by Kennedy & Ebner (1996) and Macceca, highlighting the importance of these elements in understanding written texts.
Reading comprehension involves understanding the material read, requiring readers to predict and think ahead It goes beyond merely identifying words; readers must cognitively process the text by drawing on their background knowledge and prior experiences The primary objective is to achieve a general understanding of the content rather than focusing solely on the meaning of isolated words or sentences.
Reading is not merely the act of decoding letters and words; it is a complex process of constructing meaning that necessitates a strong interaction between the reader and the text Effective reading comprehension relies on the reader's foundational knowledge, including vocabulary, grammar, skills, and relevant background information.
Enhancing reading comprehension involves constructing meaning from text by leveraging prior knowledge and critical thinking According to Alderson (2000), Benati (2020), and Camp & Richard (1992), two key processing approaches influence reading comprehension: the bottom-up approach, which focuses on decoding individual words and sentences, and the top-down approach, which emphasizes the use of background knowledge and context to interpret meaning.
The bottom-up approach, often viewed traditionally, regards reading as a passive activity focused on decoding linguistic information, such as orthographic, lexical, and syntactic knowledge, from smaller to larger text units (Alderson, 2000; Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983) Cambourne (1979), who refers to this method as 'outside-in,' posits that readers process each word sequentially as they encounter it.
Print → Every letter discriminated → Phonemes & graphemes matched → Blending → Pronunciation → Meaning
The top-down approach to reading, rooted in cognitive theory, views reading as an active process where learners engage with more than just linguistic information According to Dole et al (1991) and Rumelhart (1980), understanding a text involves utilizing background knowledge, such as familiarity with topics and knowledge of text structure This perspective is further supported by Schank (1978), who emphasizes the importance of these cognitive processes in reading comprehension.
In natural language understanding, analysis typically follows a top-down predictive approach, where comprehension is driven by expectations Bottom-up processing is initiated only when these expectations prove to be ineffective or incorrect.
Cambourne (1979) also provides the schematization of this approach which shows the reconstruction of meaning rather than decoding form:
Past experience, language intuitions and expectations → Selective aspects of print → Meaning → Sound, pronunciation if necessary
Nuttall (1996) illustrates the top-down approach as akin to an eagle's eye view, allowing the reader to grasp broad patterns and relationships across a vast landscape In contrast, she characterizes bottom-up processing as 'tunnel vision,' likening it to a scientist using a magnifying glass to scrutinize a small section of the environment, representing a limited perspective compared to the eagle's comprehensive overview.
Top-down and bottom-up processing are complementary methods for text comprehension, as highlighted by Nuttall (1996) Both approaches play a crucial role in reading, with one often taking precedence over the other, yet both are essential (Nunan, 1991; Nuttall, 1996) Despite their importance, each method has its limitations The bottom-up approach persists due to its logical explanation of the reading process, while the top-down model may not always be applicable.
“distinguish adequately between beginning readers and fluent readers” (Nunan,
Nuttall (1996, p 17) offers a combination of bottom-up and top-down approach which is called ‘interactive approach’ (metacognitive view) or
The 'balanced approach' (Birch, 2007, p 4) addresses the limitations of previous reading models by emphasizing that reading is an interactive process where readers actively engage rather than remain passive This method incorporates a top-down strategy to anticipate meaning, followed by a bottom-up analysis to verify if the predictions align with the author's intent (Nuttall, 1996, p 17) Consequently, the complexity of a text is influenced by both its linguistic features and the reader's background knowledge.
There are three main reading comprehension approaches identified by scholars: bottom-up, top-down, and interactive approaches The interactive approach is regarded as the most effective method for processing written text, according to research by Carrell and Eisterhold (1983) and Rumelhart (1980).
2.1.3 Reading comprehension teaching and learning
Goodman (1967) describes reading as a 'psychologistic guessing game' that involves predicting and activating background knowledge before confirming guesses and reconstructing meaning This perspective encourages learners to become active readers, utilizing their language and background knowledge to interpret texts (Juan & Flor, 2006) Teachers play a crucial role by modeling reading skills and strategies, which enhances student comprehension through various approaches such as reciprocal teaching, cooperative learning, and reading recovery (Grabe, 2002).
Grabe (1991, p 396) derives a general set of guidelines for reading teaching:
1 Reading should be taught in the context of a content-centered integrated skills curriculum
2 Individualized instruction including skills and strategies should be provided in reading lessons
3 Sustained silent reading should be encouraged
4 Reading lessons should focus on background knowledge through
3 stages: pre-, during-, and post-reading tasks
5 Reading skills and strategies should be practiced regularly
6 Group work and cooperative learning should promote discussions of readings and explorations of different tasks solutions and textual interpretations
7 Students need to learn by reading
Moreover, he also reviews research on fluent academic reading in terms of six component abilities and types of knowledge that learners should have:
Schema Theory
Concerning Schema Theory, many scholars provides different definitions Bartlett is regarded as the first person who used the term ‘schema’
Schema refers to the organization of past experiences and reactions within a cultural context, stored in memory, and essential for adaptive responses (Carroll, 2008; Bartlett, 1932; Birch, 2007) According to Brown and Yule (1983), schema is defined as the organized background knowledge that shapes our expectations and interpretations of discourse This structured knowledge allows individuals to quickly comprehend new information by relying on established schemata (Brown & Yule, 1983; Cook).
1997, p 86) Carrell & Eisterhold (1983, p 89) and Peregoy & Boyle (2016, p
Readers' background knowledge significantly influences their language comprehension, as the text serves as a tool for them to extract meaning from their prior experiences and knowledge (An, 2013).
In essence, schema refers to the framework of prior knowledge that can be activated and modified according to the context, facilitating comprehension.
There are two primary types of schemas essential for language understanding: formal schema and content schema The formal schema refers to the background knowledge regarding the rhetorical and organizational structures of various text types It encompasses abstract, internalized patterns of meta-linguistic and textual organization that shape our expectations when interpreting language This schema includes knowledge of different text genres, such as argumentation, exposition, description, narration, and poetry.
