Characterization of durian seed flour and application in ice cream

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION FACULTY FOR HIGH QUALITY TRAINING CAPSTONE PROJECT FOOD TECHNOLOGY CHARACTERIZATION OF DURIAN

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION

FACULTY FOR HIGH QUALITY TRAINING

CAPSTONE PROJECT FOOD TECHNOLOGY

CHARACTERIZATION OF DURIAN SEED FLOUR

AND APPLICATION IN ICE CREAM

Ho Chi Minh City, December, 2021

PHAM THI THANH NGA

LECTURER: PhD VU TRAN KHANH LINH STUDENT: PHAM NGOC BAO CHAU

SKL 0 0 8 4 1 5

HCMC UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION

FACULTY FOR HIGH QUALITY TRAINING

PHAM NGOC BAO CHAU Student ID: 17116004

PHAM THI THANH NGA Student ID: 17116022

Major: FOOD TECHNOLOGY Supervisor: VU TRAN KHANH LINH, Ph.D

Ho Chi Minh City, December 2021

CHARACTERIZATION OF DURIAN SEED FLOUR

AND APPLICATION IN ICE CREAM

GRADUATION PROJECT

i

THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM

Independence – Freedom– Happiness

-

Ho Chi Minh City, December 23 rd , 2021

GRADUATION PROJECT ASSIGNMENT

Supervisor: VU TRAN KHANH LINH, Ph.D

1 Project title: Characterization of durian seed flour and application in ice cream

2 Research contents:

The study ―Characterization of Durian Seed flour and Application in Ice Cream‖ includes the following research contents:

- Determine the chemical composition of durian seed flour (DSF)

- Investigated the influence of DSF on the ice cream quality

3 Date of assigning the project: 18/02/2021

4 Date of finishing the project: 22/02/2021

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DISCLAIMER

We hereby declare that all researches made herein of our own knowledge are true and that all statements made in information were referred from scientific paper, research institutions, and official scholarly research articles

We hereby ensure that the statements referenced in the study had been reliable and fully cited in accordance with regulations

Ho Chi Minh City, December 22nd, 2021

Students

Pham Ngoc Bao Chau Pham Thi Thanh Nga

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The successful completion of this study would not have been possible without the support and the guidance given by many people Among them, first and foremost we would like to express our heartfelt gratitude to our supervisor, Dr Vu Tran Khanh Linh, Head of Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, HCMC University of Technology and Education, for always spending time for our problems, for her scientific advice, passion, enthusiasm, and experience If not for the motivation provided by our supervisor, this study would not be possible

We would also like to thank Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, for providing the necessary equipment for completion of this study

All the theories we applied to complete this study successfully were taught to us by the excellent panel of lecturers in our faculty Therefore, we are forever in debt with them for providing us that wisdom to accomplish this task successfully

Last but not least, we would like to express our deep thanks to our parents and friends who always encourage and help me overcome difficulties and complete this study within the deadline

Ho Chi Minh City, December 22nd, 2021

Students

Pham Ngoc Bao Chau Pham Thi Thanh Nga

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SUPERVISOR’S EVALUATION SHEET

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PRE-DEFENSE EVALUATION SHEET

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THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM

Independence – Freedom– Happiness

-

Ho Chi Minh City, December 28 th , 2021

EVALUATION SHEET OF DEFENSE COMMITTEE MEMBER

Project title: Characterization of durian seed flour and application in ice cream

Name of Defense Committee Member:

EVALUATION

1 Content and workload of the project

2 Strengths:

3 Weaknesses:

ix

4 Overall evaluation: (Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor)

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THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM

Independence – Freedom– Happiness

-

Ho Chi Minh City, December 28 th , 2021

EVALUATION SHEET OF DEFENSE COMMITTEE MEMBER

Project title: Characterization of durian seed flour and application in ice cream

Name of Defense Committee Member:

EVALUATION

1 Content and workload of the project

2 Strengths:

3 Weaknesses:

xi

4 Overall evaluation: (Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor)

xii

THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM

Independence – Freedom– Happiness

-

Ho Chi Minh City, December 28 th , 2021 EVALUATION SHEET OF DEFENSE COMMITTEE MEMBER Student name: PHAM NGOC BAO CHAU Student ID: 17116004 Major: Food Technology Project title: Characterization of durian seed flour and application in ice cream Name of Defense Committee Member: EVALUATION 1 Content and workload of the project

