API Document Formatting and Style Manual API Document Format and Style Manual FIRST EDITION, JUNE 2007 i Contents Page Introduction iii 1 Scope 1 2 Normative References 1 3 Terms and Definitions 1 4 G[.]
Document Types
Bulletin
Documents that convey technical information on a specific subject or topic and are generally issued on a one-time basis, are not standards, and are not addressed by these procedures.
Code
A document intended for adoption by regulatory agencies or authorities having jurisdiction.
Recommended Practice
A document that communicates proven industry practices.
Specification
A document that prescribes technical requirements to be fulfilled by a product, process, or service.
Standard
Standards are consensus-based documents that outline rules, guidelines, or characteristics for activities and their outcomes, promoting optimal order within a specific context They encompass both specifications and recommended practices for common and repeated use.
NOTE For the purposes of this document, the term "standard" is used as a generic description for all document types.
Technical Report
Expression of Provisions
General
Every document outlines terms that help readers understand compliance requirements, but it does not inherently impose obligations Such obligations may arise from legislation or contracts Consistent use of precise verbal forms in each provision eliminates ambiguity and aids users in understanding their responsibilities for conformance The necessary verbal forms include "shall" for requirements and "should" for recommendations, clarifying what actions must be taken, what is advisable, and what options are available.
The terms "may" and "can" serve distinct purposes in language, with "may" indicating permission and "can" denoting possibility and capability Additionally, "shall" signifies a mandatory provision, while "should" suggests a recommended practice that is not mandatory In contrast, "may" indicates an optional provision, and "can" is reserved for expressing statements of possibility or capability.
See Annex A for additional information and examples to help in the writing of API standards.
Requirements
Table 1 outlines the mandatory verbal expressions that must be used to specify requirements for compliance with the document, emphasizing that deviations are not allowed.
Table 1 outlines various verbal forms used to express requirements, including "shall," "is to," and "is required to." In exceptional cases, phrases such as "it is required that," "has to," and "only is permitted" convey necessity Conversely, "shall not" indicates prohibitions, with alternatives like "is not allowed," "is not acceptable," and "is not permissible." Additionally, "is required to be not" and "is required that be not" serve to emphasize restrictions, while "is not to be" reinforces the notion of non-acceptance.
NOTE 1 Do not use “may” when “can” is meant
NOTE 2 Do not use “may not” when “shall not” is meant
NOTE 3 See ISO Directives, Part 2, Annex G for negatives of these verbal forms and further explanation a The equivalent expressions given the second column shall be used only in exceptional cases when the form given in the first column cannot be used for linguistic reasons b Do not use "must" as an alternative for "shall" (this will avoid any confusion between the requirements of a document and jurisdictional regulatory obligations)
Avoid using vague expressions that are not truly informative and may cause the reader to make an incorrect judgment call Words like “very”, “all”, “every”, “never”, “excessive”, “slightly”, "approximately",
"nearly", or “significant” are not useful.
Recommendations
Table 2 outlines the verbal forms to indicate a) a recommended option among several without excluding others, b) a preferred course of action that is not mandatory, and c) a discouraged possibility or action that is not explicitly prohibited.
Table 2 outlines verbal forms for expressing recommendations The term "should" is synonymous with "it is recommended that" and "ought to." Conversely, "should not" equates to "it is not recommended that" and "ought not to." It is important to note that the equivalent expressions in the second column should only be utilized in exceptional cases when the primary forms in the first column cannot be applied for linguistic reasons.
Permission
Table 3 summarizes the verbal forms that shall be used to indicate a course of action permissible within the limits of the document
Table 3 outlines verbal forms used to express permission, including "may," which indicates that something is permitted, allowed, or permissible Additionally, the phrase "need not" signifies that it is not required for something to occur, emphasizing that no obligation exists.
Do not use "possible" or "impossible" in this context
Do not use "can" instead of "may" in this context
"May" indicates permission as stated in the document, while "can" denotes the user's ability or a possibility available to them The alternative expressions in the second column should only be utilized in exceptional circumstances when the primary form in the first column is linguistically unsuitable.