The bottom-up reading process is closely linked to formal schema, which encompasses language knowledge, genre understanding, metalinguistic knowledge, and metacognition (Alderson, 2000) Research indicates that a strong grasp of vocabulary and structural knowledge is essential for reading comprehension, with studies by Laufer (1989) and Liu and Nation (1985) suggesting that knowing 95% of the words in a text is crucial for full understanding Eskey (2012) emphasizes that effective decoding skills, characterized by speed, accuracy, and automaticity, are vital for successful comprehension Additionally, knowledge of genre aids in recognizing text organization and idea signaling Duffy et al (1987) found that bilinguals with metacognitive awareness of reading strategies tend to achieve better reading outcomes Furthermore, content schema, which includes background knowledge of the subject matter and cultural context (Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983), plays a significant role in comprehension Alderson notes that activating world knowledge is a quick process, but cultural knowledge, influenced by personal experiences, can complicate understanding, especially in unfamiliar contexts Ultimately, a lack of topic knowledge can hinder text processing, highlighting the importance of culture-specific content schema in shaping readers' comprehension.
Widdowson (1990) identifies two types of schema: ideational and interpersonal Ideational schema pertains to our understanding of conceptual content or topics, while interpersonal schema focuses on the modes of communication.
Landry (2002) categorizes schemas into three types: content, formal, and abstract Content schemas highlight evident relationships within a topic, while formal schemas focus on distinct connections derived from generalizations and mindset Abstract schemas, on the other hand, encompass hidden factors and thematic considerations.
In conclusion, although there are various types of schemas proposed by different scholars, all of whom are related to our linguistic and world knowledge.
Schema-based activities and reading comprehension
2.3.1 The effects of schema-based activities on reading comprehension
According to Alderson and Pearson (1988, pp 4–5), reading comprehension is described as the interaction between the relating textual information to the reader’s existing information called schemas Caldwell
Previous knowledge significantly influences reading comprehension and the ability to answer questions accurately (Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983; 2011) Schema Theory emphasizes the importance of stable background knowledge in processing and understanding new information (Benati, 2020; Grabe, 2002; Mikulecky & Jeffries, 2007; Qanwal & Karim, 2014) Long (1989) asserts that comprehension relies on learners' capacity to activate relevant schemas, which facilitate efficient understanding Carrol (2008) highlights that readers' knowledge directly impacts their comprehension, viewing schemas as interconnected mental structures that represent this knowledge Schemas serve as a bridge, integrating new information with previously acquired knowledge (Perkins & Salomon, 1989) Compared to textual structures, the schemas readers bring to the text are crucial for information processing and memory retention (Anderson et al., 1976) Additionally, these schemas aid in making predictions, drawing inferences, and enhancing comprehension processes (Widdowson, 1983; Pearson et al., 1979; Brantmeier).
2004) Therefore, it can help readers/listeners to achieve a high level of comprehension
Landry (2002) emphasizes the importance of the concept of 'schema' for EFL teachers, as it enhances their understanding of how EFL learners approach reading He distinguishes between a strong view of schemas, which shapes a reader's perspective prior to reading, and a weak view, which consists of organized prior knowledge that enables readers to make predictions about the text.
2.3.2 Pedagogical implication of schema-based activities in reading comprehension
According to Benati (2020, p 240), Schema Theory emphasizes that reading is an interactive process between readers and texts He identifies four essential steps that students should follow to enhance their reading comprehension and learning.
1 Identify the authentic purpose of reading Predict or anticipate content by using prior knowledge, then think of suitable strategies for each type of reading text
2 Attend to parts of the text which are relevant to identified purposes and ignore the rest, which can help students to focus on specific items and reduce the amount of information they need to swallow
3 Pick up suitable strategies and use them flexibly and interactively Interactive strategies should be used
4 Check comprehension while reading and when the reading task is finished
Then, effective reading comprehension tasks are introduced to meet the need of learners, they include five phases: pre-reading, reading, in-text interaction, post-reading and personalization (Benati, 2020, p 242)
1 Pre-reading activities must be used to activate learners’ existing knowledge There are many techniques that can be used in this step:
• previewing is a quick kind of reading that helps readers to have a general look of the content and the text type (Aebersold & Field,
• visual guides may be employed by several sources such as television shows, video clips, movies, slides, pictures, charts, figures, or tables related to the text (Dutta, 1994)
• pre-questioning is also a common and effective pre-reading activities (Aebersold, J.A and Field, 1997, p 71; Brown, 2007, p 42; Lazar, 2009) Pre-reading questions can be structured questions or unstructured questions asked by teachers (Singer,
Brainstorming, as described by Hood and Solomon (1985), can be conducted in groups or pairs and encompasses a variety of activities These include reflection, concept mapping, advance organizers, semantic mapping, mind mapping, K-W-L charts, and pre-reading plans.
Predicting content and activating students' prior knowledge can be effectively achieved through the use of subtitles, headings, text divisions, and illustrations According to Nuttall (1996), "Prediction is important because it activates schemas: that is, it calls into mind any experiences and associated knowledge that we already have about the topic of the text; prediction also helps us to make sense of sentences" (p 13).
• skimming for main idea and scanning for specific information if necessary
• vocabulary pre-teaching can help learners deal with unknown words during reading comprehension process (Carrell, 1988)
• guessing from the context plays a vital part in helping readers to decode meanings of unknown words
Teachers should allocate sufficient time for group previewing and predicting activities in the classroom to enhance students' reading comprehension skills (Benati, 2020, p 238) According to Rumelhart (1985), background knowledge is more crucial than new vocabulary and structures in understanding texts Thus, educators should prioritize teaching background knowledge to enable students to infer meanings from the text effectively (Rumelhart, 1985).
2 During the reading stage, students are asked to scan for specific information after understanding general meaning At first, it is necessary for readers to understand the general meaning of the text, then they are asked to rapidly scan the text to establish whether they have guessed the content of the text during pre-reading activities
3 In the text-interaction stage, learners explore fully the text content Making inferences by using imagination and knowledge about the world to fill in facts and ideas that are not available in the text is also important Mikulecky & Jeffries (2007, p 88) call it “reading between the lines”
Reading between the lines is essential, as writers may omit information they assume readers already know Language instructors should ensure that learners avoid reading literally and grasp the purpose of reading, which aids in selecting effective strategies.