2 Strengths:

3 Weaknesses:

xiii

4 Overall evaluation: (Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor)

xiv

THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM

Independence – Freedom– Happiness

-

Ho Chi Minh City, December 28 th , 2021 EVALUATION SHEET OF DEFENSE COMMITTEE MEMBER Student name: PHAM THI THANH NGA Student ID: 17116022 Major: Food Technology Project title: Characterization of durian seed flour and application in ice cream Name of Defense Committee Member: EVALUATION 1 Content and workload of the project

2 Strengths:

3 Weaknesses:

xv

4 Overall evaluation: (Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor)

xvi

THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM

Independence – Freedom– Happiness

-

Ho Chi Minh City, December 28 th , 2021 EVALUATION SHEET OF DEFENSE COMMITTEE MEMBER Student name: PHAM NGOC BAO CHAU Student ID: 17116004 Major: Food Technology Project title: Characterization of durian seed flour and application in ice cream EVALUATION 1 Content and workload of the project

2 Strengths:

3 Weaknesses:

xvii

4 Overall evaluation: (Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor)

xviii

THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM

Independence – Freedom– Happiness

-

Ho Chi Minh City, December 28 th , 2021 EVALUATION SHEET OF DEFENSE COMMITTEE MEMBER Student name: PHAM THI THANH NGA Student ID: 17116022 Major: Food Technology Project title: Characterization of durian seed flour and application in ice cream EVALUATION 1 Content and workload of the project

2 Strengths:

3 Weaknesses:

xix

4 Overall evaluation: (Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor)

2.1.1.1 Chemical compositions of durian seeds: 4

2.2.3 Studies on the use of natural hydrocolloids in ice cream 13

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4.1 Chemical composition of of durian seed flour: 26 4.2 The effect of DSF on quality of ice cream mixes and hardened ice cream 27 4.2.1 The effects of durian seeds flour to ice cream on the rheological properties 27 4.2.1.1 Rheological measurements of ICM sample 27

4.2.2 Chemical composition of ice cream supplemented with DSF 31 4.2.3 Effects of DSF supplementation on the physical properties of ice cream

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2 1 The durian seeds 3

Figure 2 2 Schematic diagram of the microstructure of ice cream (Clarke et al, 2015) 11

Figure 3 1 Preparation of durian seed powder 15

Figure 3 2 Process diagram for ice-cream production 16

Figure 4 1 Plot of apparent viscosity - shear rate at 5oC of the ice cream mixes added

with different DSF concentrations 27

Figure 4 2 Plots of shear stress - shear rate at 5oC of the ice cream mixes added with

different DSF concentrations 28

Figure 4 3 Plots of frequency sweep of ICM samples with different concentrations of

DSF 30

Figure 4 4 The influence of DSF addition on the overrun 32

Figure 4 5 The influence of DSF addition on the hardness 34

Figure 4 6 The formation of hydrocolloid network from durian seed in ice cream 36

Figure 4 7 The effects of 0, 0.3, 1 % DSF concentrations on the size and distribution of

air cells (A) and ice crystals (C) in ice cream (150 and 200-times magnification) 38

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2 1 Chemical compositions of Whole durian seed (WDS) and De-hulled durian seed (DDS) (Amin et al., 2009) 4 Table 2 2 General structures of some typical gums (Bemiller, 2008;da Silva et al., 2020) 6 Table 2 3 General structures of some typical gums (Bemiller, 2008) 7 Table 2 4 Applications of gums from various origins 9 Table 3 1 Formulation of ice cream mixes containing different levels of DSF 17 Table 3 2 The parameters and methods used to determine the chemical compostion of DSF 17 Table 3 3 The parameters and methods used to determine ice cream's chemical composition 18 Table 4 1 Proximate compositions of Durian Seeds Flour 26 Table 4 2 Ostwald de Waele parameters of the ICM added with different DSF concentrations 28 Table 4 3 Characteristics of Ice Cream prepared with different concentrations of DSF 31 Table 4 4 Effect of DSF presence on the physical properties (mean values) of ice creams

in different concentrations 34

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LIST OF COMMON ACRONYMS

ANOVA: Analysis of variance

CMC: Carboxymethyl cellulose

DSF: Durian seed flour

DSS: Durian seed starch

FR: fat replacer

ICM: ice cream mix

ISO: International Organization for Standardization

RH: Relative humidity

SEM: Scanning electron microscopy

SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

TS: Total solid

UHT: Ultra – High Temperature

WDSF: Whole Durian Seed Flour

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Problem Statement/ Rationale