Possibility and Capability
Table 4 summarizes the verbal forms that shall be used for statements of possibility and capability, whether material, physical, or causal
Table 4 outlines verbal forms that express possibility and capability, including expressions such as "can," "be able to," and "there is a possibility of." Conversely, it also includes terms like "cannot," "be unable to," and "there is no possibility of," indicating impossibility For further details, refer to the note in Table 3.
Homogeneity
To ensure clarity and consistency, it is essential to maintain uniformity in structure, style, and terminology across all documents and their associated series The layout and section numbering of related documents should be as similar as possible Additionally, similar provisions should be articulated with analogous wording, while identical provisions must be expressed with the same wording.
Consistency in terminology is crucial across all documents or related materials to clearly define a specific concept It is important to refrain from using alternative terms or synonyms for concepts that have already been established.
As far as possible, only one meaning shall be attributed to each term chosen.
Units and Quantities
Units
To ensure global consistency in API standards, values should be presented in both metric (SI) and U.S customary (USC) units When using dual units, the SI unit must be mentioned first, with the corresponding USC unit provided in parentheses within the text or displayed in separate tables, figures, datasheets, or annexes.
Do not use periods within measurements (lb, ft, s) except inches (in.) See API MPMS Chapter 15 for guidelines on the API-preferred units for quantities involved in the petroleum industry.
Quantities
When formatting numbers, it is essential to place a zero in front of the decimal for values between –1.0 and 1.0 To enhance clarity, use the symbol ¯ for multiplication instead of a decimal point In general text, spell out isolated numbers less than 10, but use numerals in equations, tables, figures, and other display elements Express the value of a quantity with a numeral followed by a space and the appropriate unit symbol If tolerances are provided, include the unit with both the basic value and the tolerance (e.g., 1.50 mm ± 0.05 mm) Additionally, when indicating ranges, repeat the unit (e.g., 2 psi to 12.5 psi).
NOTE Dashes should not be used since they can be misinterpreted as subtraction signs g) the abbreviation for inches should include a period (in.) to avoid confusion with the word "in"
General
Final formatting is handled by API staff prior to publication, making it unnecessary for the committee to format the document as if it were published However, the committee can lessen the staff's workload for publication preparation by using the correct numbering format during the draft stage.
Normative and Informative Sections
Normative text denotes information that is required to implement the standard Informative text is provided for information only
The standard will include normative text in the main sections and normative annexes, along with footnotes for tables (refer to Annex B) Informative text will be found in notes related to text, tables, and figures, as well as in footnotes and informative annexes.
Subdivision of Subject Matter
Descriptions of Divisions and Subdivisions
Terms to be used to designate the divisions and subdivisions of a document are shown in Table 2
Table 2—Names of Divisions and Subdivisions
Annex A a See ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2, Section 5.1.2 and 5.2.1 for more information on the subdivision of subject matter in a series of parts.
Part
Each subject to be standardized requires a distinct document published as a complete entity However, for practical reasons, documents may be divided into separate parts under the same number if they risk becoming too voluminous, if subsequent sections are interrelated, if certain parts need to be referenced in regulations, or if specific sections are intended for certification purposes.
Each component can be individually modified as needed, allowing for flexibility It is essential to clearly differentiate the aspects of a product that are of interest to various stakeholders, such as manufacturers, certification bodies, and legislative bodies, ideally by organizing them into distinct sections or separate documents.
Such individual aspects are, for example,
The terminology for the divisions and subdivisions of a document is outlined in Table 1 For further details on how to separate a document into distinct parts, refer to ISO/IEC Directives Part 2, Section 5.1.2.
Section
A section is the fundamental unit for organizing content within a document, with each section numbered using Arabic numerals starting from 1 for the "Scope" section This numbering continues sequentially, excluding any annexes.
Each section shall have a title, placed immediately after its number, on a line separate from the text that follows it.