4 In the post-reading stage, learners are given tasks to check and verify comprehension in order to encourage them to learn from what they have read It is especially useful for readers to summarize the content of the text Summarizing means rewriting or paraphrasing information by using our own words Doing this can help to review and memorize information, and preparing information or ideas from different sources to build up background knowledge (Mikulecky & Jeffries, 2007, p 200)
5 In the personalization stage, learners are asked to exploit the communicative function of the reading text, e.g solve a problem, create a poster, etc
For these reasons, teachers need to take learners through these five-stage phases Moreover, it would be better if the teacher can select a familiar text for learners (Benati, 2020, p 238).
Related studies on applying schema activation to teach L2 reading
Desiring to investigate the effect of schema activation on language learners to study reading comprehension, some research on schema has been conducted both in Vietnam and abroad
Tran Thi Thanh Dieu (2015) investigated the effects of the KWL (Know-Want-Learn) method on the reading comprehension skills of passive students, involving 90 Vietnamese pre-intermediate learners The study utilized various data collection instruments, including lesson planning reflection sheets, two tests, videotapes, peer observations, and questionnaires Results indicated that the KWL strategy enhanced student engagement and interest in lessons, while group activities fostered a natural learning environment, alleviating pressure from teacher oversight.
Nguyen Thi Thuy Trang (2012) conducted a study to investigate the impact of content schema, or topic familiarity, on ESL reading comprehension, as well as the influence of time constraints on this process The study utilized four reading texts, two of which featured familiar topics and two with unfamiliar ones, all maintaining the same level of readability and difficulty The findings revealed that background knowledge significantly enhanced students' reading comprehension, with participants performing notably better under no time constraints compared to when time was limited Additionally, the interaction between topic familiarity and the absence of time constraints fostered the most conducive environment for effective reading comprehension, as assessed by the cloze procedure.
In their 2020 study, Thi Ngoc Huyen and Nguyen Huynh Trang investigated teachers' perceptions of schema activation's role in English reading comprehension and the instructional strategies employed by EFL teachers to enhance this activation The research involved a sample of 77 English language teachers from various high schools in Vietnam's Mekong Delta Data was collected through a questionnaire for quantitative analysis and semi-structured interviews for qualitative insights The findings indicated that while high school English teachers recognized the importance of schema activation in reading comprehension, they often did not consistently implement strategies to engage students' schemas during lessons.
English reading comprehension In addition, these participants tended to use more simple strategies to activate their students’ schemas
In a study conducted by Jian-ping and Li-sha (2016), the perspectives of 400 Grade students on English reading were examined, focusing on three types of schemas: language schema, content schema, and form schema.
8 The students were asked to fill in a questionnaire anonymously From the result, linguistic schema played the most important role in students’ English reading In terms of content schema, it showed that most students liked the teachers teaching background knowledge, but the majority of them could not conjecture the content by the related knowledge Related to form schema, more than 70% of the students were willing to read story and culture; however, they knew little about exposition and argument, which made them difficult to understand
Cho and Ma (2020) investigated how schema activation and reading strategies impact reading comprehension in L2 learners, focusing on 89 first-year Korean college students The study utilized three key instruments: a background questionnaire, reading comprehension tests administered before, after, and at a delayed interval, and pre- and post-questionnaires Results indicated that both schema building and reading strategy groups experienced significant immediate learning gains; however, the reading strategy group demonstrated superior long-term reading comprehension compared to the schema building and control groups.
Yohannes Tefera Mengesha (2012) identified whether schema-based pre-reading tasks (SBPRT) improve students’ reading comprehension The subjects of the study were 56 first-year English major students taking the
Jimma University offered a summer course focused on 'Reading Skills,' utilizing data collection instruments such as pre-tests, post-tests, and final exams The study revealed that no treatment was administered during the pre-test, while the SBPRT was implemented as a treatment in the post-test The findings indicated that students demonstrated improved performance in the post-test compared to the pre-test, suggesting that pre-reading tasks significantly enhanced students' reading comprehension.
Maryam Mahmudi's 2012 study explored the impact of three schema-building activities—content, formal, and linguistic—on the listening and reading comprehension skills of Iranian learners Participants were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups, and the results provided strong support for schema theory, indicating that comprehension occurs when new information connects with existing background knowledge Additionally, the findings reinforced the principles of top-down reading and listening processes.
In their 2011 study, Palita Thongyon and Thanyapa Chiramanee aimed to achieve three key objectives: first, to assess learners' comprehension abilities before and after engaging in two distinct pre-reading activities—guessing reading content from pictures and answering pre-reading questions; second, to evaluate the effectiveness of these two pre-reading strategies; and third, to explore learners' attitudes towards the implementation of these activities.
The study involved sixty Grade 9 students who participated in reading comprehension tests and questionnaires They were divided into two groups based on their pre-experiment reading comprehension scores The findings indicated a statistically significant improvement in reading comprehension after the students engaged in two pre-reading activities Notably, using pictures to guess reading content proved to be more effective than pre-reading questioning in enhancing reading comprehension skills Additionally, the questionnaire results revealed that the students held positive attitudes towards both types of pre-reading activities.
The study by Alvermann et al (1985) presented contrasting findings regarding the impact of prior knowledge activation on reading comprehension Involving fifty-two 6th grade students divided into two groups, the research utilized compatible and incompatible texts along with a questionnaire The results indicated that the passage on rattlesnakes was deemed compatible, while the one on sunlight was classified as incompatible due to its counter-intuitive content Notably, the findings suggested that prior knowledge could hinder reading comprehension in certain contexts This controversial outcome may stem from the varied measures employed for data collection and the different approaches to managing background knowledge.
The review of related research indicates two opposing trends regarding the impact of background knowledge on L2 reading comprehension Notably, Joann Hammadou's study (1991) found no significant effect of prior knowledge on text recall among eighty-nine university students studying French and Italian Participants read three newspaper articles and recounted them in English, followed by ranking their familiarity with the topics Despite expectations, the results showed no significant differences in comprehension or recall between familiar and unfamiliar topics, regardless of reader proficiency This suggests that content schema may not influence L2 reading comprehension However, the study's limitation lies in the reliability of the rank-ordering activity to accurately assess readers' background knowledge.