Ice cream is defined as a frozen food product, which includes a mixture of air, water, milk fat or non dairy fats, milk solids – not – fat (MSNF), sweeteners, stabilizers,

emulsifiers, and flavors (Clarke et al, 2015)

To the consumer, the amount of ice formed in the ice cream and the size of ice crystals are important attributes to assess the quality of ice cream It can also be known as the perception of coldness and iciness of ice cream Typically, ice cream needs to have many small ice crystals instead of fewer larger ones, and virtually uniform size to avoid the detection of consumers However, ice crystals would change in number, size, and shape during storage For instance, a rise in temperature during storage causes some of ice crystals to melt, particularly the smaller ones When the temperature decreases, water

is recrystallized, alternatively leading to the deposition of the larger crystals on the

surface of ice cream (Judith et al, 2008) Hence, the growth of ice crystals can be resulted

from heat shock or temperature cycling in frozen products during storage To avoid these phenomena, various polysaccharides such as starch, gelatin, guar gum, agar, carrageenan, and xanthan have been used to improve the heat shock stability and creaminess of ice

cream (Syed et al, 2018) These stabilizers keep ice cream smooth and reduce the growth

of ice crystals during storage time, resulting in homogeneous products and their enhanced melting resistance (Bahramparvar, 2011)

Durian (Durio zibethinus) is one of the main economic fruit crops in Vietnam and is

widely grown in the Central Highlands and the South At present, farmers can grow durian almost all year round and it can be consumed in a variety of ways from fresh fruit

to processed products such as preserved durian, frozen durian, and durian cake The edible part of durian fruit is only about 30–35% of its total weight, whereas the seeds

(20–25%) and the skin (about 50%) are usually discarded (Baraheng et al., 2019) The

use of durian seeds as alternative food products can minimize the waste generated and also increase its economic value Durian seeds contain starches (18.92%), polysaccharide

gums (20-25% w/w), dietary fibers (7.7%), proteins (3-5% w/w) and 1.09% fat (Amid et

al, 2013; Srianta et al., 2012; Liesar, G (2015)) Due to their high nutritional values and

dietary fiber content, durian seeds can be converted into flour and applied in many products such as cake, cookies, candies Moreover, durian seeds gum was used to replace

egg yolks in making vegan mayonnaise (Cornelia et al, 2015) Besides, durian seeds flour was used to replace corn flour to produce gluten - free pasta (Mirhosseini et al, 2015)

Durian seeds flour was also added to ice cream in the form of extracted gum

(Sawasdikarn et al., 2017) The results indicated that the increase of gum content from

0.0 to 0.3% added to ice cream resulted in the increase in total soluble solid content and

Hence, based on the properties of gum and starch from durian seed, it can be developed and used through the processing of ice cream production in the form of flour instead of gum extracted The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of adding DSF

as stabilizer at different concentrations (0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 1.0%) on the quality of ice cream

- Determine the chemical composition of durian seed flour (DSF)

- Investigated the influence of DSF on the ice cream quality

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CHAP 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview about durian seeds and gums

2.1.1 Overview about durian seeds

Durian (Durio zibethinus), known as the "king of fruits," is a tropical seasonal

dicotyledonous plant belonging to the Bombacaceae family and genus Durio

(Subhadrabandhu et al., 2001) According to Amin et al (2017), only approximately 30%

of durian fruit is edible, leaving the rest as waste, with seeds accounting for 20 – 25% of the total fruit The durian seeds resemble chestnuts in shape, with length and diameter ranging from 2 – 6 cm and 2 – 3 cm, respectively, with seeds that are light brown in color

(Figure 2.1) (Husin et al., 2018) Tongdan (2008) reported that the seeds are usually

typically discarded, in which, jackfruit seeds can be roasted or boiled, while durian seed

is rarely consumed In the food and beverage industry, it generates a significant amount

of waste (Mirhosseini et al., 2012)