Subsection
A subsection is a numbered division within a section, which can be further broken down into primary subsections (e.g., 5.1, 5.2) and secondary subsections (e.g., 5.1.1, 5.1.2) This subdivision can continue up to five levels deep, allowing for detailed organization of content (e.g., 5.1.1.1.1.1, 5.1.1.1.1.2).
A subsection should only be created if there is at least one additional subsection at the same level For instance, in Section 10, the designation of a subsection as "10.1" is only appropriate if another subsection exists.
Each primary subsection should have a title placed on a separate line immediately after its number Secondary subsections should follow the same format Consistency is key; if subsection 10.1 has a title, then subsection 10.2 must also have one In cases where titles are not used, it is important to highlight key terms or phrases.
Distinctive typesetting at the beginning of a subsection can effectively draw attention to the topic being discussed However, these specific terms or phrases will not be included in the table of contents.
Paragraph
A paragraph is an unnumbered subdivision of a section or subsection
Hanging paragraphs, such as those shown in Table 3 shall be avoided since reference to them is ambiguous
Table 3—Examples of Hanging Paragraphs Incorrect Correct
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
Annex
Annexes must be arranged in the sequence they are referenced within the text Each annex should have a heading that includes the term "Annex" followed by a capital letter indicating its order, starting with "A" (e.g., "Annex A") Additionally, the annex heading should be accompanied by the label "(normative)" or similar designation.
Each section, subsection, table, figure, and mathematical formula in an annex should be numbered with the letter designating that annex followed by a full stop The numbering will restart for each annex A single annex is designated as "Annex A."
EXAMPLE Sections in Annex A are designated “A.1”, “A.2”, “A.3”, etc
Normative annexes provide supplementary provisions beyond the main document, and their inclusion is optional It is essential to clarify an annex's normative status, distinguishing it from informative content, through specific references in the text, indications in the table of contents, and clear headings for the annex.
Informative annexes provide supplementary information to enhance the understanding or application of the document They are optional and should not include requirements, except as specified in section 5.3.6.3.2 The informative nature of an annex must be clearly indicated in the text, in the table of contents, and in the annex heading.
Informative annexes can include optional requirements, such as a test method that may specify certain criteria However, adherence to these optional requirements is not necessary to assert compliance with the document.
Bibliography
A bibliography, if present, shall appear after the last annex See 6.6.9 for additional information
Lists
In a subsection, it is advisable to use ordered lists for better reference, presenting items in outline form labeled a), b), c), etc For further subdivisions, a tiered list can be created using formats such as 1), 2), 3); i), ii), iii); or dashed items.
To maintain clarity in subsections, only one ordered list should be used to prevent confusing cross-references When appropriate, dashed lists can serve as an alternative to ordered lists It is important to omit closing punctuation in lists of short items or phrases, while punctuation should be included for complete sentences Additionally, avoid using bullets (y) in unordered lists to prevent confusion with bullets that indicate a purchaser's decision, as outlined in section 6.6.7.2.
Annex C provides examples of ordered and unordered lists.
Tables
Usage
Tables are an effective way to present information clearly and efficiently It is essential to reference all tables within the text of the document.
A table within a table is not permitted Subdivision of a table into subsidiary tables is not permitted
See Annex B for details on creating tables.
Designation
Tables should be labeled as "Table" and numbered sequentially using Arabic numerals, starting from 1 This numbering system is separate from the numbering of sections and figures Each table is treated as an individual entity.
Tables included in annexes shall include the identifying letter of the annex in which they appear
EXAMPLE The first table in Annex A would be identified as Table A.1
For documents maintained under the continuous maintenance option, a table may be identified by the section number preceding the table number, separated by a period
EXAMPLE Tables in Section 4 of document would be identified as Table 4.1, Table 4.2, Table 4.3, etc.
Figures
Usage
Figures should be utilized when they effectively convey information in a clear and understandable manner It is essential to reference all figures within the text of the document.
Figures included in annexes shall include the identifying letter of the annex in which they appear
See Annex D for details on creating figures.