Previous studies in EFL reading instruction highlight the importance of schema-based activities for enhancing reading comprehension However, there remains a gap in the research regarding the mixed-methods approach that combines qualitative and quantitative investigations of these activities specifically for EFL high school students Addressing this gap is crucial, as it can significantly improve the English reading comprehension skills of high school students in Vietnam, which is the primary focus of this research.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research aim and hypotheses
The current study aims to investigate the effects of schema-based activities on EFL learners’ reading comprehension
This research aims to evaluate the impact of schema-based activities on the reading comprehension of EFL learners and to explore their perceptions regarding the effectiveness of these activities in enhancing their reading skills.
In order to measure and evaluate the effects of schema-based activities of EFL learners’ reading comprehension, the following questions are proposed:
1 To what extent does the use of schema-based activities affect EFL learners’ achievement in reading comprehension?
2 What are EFL learners’ attitudes towards the use of schema- based activities in learning reading comprehension?
This study explores the application of schema theory in enhancing reading comprehension, building on previous research that highlights the effectiveness of schema-based activities in teaching English reading skills The hypotheses guiding this research are outlined as follows:
1 There is no statistically significant difference in the achievement in reading comprehension between the experimental group and the control group in the post-test
2 There is no statistically significant difference in the achievement in reading comprehension before and after the intervention of the experimental group between the pre-test and post-test
3 There is no statistically significant difference between the male and female students’ attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in learning reading comprehension.
Research design
The study utilized a quasi-experimental design featuring pre-test and post-test assessments, involving both an experimental group and a control group It employed a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data to evaluate the impact of schema-based activities on EFL learners' reading comprehension, alongside qualitative data gathered through semi-structured interviews to explore learners' attitudes towards these activities.
The 12-week study involved two groups receiving both online and traditional face-to-face instruction The control group focused on traditional reading comprehension methods without emphasizing content schemas, while the experimental group engaged in schema-based activities aimed at enhancing reading comprehension The effectiveness of these schema-based activities, which served as the independent variable, was assessed by measuring students' reading comprehension achievement, the dependent variable, throughout the study.
To gather quantitative data for the study, reading comprehension pre-tests and post-tests, along with a questionnaire administered after the post-test, were utilized For qualitative data collection, a semi-structured interview was conducted to capture in-depth insights regarding participants' experiences with schema-based activities and their perceptions of these activities in enhancing reading comprehension.
Participants
The researcher was in charge of instructing lessons to both experimental and control group
This study was conducted at a language center in Khanh Hoa Province, involving 80 grade 10 students from two intact classes The participants were randomly divided into an experimental group and a control group, each consisting of 40 students The control group included 17 males and 23 females, while the experimental group comprised 16 males and 24 females Background information for both groups is detailed in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Background of the participants Group Numbers of students Gender Years of study
Control group 40 17 males 23 females 7 years
Experimental group 40 16 males 24 females 7 years
Material and time frame
A selection of thirty-six reading comprehension materials was made, focusing on topics from units 5 to 8 of the grade 10 coursebook in the ten-year curriculum These materials were sourced from various references, including "English Exercise 10" by Luu Hoang Tri (2020), "Multiple-Choice Exercise 10" by Hoàng Thị Xuân Hoa (2020), "Mindset for IELTS Level 1" (2017), and the "Cambridge Preliminary English Test" (2010) by the University of Cambridge The corresponding lesson plans for each group are summarized in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 General lesson plans for teaching two groups
Teacher provides students with key words in the text
Students skim to find the main idea and scan for specific information to deal with the text
Students give their answers and teacher gives feedback
Students summarize the main content of the text
Teachers engage students in various activities to enhance learning, including brainstorming their prior knowledge about a topic by examining the text or title, participating in speed talks to share ideas with the class, discussing concepts in small groups, exploring relevant pictures or watching short videos, and conducting pre-questioning to stimulate curiosity and critical thinking.
Teacher asks students to identify the text types and models one or two examples (if the text types is not familiar)
Teacher provides students with key words
Students skim to find the main idea and scan for specific information to deal with the text
Students give their answers and teacher gives feedback
Students summarize the main content and share their thought about the topic with the class
Teacher adds further related information
Both groups were taught reading comprehension for 12 weeks, each week has 3 periods (totaling 36 periods), each period lasted 90 minutes in which
Instruments
In this research, three instruments were employed
The study utilized pre- and post-tests to gather data on reading comprehension levels among two groups of learners The pre-test assessed the learners' reading comprehension before the twelve-week intervention, while the post-test evaluated their comprehension levels after the intervention was completed.
The second instrument utilized was a questionnaire, administered post-intervention to assess the experimental group's perceptions of schema-based activities in enhancing reading comprehension.
The semi-structured interview served as the final research instrument, involving six participants from the experimental group This interview aimed to enhance the understanding of the participants' experiences with schema-based activities in their learning and to gather their perceptions regarding these activities.
The study utilized identical content and format for both the pre-test and post-test, ensuring that the total word count remained consistent Prior to administering the pre-test to participants, a pilot test was conducted with 10 students from an intact class, who shared the same background as the participants, to assess the reliability and validity of the testing instrument.
As a result, the reliability and validity of the two tests would be strengthened
According to Hoang Van Van (2018), Grade 10 students are classified at CEFR Level B1-1 Consequently, the reading tests, which were derived from Luu Hoang Tri's English 10 exercises (2020) and the Cambridge Preliminary English Test 1 (2010), were of comparable difficulty Both tests were conducted over a duration of 20 minutes and adhered to the format outlined in Table 3.3.
Table 1.3 Reading comprehension tests format
Task type What learners have to do
Read five real-world notices, messages and other short texts for main messages
2 5 Matching Match five description of people to eight short texts on particular topic, showing detailed comprehension
3 10 True/False Scan a longer factual text for specific information
Read a text for detailed comprehension, inference as well as writer’s attitude, opinion and purpose
The questionnaire was administered to the participants in the experimental group
The initial section of the questionnaire gathered essential demographic information from participants, including their age, gender, duration of English study, and the average time dedicated to practicing reading comprehension.