Figure 2 1 The durian seeds

Mucilage (or gum) and starch are the two primary components of durian seeds

(Baraheng et al., 2017), which impact their properties and thus their potential

applications Gum is made up of protein with 12 distinct amino acids, combined with polysaccharides which consist of galactose (48.6 – 59.9%), glucose (37.1 – 45.1%),

arabinose (0.58 – 3.41%), and xylose (0.3 – 3.21%) (Amid et al., 2012) With aqueous extraction, durian seed gum yields around 56% of dry seed flour (Amid et al., 2012a)

Durian seeds have a high starch content and thus can be exploited as a new supply of

starch for the pharmaceutical and food sectors' raw materials (Rahayu et al., 2019)

Durian seed starch granules were morphologically comparable to rice starch granules and were generally polygonal in shape In terms of granule size, durian seed starch is

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equivalent to rice starch at ~ 4 – 5 μm However, compared to dry seed flour, extracting starch from durian flour yields a low yield of roughly 10% (Tongdang, 2008) This is

because the gum in seeds absorbs a great deal of water (Amid et al., 2012a), resulting in a

thick solution that traps starch granules and prevents them from escaping

2.1.1.1 Chemical compositions of durian seeds:

The Table 2.1 shows that all the components increased in the dehulled durian seed,

except the crude fiber content Obviously, the carbohydrate makes up a significant part of

the chemical composition of durian seeds, in which, starch content plays an important

role in pasting and gelling properties (Leemud et al., 2020) Besides, crude fiber is also one of the remarkable compositions According to Amin et al (2009), durian seed flour

can be used in food products because it is healthy and high in dietary fiber Take an example, the durian kernel is not only less grainy than whole wheat flour, but it also has a higher lipid and fiber content than wheat flour Thus, the durian seed is a healthier food

item (Kumoro et al., 2020) The protein level of durian seed flour is higher than that of other flours, such as cassava flour (Mulyati et al., 2018) Protein's ability to produce and

stabilize gels, foam, emulsions, and fibril structures contributes greatly to the physical

qualities of food (Belitz et al., 2009) The DSF's stability is improved by the low

moisture content, which inhibits mould formation while minimizing the occurrence of

biochemical reactions (Onimawo et al., 2012) Furthermore, flavonoids, alkaloids,

triterpenoid steroids, tannins, quinones, and saponins are among the secondary metabolic

substances found in durian seeds (Liu et al., 2013; Basyuni et al., 2019) These

substances also have practical benefits for the body, such as antioxidant and antibacterial

capabilities, which can help avoid degenerative diseases (Salganik, 2001; Hernández et al., 2018)

Tapia-Table 2 1 Chemical compositions of Whole durian seed (WDS) and De – hulled durian

seed (DDS) (Amin et al., 2009)

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2.1.1.2 Applications of durian seeds:

Durian seeds are one portion of the fruit that has not been fully exploited Durian seeds have hitherto only been utilized as poultry feed When there is a surplus of durian fruit during harvest, there will also be an oversupply of durian seeds, which are not extensively used by the community Because of the nature of the material and the fact that it is utilized for a long time, this untapped solid waste actually holds a lot of added value Not only that, they can be processed into alternative food items such as flour,

which has a high content and complete composition (Ningsih et al., 2020) For example,

the partial replacement of corn flour with a very low content of DSF showed a positive effect on cooking quality, and texture properties of gluten – free pasta compared with

substitution with pumpkin flour (Mirhosseini et al., 2015) Moreover, durian seed gum

has a high water and oil retention capacity (140 – 274 g water/100 g gum and 147 g

oil/100 g gum, respectively) (Amid et al., 2012a) Therefore, in food industry, gum

durian seeds were utilized as a substitute for emulsifying oil in water (o/w) on a more stable mayonnaise expected quality, throughout storage, and generate characteristics

similar to mayonnaise in general (Cornelia et al., 2015) Besides, durian seed starch

(DSS) is utilized to develop transparent, flexible, and smooth-surface biodegradable films

due to its low-cost source (Pimpa et al., 2012) As well as, when combined DDS with

glucomannan, the development of the edible coatings on tomatoes and cauliflower can help to minimize weight loss and extend the shelf life of the produce by up to 10 days

(Pimpa et al., 2020)