Designation
Figures should be labeled as "Figure" and assigned Arabic numerals starting from 1, with this numbering being separate from section and table numbering Each individual figure will be referred to as "Figure 1."
Figures included in annexes shall include the identifying letter of the annex in which they appear
EXAMPLE The first figure in Annex A would be identified as Figure A.1
For documents maintained under the continuous maintenance option, a figure may be identified by the section number preceding the figure number, separated by a period
EXAMPLE Figures in Section 4 of document would be identified as Figure 4.1, Figure 4.2, Figure 4.3, etc.
Equations
General
Equations must be consistently formatted throughout the document Each equation should be introduced with a descriptive phrase or sentence, followed by the equation on a new line After the equation, a list of variables and their definitions should be provided on the subsequent line, in the order they appear in the equation.
The maximum allowable residual unbalance per plane (journal) shall be calculated as follows:
N is the rotative speed in r/min
For insulated vessels, the environment factor for insulation is given as follows:
F = k − where k is the thermal conductivity of insulation at mean temperature, expressed in W/mãK (Btuãin./hãft 2 ã°F); δ ins is the thickness of insulation, expressed in meters (inches);
T f is the temperature of vessel contents at relieving conditions, expressed in °C (°F)
To facilitate cross-referencing in a document, it is essential to number some or all formulas using Arabic numerals in parentheses, starting with 1 For example, the formula can be represented as \$ w_{\text{max}} = \frac{m_1}{m_1 + m_2} \times 100\% \, (1) \$.
The numbering shall be continuous and independent of the numbering of sections, tables and figures Subdivision of formulae [e.g (2a), (2b), etc.] is not permitted.
Order of Sections within a Document
Foreword
The foreword shall appear in each document It shall not contain requirements, recommendations, figures or tables It is a general description of the contents of the standard
The foreword is divided into a specific part, provided by the committee, which includes important details like significant technical changes from previous editions and the document's relationship to other documents The general part, supplied by API staff, offers essential information about the document, including the responsible committee, effective date, terms of use, and contact details for submitting suggested revisions.
Introduction
The introduction serves as an optional section that provides specific information or commentary regarding the technical content of the document and the motivations behind its creation It is important to note that this section should not include any requirements.
The introduction should remain unnumbered unless subdivisions are necessary, in which case it will be labeled as 0, with subsections designated as 0.1, 0.2, and so on All numbered figures, tables, displayed formulas, and footnotes will start numbering from 1.
Scope
This element must be included at the start of every document to clearly define its subject and the topics addressed, establishing the scope of applicability for the document or specific sections It should not include any requirements.
In documents that are subdivided into parts, the scope of each part shall define the subject of that part only
The scope shall be succinct so that it can be used as a summary for bibliographic purposes and the API Publications Catalog (www.api.org/publications).
Normative References
This optional section provides a comprehensive list of referenced documents that are essential for the application of the main document The references can be categorized as either general or specific.
For referencing, it is advisable to use general references unless a specific edition is required for technical reasons When citing a general reference that encompasses all parts of a document, include the publication number followed by “(all parts)” and the general title of the series For specific references, always include the edition number or year of publication, while undated references should omit the year or dash.
The list shall be introduced by the following wording:
The referenced documents are essential for the application of this document For dated references, only the specified edition is applicable, while for undated references, the most recent edition, including any addenda or errata, is relevant.
Terms and Definitions
This section provides essential definitions for understanding specific terms used throughout the document The introductory phrase to be utilized indicates that all terms and definitions are included within the document itself.
“For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.”
When terms defined in other documents are applicable, such as in a series of related documents where Part 1 outlines the terms and definitions for multiple sections, the following introductory wording should be utilized and modified as needed.
“For the purposes of this document, the terms and definitions given in and the following apply.” Rules for the presentation of terms and definitions are provided in Annex E.
Symbols and Abbreviations
This section provides an optional list of symbols and abbreviations essential for understanding the document Symbols should be organized alphabetically unless a specific order is required for technical reasons.