The second section of the questionnaire aimed to identify participants' interests in schema-based activities and their attitudes towards utilizing them This section employed a five-point Likert scale, adapted from the questionnaire construction models developed by Nashmiah Awadh Almutairi.
In 2012, a study explored the impact of schema theory on teaching listening comprehension, highlighting its effectiveness for EFL teachers Additionally, Tô Thị Ngọc Huyền and Nguyễn Huỳnh Trang (2021) examined EFL teachers' perceptions of schema activation in enhancing English reading comprehension.
After administering the questionnaire, a semi-structured interview was conducted to gain deeper insights into students' learning processes and their perceptions of schema-based activities Six students from the experimental group were selected for the interview, including two with the highest scores, two with average scores, and two with the lowest scores in the post-test This selection aimed to gather diverse perspectives based on varying learner levels Participants were asked to share their thoughts on the usefulness of schema-based activities, their preferences, challenges faced during these activities, and any connections to their self-study habits.
Data collection procedure
The study was conducted in three distinct phases: Phase 1, which lasted two weeks prior to the intervention; Phase 2, during which the intervention was administered over a period of 12 weeks; and Phase 3, which took place one week after the intervention concluded.
Phase 1 was aimed at preparing for the participants’ enrollment and the instruments of the study A pilot study was carried out to see if the students had any difficulties in dealing with the test and to verify whether the pre-test ensured the reliability The participants in the pilot study were ten 10 th grade students, whose EFL context was closely similar to the participants in the actual study After that, the researcher randomly assigned two intact classes where the researcher was working into the experimental group and the control group The pre-test, then, was done by the two groups without notification about the format of the test The data was run to analyze the reliability by using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) Statistics Software 26
In phase 2, the intervention lasted for 12 weeks, aligning with the time designated for teaching four curriculum units Throughout this period, the experimental group engaged in schema-based activities both prior to and following reading comprehension tasks.
In phase 3, a post-test was conducted after 12 weeks of intervention to assess students' reading comprehension in both the control and experimental groups Participants were unaware of the post-test administration, and the process for administering and grading the test mirrored that of the pre-test.
Afterward, the questionnaire was conducted by the participants in the experimental group
Finally, six participants in the experimental group were invited to join a semi-structured interview with the researcher to gain further information.
Validity and reliability
The reading comprehension tests were validated through a detailed format based on Hoang Van Van's widely accepted theory (2018) Additionally, the data's reliability was assessed using the Scale Test in SPSS, confirming that the tests are both valid and reliable for this study.
This chapter has outlined the research methods, procedures, samples, and other key elements of the research methodology The findings of the study, along with relevant data, examples, and interpretations, will be detailed in Chapter IV.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Students’ achievement in reading comprehension between the control
In chapter 3, two reading comprehension tests were administered as pre-tests and post-tests to evaluate the participants' reading comprehension skills in both groups before and after a 12-week intervention Each test consisted of 25 questions, with scores ranging from 0 to 10 points A Scale Test was conducted to assess the reliability of these tests, and the results are presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Reliability of the pre-test and post-test of the two groups
Cronbach’s Alpha Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items
The reliability of the pre-test and post-test, as shown in Table 4.1, is acceptable with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.7 Therefore, these tests are sufficiently reliable to serve as instruments in this research.
4.1.1 Students’ achievement in reading comprehension between the two groups before the intervention
To evaluate students’ achievement in reading comprehension between the two groups before the intervention, a Descriptive Statistics Test and an Independent-Sample T Test were carried out Table 4.2 shows the result
Table 4.2 Students’ achievement in reading comprehension between the control and experimental group before the intervention
Group Minimum Maximum Mean Std
In the pre-test, both the control and experimental groups had identical minimum and maximum scores (Min = 2.00; Max = 10.00) The mean score for the control group was slightly lower (M = 5.00) compared to the experimental group (M = 5.05) To determine if there was a significant difference in reading comprehension between the two groups, an Independent-Sample T Test was conducted, with results detailed in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Difference in the pre-test between the two groups t df p Mean Difference
The analysis in Table 4.3 indicates that there is no significant difference in reading comprehension between the control and experimental groups in the pre-test (t = -.117, df = 78, p = 907 > 05) This suggests that the participants had similar reading comprehension levels prior to the intervention Such findings are expected, as the participants share the same cultural background, native language, curriculum, and duration of formal English learning, as indicated in the questionnaire This homogeneity among the groups enhances the validity of the research findings.
4.1.2 Students’ achievement in reading comprehension between the two groups after the intervention
A Descriptive Statistics Test and an Independent-Sample T Test were run to evaluate participants’ reading comprehension ability after the intervention The results are presented in Tables 4.4 and 4.5
Table 4.4 Students’ achievement in reading comprehension between the control and experimental group after the intervention
Group Minimum Maximum Mean Std
In the pre-test, both the control group and the experimental group demonstrated similar reading comprehension abilities, with mean scores of Mpre = 5.00 and Mpre = 5.05, respectively However, following the implementation of schema-based activities, a significant difference in mean scores was observed in the post-test, as illustrated in figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 Summary of participants’ achievement in reading comprehension before and after the intervention
The analysis reveals a significant increase in the mean scores for reading comprehension achievement among both groups Notably, the experimental group achieved a mean score of 7.44, surpassing the control group's mean score of 7.09.
To check whether there is a significant different between these groups, an Independent-Sample T Test was run The result is presented in Table 4.5
Table 4.5 Difference in the post-test between the two groups t df p Mean Difference
The result from the Independent-Sample T Test indicates that there is no statistically significant difference between the experimental and control group after the intervention (t = 979, df = 78, p = 330 > 05)
In conclusion, while the post-test results show no significant difference between the two groups, the experimental group demonstrated a statistically higher mean score than the control group This indicates that participants who engaged in schema-based activities achieved better reading comprehension after 12 weeks Therefore, the findings partially support the hypothesis that schema-based activities positively influence students' reading comprehension.
Students’ achievement in reading comprehension within the
4.2.1 Students’ reading comprehension difference between the pre-test and post-test
To check whether there is a significant difference within the experimental group before and after the intervention, a Paired-Samples T Test was run The result is presented in Table 4.6
Table 4.6 Difference between the pre-test and post-test within the experimental group
Table 4.6 indicates a statistically significant difference in the experimental group's pre-test and post-test results (p = 000 < 05) This suggests that schema-based activities significantly enhance students' reading comprehension achievement.
4.2.2 Students’ reading comprehension detailed score in the pre-test and post-test
In the pre-test, 58% of the 40 students scored below average (total score < 5), while 43% scored above average, indicating that the overall performance of participants was low prior to the intervention, as illustrated in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 Detailed score in the pre-test of the participants in the experimental group
Figure 4.3 shows the detailed score in the post-test of the participants in the experimental group
Figure 4.3 Detailed score in the post-test of the participants in the experimental group
Higher than average Lower than average
Higher than average Lower than average
The post-test results showed a significant decrease in the number of students scoring below average, with only 5 students remaining, representing 13% of the total Conversely, 35 students, or 88%, achieved scores above average, although their marks varied between 5.2 and 7.2.
The implementation of schema-based activities over a 12-week period has led to statistically significant improvements in reading comprehension among the experimental group Notably, the overall mean score increased, while the number of students scoring below average decreased dramatically This evidence supports the effectiveness of schema-based activities in enhancing learners' reading comprehension skills.
4.2.3 Students’ performance in each part of the reading comprehension tests
Chapter 3 outlines that reading comprehension tests consist of four distinct parts, each featuring various text types and objectives designed to assess participants' reading comprehension in relation to their content schemas.
A Descriptive Statistics Test was run to find out the mean score of each part of the pre-test and post-test The results are shown in Tables 4.7 and 4.8
Table 4.7 Mean score of each part of the pre-test
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
Table 4.8 Mean score of each part of the post-test
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
Tables 4.7 and 4.8 indicate that part 2 of the assessment, with a mean pre-test score of 0.78 (SD = 0.587) and a post-test score of 1.33 (SD = 0.583), presents the greatest challenge for students This section requires detailed comprehension and the ability to differentiate between five descriptions of people and eight short texts Additionally, part 1 has the second lowest mean score, with a pre-test mean of 1.15 (SD = 0.522).
Students with limited practical knowledge of text types and everyday expressions may find it challenging to read real-world notices, as indicated by a mean score of 1.42 (SD = 0.479) In part 4, which focuses on reading for detailed information and inferring the writer's meaning, students showed improvement with a mean score of 1.86 (SD = 0.411) after instruction This section offers four answer options, making it easier for students to select the correct responses Notably, part 3, which utilizes a True-False format, achieved the highest mean score of 3.08 (SD = 0.661), up from a pre-test score of 2.13 (SD = 0.755).
The reading comprehension tests aim to evaluate the impact of two schema types—formal schemas and content schemas—on students' understanding of texts Specifically, when the texts are real-world messages, detailed comprehension is essential for effective interpretation.
After 12 weeks of intervention, students demonstrated improved reading comprehension abilities, as evidenced by higher post-test scores compared to pre-test scores While parts 2 and 4, which involve inference, may pose challenges for students, part 3's True-False format appears to be more manageable Overall, schema-based activities have proven effective in enhancing students' reading skills.
Both groups demonstrated improved performance in the post-test compared to the pre-test However, a comparative analysis revealed that the group engaged in schema-based activities outperformed the group that did not This finding aligns partially with previous studies, such as those conducted by Cho &.
Ma (2020), Mengesha (2012), Smith et al (2021), Trang (2012), Pearson et al
Research by Johnson (1979, 1981) indicates that schema activation positively influences students' reading comprehension However, this finding contrasts with Hammadou's (1991) study, which found no significant effect of background knowledge on L2 reading comprehension The differences in results may stem from variations in methodologies, how background knowledge was defined, participants' proficiency levels, text difficulty, and other factors Additionally, the current study challenges previous research, such as Alvermann et al (1985) and Lipson (1983), which suggested that excessive reliance on background knowledge can lead to incorrect interpretations of reading materials.
Students’ attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in
Following the post-test, all participants in the experimental group completed a 25-item questionnaire to assess their attitudes towards schema-based activities in reading comprehension A Scale Test was conducted to evaluate the reliability of the questionnaire, with results presented in Table 4.9.
Table 4.9 Reliability of all items in the questionnaire
As can be seen in Table 4.9, the reliability of the questionnaire is acceptable (α=.74) Thus, the questionnaire used in the study is validated and reliable enough for the data collection
Forty participants in the experimental group completed a questionnaire divided into three sections: personal information, schema-based activities, and their attitudes towards these activities After providing their personal details, participants rated their interest in five schema-based activities on a scale from "not at all interested" to "very interested." In the second part, they evaluated their experiences and attitudes towards these activities during the intervention using a five-point scale ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree."
4.3.1 Students’ time of practicing reading comprehension outside the class
A Frequency Statistics Test was run to measure students’ time of practicing reading comprehension outside the class, as shown in Table 4.10
Table 4.10 Time students spent practicing reading comprehension outside class
Less than 1 hour per week 6 15.0 15.0 15.0
Between 1 and 3 hours per week 27 67.5 67.5 82.5
More than 3 hours per week 7 17.5 17.5 100.0
The data indicates that 15% of participants practice reading comprehension for less than 1 hour per week, while 17.5% engage for more than 3 hours weekly The majority, comprising 67.5% of participants, dedicate between 1 to 3 hours per week to this practice This suggests that, on average, participants are actively practicing reading comprehension for a reasonable amount of time each week.
All participants in the study are grade 10 students with eight years of formal English education and similar after-school reading practice Consequently, these consistent external factors are unlikely to significantly influence the outcomes of schema-based activities on students' reading comprehension during the intervention.
4.3.2 Students’ preferences for each activity
A Descriptive Statistics Test was conducted to analyze the average scores reflecting students' preferences for various schema-based activities in reading comprehension The findings are detailed in Table 4.11.