⎯ upper case Latin letter followed by lower case Latin letter (A, a, B, b, etc.);
⎯ letters without indices preceding letters with indices, and with letter indices preceding numerical ones (B, b, C, C m , C 2 , c, d, d ext, d int, d 1, etc.);
⎯ Greek letters following Latin letters (A, B, Z, α, β, z, etc.);
To enhance convenience, this element can be integrated with the Terms and Definitions section, effectively consolidating terms, definitions, abbreviations, symbols, and units under a unified title, such as “Terms, Definitions, Abbreviations, Symbols, and Units.”
See E.5 for additional information on symbols and abbreviated terms.
Requirements
This optional element must include all relevant characteristics of the products, processes, or services addressed in the document, either directly or through references It should specify the necessary limiting values for quantifiable characteristics and provide a reference to the test method for verifying these values, or include the test method itself for each requirement.
A clear distinction shall be made between requirements, statements and recommendations Contractual requirements (concerning claims, guarantees, covering of expenses, etc.) and legal or statutory requirements shall not be included
Certain product standards may require accompanying warning notices or instructions for installers or users, detailing their specific nature However, installation or usage requirements should be documented separately, as they do not pertain directly to the product itself.
Documents listing characteristics for which suppliers are required to state values not specified by the document itself shall specify how such values are to be measured and stated
6.6.7.2 Use of Bullets to Indicate Purchaser Decision
A bullet (●) at the start of a subsection or paragraph signifies that a decision is needed or additional information must be supplied by the purchaser This information should be included in the datasheet(s) or clearly stated in the quotation request or order.
Each item in the datasheet should provide essential information to assist the purchaser in making informed decisions While the datasheet items do not need to be listed as bullet points in the text, it is important to reference the relevant numbered paragraphs for items that require further reading or additional technical details.
Bullets are necessary when the phrases “when specified,” “if specified,” or “the purchaser will specify” are present in the paragraph However, bullets are not needed for “unless otherwise specified” or when a decision has already been made, particularly when the phrase “when XXX has been specified” is used.
In order to indicate to the user the special meaning of the margin bullet, the following text shall be included in the Introduction of all documents using bullets:
“A bullet (●) at the beginning of a subsection or paragraph indicates that either a decision is required or further information is to be provided by the purchaser.”
Optionally, the following phrase can be added for the purpose of relating bulleted provisions to datasheets or orders:
"This information should be indicated on the datasheet(s), otherwise it should be stated in the quotation request or in the order."
Annexes
Annexes in a standard must be organized in the order they are referenced, with the first annex labeled as Annex A, the second as Annex B, and so forth, resulting in a mix of normative and informative annexes However, the bibliography is an exception and should always be placed as the last annex, following all other annexes and preceding the index if one is present For further details on annexes, refer to section 5.3.6.
Bibliography
6.6.9.1 A bibliography, if present, shall appear after the last annex The bibliography should include the following: a) referenced documents that are cited in an informative manner; b) referenced documents that are bibliographic or background material in the preparation and application of the document
6.6.9.2 If bibliographic items are cited in text, figures, or notes, the citation shall be placed at the point where reference is made and shall be numbered consecutively Lists of bibliographic references are normally arranged either alphabetically by the first element or in numeric sequence corresponding to the order of citation in the text
6.6.9.3 Documents already listed in the normative references section shall not be included in the bibliography.
Other Informative Elements
General
API standards include various informative elements that aid readers in grasping the concepts within the document These elements consist of notes, examples, cautionary statements, and footnotes.
These elements shall not contain requirements or any other information indispensable for the use of the document.
Notes
Explanatory statements serve to emphasize or provide informative suggestions regarding the technical aspects of the standard These notes offer supplementary information to aid the reader in understanding specific sections, but they do not impose any mandatory requirements.
Notes are intended solely for informational purposes and should not include any requirements, instructions, or recommendations As a general guideline, a note can be removed without compromising the integrity of the document.
In any section or subsection, a note must begin with the word "NOTE" at the start of its first line If multiple notes are present within the same section or subsection, they should be labeled sequentially as "NOTE 1," "NOTE 2," "NOTE 3," and so on.