Table 4.11 Students’ preferences for schema-based activities
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
Table 4.11 illustrates that the total preference mean score is rather higher than the average (M = 3.63, SD = 598) It can be inferred that most of the students enjoy schema-based activities
Presented in Table 4.12 is the Descriptive Statistics Data of the mean scores of participants’ preference towards specific schema-based activities
Table 4.12 Mean score of students’ preferences for each schema-based activity
Quick talking to the class 40 1 5 3.45 1.154
Talking about what have been learnt from the reading text
Table 4.12 shows that 'Quick talking to the class' and 'Talking about what has been learned from the text' received the lowest mean scores, with Quick talking averaging M = 3.45 (SD = 1.154) and Talking about what has been learned averaging M = 3.40.
SD = 1.081), followed by ‘Pre-questioning’ (M = 3.63, SD = 925) ‘Using audio visual aids’ and ‘Group discussion’ are the highest (Using audio visual aids M = 4.00, SD = 679; Group discussion M = 3.65, SD = 834)
All participants in the experimental group showed a clear interest in schema-based activities, highlighting their effectiveness in engaging students Teachers are encouraged to incorporate audiovisual aids, such as videos, pictures, maps, and charts, to enhance learning and facilitate the acquisition of new knowledge (Dutta, 1994) Additionally, group discussions can activate students' background knowledge, allowing them to share insights and alleviate anxiety Furthermore, developing thought-provoking questions can stimulate brainstorming about the content or text type, better preparing students for reading, in line with the theories of Aebersold, J.A and Field (1997) and Brown.
In a study by Tran Thi Thanh Thuy & Phuong Hoang Yen (2018), it was found that the lowest scores among students were linked to their anxiety about speaking English (Thornbury, 2005, p 25) To address this issue, teachers should foster a stress-free classroom environment that encourages students to engage in conversation Additionally, EFL teachers must select appropriate activities that activate and enhance students' schemas during reading lessons.
4.3.3 Students’ attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in learning reading comprehension
A Descriptive Statistics Test was conducted to analyze the average score of students' attitudes regarding the use of schema-based activities in enhancing reading comprehension The findings are detailed in Table 4.13.
Table 4.13 Overall mean score of students’ attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in learning reading comprehension
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
The data analysis indicates that participants in the experimental group exhibit a positive attitude towards the integration of schema-based activities in their reading comprehension sessions, reflected by a high total mean score of M = 3.89 with a standard deviation of SD = 41.
4.3.3.1 Students’ affective attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in learning reading comprehension
The initial six questions in part 2 aimed to assess participants' emotional attitudes regarding schema-based activities in reading comprehension A Descriptive Statistics Test was conducted to analyze the average affective attitudes of learners, with the findings presented in Table 4.14.
Table 4.14 Students’ overall affective attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in learning reading comprehension
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
A One-Sample T Test was conducted to determine if the mean score of the first six questions exceeds 3.5, which is the threshold for a positive sentiment towards these activities The findings are detailed in Table 4.15.
Table 4.15 Students’ positive affective attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in learning reading comprehension
The analysis of Tables 4.13 and 4.14 reveals that participants exhibited a Mean – Affective score of 3.85 (SD = 464), significantly surpassing the positive attitude threshold of 3.5 (t = 4.526, df = 39, p = 000) This indicates that participants hold highly positive affective attitudes towards the implementation of schema-based activities in enhancing reading comprehension.
Another Descriptive Statistics Test was run to figure out the participants’ detailed affective attitudes for each item, as shown in Table 4.16
Table 4.16 Students’ detailed affective attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in learning reading comprehension
6 I can now feel less worried before reading 40 3.50 877
7 I think schema-based activities are interesting and understandable
8 I feel curious and interested in the reading text if I am provided with knowledge about unfamiliar topics
9 I feel more confident to deal with reading activities 40 3.68 917
10 Schema-based activities increase my interest in studying reading comprehension
Test Value = 3.5 t df p Mean Difference
11 Schema-based activities make the classroom environment more enjoyable and less stressful
Schema-based activities significantly enhance students' curiosity about reading content, as indicated by the highest mean score of 4.00 (SD = 778) for item 8 These activities also facilitate understanding, reflected in item 7 with a mean score of 3.95 (SD = 986) Additionally, they foster positive emotions prior to reading, including enjoyment (item 11, M = 3.80, SD = 823), confidence (item 9, M = 3.68, SD = 917), and interest (item 10, M = 3.58, SD = 958).
Schema building enhances learners' extrinsic motivation and fosters a positive learning environment It also promotes emotional engagement and encourages effort, leading to more active and productive perceptions through schema-based activities.
4.3.3.2 Students’ cognitive attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in learning reading comprehension
A Descriptive Statistics Test was run to explore the mean of learners’ cognitive attitudes towards the application of schema-based activities in learning reading comprehension
Table 4.17 Students’ cognitive attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in learning reading comprehension
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
A One-Sample T Test was run to figure out whether the mean of cognitive attitudes differed from 3.5 (the medium level for positive attitudes)
Table 4.18 Students’ positive cognitive attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in learning reading comprehension
Test Value = 3.5 t df p Mean Difference
As can be seen from Tables 4.17 and 4.18, the cognitive mean (M = 3.87,
SD = 471) is higher than the scale 3.5 This means that participants’ cognitive attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in learning reading comprehension are somewhat positive
Another Descriptive Statistics Test was run to figure out the participants’ detailed cognitive attitudes The result displays in Table 4.19
Table 4.19 Students’ detailed cognitive attitudes towards the use of schema-based activities in learning reading comprehension
12 I can read more quickly when studying with schema- based activities
13 I can understand the content of the reading text better thanks to the activation of my background knowledge
14 Schema activation enables me to determine important information of a text, and decide where to pay attention
15 Pre-reading stage including schema-based activities is more interesting and helpful than vocabulary teaching only
16 I can talk about what I have read clearly and confidently
17 I find schema-based activities useful in comprehending reading materials
18 Schema-based activities provide me with real knowledge and specific purpose about what I am going to read
19 The information I have already known help me in guessing the ones I do not know
20 Schema-based activities motivate me to do more reading comprehension tasks outside the classroom
21 Schema-based activities give me chance to practice thinking and analyzing
22 In the reading process, I can use text clues and my activated schemas to make inferences that go beyond the information literally stated in the text
23 Schema-based activities make me know more from sharing ideas with my classmates
24 Schema-based activities challenge me to ask questions to myself to make prediction about the text
25 I will try to widen my schema because it helps me a lot in learning reading comprehension
Students’ understanding of using schema-based activities in learning
After analyzing the questionnaire data, the researcher conducted face-to-face semi-structured interviews with six students from the experimental group to gain deeper insights into their experiences with schema-based activities These interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed for accuracy All participants highlighted the effectiveness of schema-based activities in enhancing their reading comprehension skills.