Examples
In each section or subsection, a single example must begin with the word "EXAMPLE" at the start of the first line If multiple examples are present within the same section or subsection, they should be labeled sequentially as "EXAMPLE 1," "EXAMPLE 2," "EXAMPLE 3," and so on.
Warning and Cautionary Statements
Warnings highlight critical materials, processes, and procedures that must be followed to prevent injury or death, while cautions address methods that could potentially damage equipment Warnings take precedence over cautions, and when both are applicable in the same section, the warning should be presented first.
Warnings and cautions should begin with clear instructions, followed by brief explanations when necessary General warnings applicable throughout the text should be positioned at the beginning to prevent repetition It is important to avoid placing warnings in informative text or notes For further guidance on incorporating safety aspects into standards, refer to ISO/IEC Guide 51.
Footnotes
Footnotes provide supplementary information and should be used sparingly, avoiding essential requirements They are distinct from footnotes for tables and figures, which follow different guidelines Footnotes should appear at the bottom of the relevant page, separated from the main text by a thin horizontal line Typically, footnotes are numbered with Arabic numerals in a continuous sequence (1), 2), 3), etc.) and referenced in the text as superscripts In some cases, asterisks or other symbols may be used to prevent confusion with superscript numbers.
Use of Trade Names
In publications, it is generally prohibited to mention specific company names or trademarks Additionally, including lists of manufacturers or service providers within the text of a standard is not acceptable.
When a sole source is available for critical equipment, materials, or services needed to ensure compliance with the standard, it is acceptable to include the source's name and address in a footnote or informative annex, provided that the phrase "or the equivalent" is added to the reference.
The process for determining whether products or services meet specific standards can be standardized, provided that the criteria focus solely on technical and engineering aspects, excluding any commercial terms or proprietary names.
Wherever a term/phrase appears that is a registered trademark the following text shall be included as a footnote:
"This term is used as an example only, and does not constitute an endorsement of this product by API."
This annex offers essential guidelines and examples to ensure consistency in the written materials created by API committees and staff While it addresses common rules, it is not exhaustive The key takeaway is to prioritize consistency when drafting or revising documents.
Capitalization rules in English are complex and have evolved to capitalize fewer terms over time Modern style guides play a crucial role in outlining the current rules, though variations exist among different guides The following list presents the basic conventions of capitalization.
⎯ Capitalize formal names of tests (Charpy Impact Test)
⎯ Capitalize major words and all other words of four letters or more, in headings, titles, and subtitles outside reference lists, for example, "A Study of No-Win Strategies."
⎯ Capitalize names of conditions, groups, effects, and variables only when definite and specific (Group A was the control group; an Age ¯ Weight interaction showed lower weight with age.)
Capitalize the first word following a comma or colon only if it starts a complete sentence For instance, "This is a complete sentence, so it is capitalized." In contrast, "no capitalization here" does not require capitalization.
⎯ Do not capitalize generic names of tests (Stroop color test) "Stroop" is a name, so it remains capitalized
⎯ Capitalize nouns before numbers, but not before variables (Trial 2, trial x)
Hyphenation rules are not definitive, as there is significant variation in how hyphens are used to connect compound words No universal rules apply to all combinations, and the potential combinations are nearly endless, meaning many will not appear in dictionaries However, some general guidelines can be considered.
⎯ Do not hyphenate common prefixes (posttest, prewar, multiphase, nonsignificant) unless needed for clarity (pre-existing)
⎯ Do not hyphenate foreign, letter, numeral terms (a priori hypothesis, Type A behavior) when the meaning is clear without it (least squares solution, heart rate scores)
⎯ Hyphenate adjectival phrases (role-playing technique, high-anxiety group, two-way analysis)
⎯ Hyphenate compound adjectives preceding nouns (client-centered therapy, t-test scores) unless the compound adjective involves a superlative (best written paper)
⎯ Hyphenate if the base is an abbreviation or compounded (pre-UCS, non-college bound)
⎯ Hyphenate if the base word is capitalized or a number (pre-Freudian, post-1960)
⎯ Hyphenate if the words could be misunderstood without a hyphen (re-pair, un-ionized, co-worker)
⎯ If in doubt, consult a recently published dictionary Standards change For example, "data base" is now "database," "data sheet" is now "datasheet," and "life-style" is now "lifestyle."
The following are general guidelines for the use of numbers in text:
⎯ Spell out numbers that are less than 10, not precise measurements, and not grouped with numbers over 10 (one-tailed t test, eight items, nine pages, three-way interaction, five trials)
⎯ Use numerals for numbers 10 and above, or numbers under 10 grouped with numbers 10 and above (for example, from 6 to 12 hours of sleep)
⎯ Spell out common fractions and common expressions (one-half, Fourth of July)
When a sentence begins with a number, it should always be spelled out If this guideline leads to an awkward phrasing, consider rephrasing the sentence to prevent starting with a number.
Use numerals for precise statistical data, including scores, sample sizes, and sums, such as "We studied 30 subjects, all two-year-olds, who spent an average of 1 hour and 20 minutes per day crying."
⎯ To make plurals out of numbers, add s only, with no apostrophe (the 1950s)
⎯ Use combinations of written and Arabic numerals for back-to-back numbers (five 4-point scales)
⎯ Use combinations of numerals and written numbers for large sums (over 3 million people)
⎯ Use the percent symbol (%) only with figures (5 %) not with written numbers (five percent)
A.5 Common Misuse of Words in English
The following are common misuses of some English words:
⎯ "Affect" is usually a verb, which means "to influence", as in: Will bad grammar affect my grade?
⎯ "Criteria" is a plural noun; "criterion" is the singular form of "criteria"
EXAMPLE "These criteria are " and "This criterion is "
⎯ "Data" is a plural noun; "datum" is the singular form of "data"
EXAMPLE "These data are " and "This datum is "
⎯ "Effect" is usually a noun, which means "result", as in: cause and effect relationship
⎯ To "insure" means that money is paid by the insurance company if the event that is insured against occurs
⎯ To "assure" is to convince or promise someone
⎯ To "ensure" is to do something that will cause a particular result or outcome
⎯ Avoid an isolated use of the word "this", as in:
Instead, add a word to specifically indicate what "this" refers to: this feature; this circuit; this problem; this approach
The word "that" is used to introduce essential information and is never preceded by a comma, while "which" introduces nonessential information and is always preceded by a comma.
Resistors are essential components in electronic circuits, characterized by their distinctive color bands However, these color bands do not impact the circuit's functionality or the widespread use of resistors.
A resistor emitting smoke is at risk of failure The phrase "emitting smoke" specifies the resistor(s) crucial to understanding the sentence's meaning.
The term "its" serves as a possessive form indicating ownership, while "it's" is a contraction for "it is" or "it has," marked by an apostrophe that signifies omitted letters Many mistakenly add an apostrophe-s to create a possessive form, but this is incorrect.
⎯ "There" refers to a place (indicates where) or can be used as a pronoun that introduces a clause or sentence; "their" is a plural possessive noun
EXAMPLE 1 Put your wet gloves over there near the fireplace (indicates where)
EXAMPLE 2 Their schedules all have Monday, Wednesday, and Friday classes (possessive)
⎯ The term "and/or" should be avoided and, wherever possible, the statement should be rewritten to clarify the meaning
EXAMPLE The statement "nuts, or screws, and/or bolts" can be rewritten to read: "nuts, or screws, or bolts, or a combination thereof."
Omit unnecessary words to enhance clarity Many terms can be removed from a first draft without losing meaning Examples of redundant phrases include: a) proved; b) orange; c) alternative; d) maximum error; e) because.
Tables must be assigned a number and a brief title, and they should be referenced in the text using the term "Table" followed by the corresponding number This numbering is separate from that of sections and figures The first table is labeled as "Table 1." Both the title and designation of the table should be centered above it, as illustrated in the example provided.