“… I think schema-based activities are useful and interesting; it helps me brainstorm about the topic and the genre of the reading passage, so
I am ready to deal with it.” (Participants A and B)
“Schema activation may help me predict the content of the reading texts, as well as some main ideas in these texts.” (Participant C)
Engaging in discussions with group members significantly enhances my knowledge and understanding These conversations are enjoyable, allowing me to freely share ideas with friends, which alleviates my anxiety before reading As a result, I feel more prepared and can grasp the meanings of new words and various text genres effectively.
Students frequently highlighted the engaging and comprehensible aspects of schema-based activities in their responses These activities effectively prepared them and reduced anxiety before tackling reading tasks, particularly when faced with unfamiliar topics and unfamiliar genres.
What is more, their reading skills has also been affected positively by schema activation, as mentioned respectively by participants A, B, C, D and F
“My reading skills have been slightly improved.” Specifically, they said:
“… now I seem to read and deal with the reading tasks a bit faster than before.” (Participant A)
Now, I read with clear intentions, fully aware of my objectives and the topics I will explore, which allows me to comprehend the text more effectively.
“… Sometimes I can guess the writer’s implication and meaning of new words based on my activated schemas.” (Participant B)
“My reading comprehension speed is faster, and I can guess the meaning of the text though there are some new words.” (Participant D)
The interviewees highlighted several engaging schema-based activities, with three out of six students (participants A, B, and C) expressing a strong preference for group discussions, which allowed them to freely share their knowledge Additionally, participants B and D favored audiovisual aids, such as videos and pictures, for their practical learning benefits Meanwhile, participants D and E showed a keen interest in sharing their insights with the entire class.
Group discussions foster an open exchange of ideas, allowing participants to share thoughts without the pressure of right or wrong answers This environment promotes comfort and reduces anxiety, enabling individuals to gain valuable knowledge from their peers.
“Watching videos give me more real-world knowledge and makes me concentrate and feel excited, as it is easier to understand abstract reading topics.”(Participants B and D)
The participants also posed some challenges while joining schema-based activities Distraction was the problem that two participants mentioned, as students A and F said,
“… I sometimes feel distracted because some of the members in my group chat with others without discussing.”
Participants A, B, C, E, and F highlighted several challenges faced during schema-based learning activities, including insufficient time allocated for these tasks and a limited range of necessary vocabulary and experiences.
“The time allocated for pre-reading activities is sometimes not enough for us to discuss.” (Participant A)
“There are few videos containing many new words, which makes me difficult to understand, so at that time, I just pay attention to the motion pictures.” (Participant B)
“I may bring a wealth of experiences, knowledge of reading text’s topic to the classroom, but what lack is a way to express this knowledge in English.” (Participant C)
“My practical knowledge is not wide enough to share my ideas with my partners.” (Participants E and F)
Participants expressed a strong desire for teachers to incorporate diverse schema-based activities into reading comprehension lessons They proposed several engaging methods to enhance these activities For instance, Participant A recommended a turn-taking presentation format where the group with the most correct answers would win Meanwhile, Participant F emphasized the importance of focused discussions among group members and suggested that, during the post-reading phase, all groups should create an essay, map, or visual representation of their reading material.
Many students expressed a willingness to expand their knowledge beyond the classroom by engaging in activities such as reading books, utilizing social media, and conversing with friends to gain a better understanding of the real world Additionally, some plan to join English groups on Facebook to enhance their vocabulary if they find it appealing.
“I think I will read news when surfing the Internet or reading books.” (Participants A, D and F)
“I will watch news on TV or on the Internet I will also learn new words by watching videos on Youtube.” (Participants B, D and F)
“I will learn new words through reading texts or join English groups If there are new words related to the topic that I am interested in, I will take note them.” (Participant A)
The results from the post-test and participant questionnaires indicate that activating relevant schemas significantly benefits EFL learners in reading comprehension and emotional engagement Schema activation aids students in predicting content and identifying main ideas, as well as making inferences about the authors' perspectives This process enhances their understanding of unfamiliar topics and increases knowledge retention While students can grasp the literal meaning of texts without relevant schemas, they struggle to infer implicit information Consequently, those with well-developed schemas demonstrate superior comprehension and recall compared to their peers with limited schemas Additionally, schema activation reduces stress and fosters a more comfortable reading experience.
Participants express a strong preference for schema-based activities, particularly group discussions and the use of audiovisual aids During discussions, students feel at ease sharing their ideas without the pressure of right or wrong answers Additionally, audiovisual aids prove beneficial for comprehending abstract and challenging topics, enhancing students' understanding.
Students encounter several challenges when engaging in schema-based activities Limited linguistic skills and lack of real-world knowledge hinder their ability to articulate their understanding of the topics Additionally, distractions arise when some students prioritize chatting with friends over meaningful discussion Furthermore, the time allotted for these activities often proves insufficient for students to fully express their ideas As a result, many students become frustrated, deem reading boring, and ultimately lose interest in improving their English reading comprehension.
Students propose engaging methods to enhance schema-based activities, such as fostering a competitive environment where participants strive to showcase their knowledge, with the most accurate answers leading to victory Additionally, they express a preference for creating maps or writing essays over verbal discussions about their learning, possibly due to apprehension about speaking English.
Students generally have a positive attitude towards schema-based activities and recognize the significance of their schemas Consequently, they are eager to expand their knowledge through various methods Therefore, activating schemas can serve as an effective teaching strategy to enhance learners' reading skills, as well as their cognitive and emotional development.