El – Tanboly led the first attempt in the food processing and biotechnology industries to isolate b – galactosidase from durian seeds, an enzyme with several applications in the dairy industry (milk, ice cream, yogurt, cottage cheeses and sweet

products) (El-Tanboly, 2001) Followed by Abdullah et al (2021) in the biotechnology

industries, the high carbohydrate content in durian seeds give a potential in lactic acid

fermentation using Lactobacillus plantarum bacteria It has a lot of potential for making

polylactic biodegradable and biocompatible polymer acid (PLA) PLA can be used in a wide range of applications, including packaging, textiles, and foams The use of microbial fermentation to produce lactic acid has various advantages, including high

lactic acid purity (90 – 95 %) (Abdel-Rahman et al., 2011)

In pharmaceutical area, the carbohydrate source in DSF is utilized to meet the carbohydrate needs of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (DMT-2) sufferers based on its low GI

value (10.9) compared to glucose’s GI value (100) (Ningsih et al., 2020) Durian seed

gum is isolated and characterized by SEM-EDX and infrared spectrophotometer to

investigate the gel formation as an excipient in topical drug delivery (Zebua et al., 2018)

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2.1.2 Overview about gums

Natural gums are polysaccharides, which are big molecules composed of many sugar units bound together by glycosidic bonds Gums are typically formed by higher plants as part of their defense systems in the following of injury When being hydrolyzed, they create simple sugar units such as arabinose, galactose, glucose, mannose, xylose, or

uronic acids (Rana et al., 2011) Each polysaccharide found in nature is heterogeneous in

composition They have various structural characteristics dictating their unique functional

properties such as rheological properties and solubility (Guo et al., 2017) Polysaccharide

gums are hydrophilic compounds that are water – soluble or dispersible, enhancing the

viscosity of the system (Ibañez et al., 2003) This means they have swelling properties

which are due to the entrapment of huge volumes of water between their chains and

branches (Rana et al., 2011) Besides that, polysaccharide gums are also known as

hydrocolloids, which are used as dietary fibers, texture modifiers, stabilizers, thickening, gelling agents, crystallization inhibitors, and encapsulating agents in the food and

nonfood sectors (da Silva et al., 2020) Hence, polysaccharide gums, are increasingly

being used to replace synthetic compounds due to their non-toxicity, low-cost, safety, and

extensively availability (Mirhosseini et al., 2012) Polysaccharide gums might be

categorized based on the origin, behavior and chemical structure as shown in Table 2.2

(da Silva et al., 2020)

Table 2 2 General structures of some typical gums (Bemiller, 2008;da Silva et al.,

Microbial exudates (Fermentation)

Gellan gum, Xanthan gum

Seaweed Agar gum, Alginate gum (Macrocystis

pyrifera) , Carrageenan gum

2 Gelation Cold set gels Gellan gum

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behaviour Heat set gels Konjac glucomannan

Reentrant gels (from which galactose residues are removed)

Xyloglucan

3 Chemical

structure

Galactomannans Fenugreek gum, guar gum, locust bean

gum (carub tree) Glucomannans Konjac glucomannan Uronic acid containing

2.1.2.1 Structural aspects of gums

Gums, or hydrocolloids are polymers with a high average molecular weight, ranging from 2,000 to over 2 million (for example, xanthan, konjac, guar) (Nieto, 2009) The configuration of most gums are similar with the same basic process of glycosidic linkages connecting monosaccharides; but in most situations, the structure of a specific gum is usually sufficiently distinct that it requires its own classification (Bemiller, 2008) Gums are heteropolysaccharides that are found in different structural The majority of commercially significant industrial gums are linear polymer molecules with short side groups that exist naturally or are introduced through chemical derivatization In nature, they can be saccharide units or functional groups (most often an organic or inorganic ester group) while in chemical, ester and ether derivatives can be formed Such groups are referred to as "side chains" whether they are saccharide units, ester, or ether groups Besides, gum arabic has a highly branched, branch-on-branch structure while alginate is a linear, unbranched moleculemolecules (Bemiller, 2008)

Table 2 3 General structures of some typical gums (Bemiller, 2008)

Overall structure Gums

Linear, unbranched molecules Alginates, carrageenans, curdlan

Linear molecules with short branches (side

chains)

Gellans, guar gum, konjac, glucomannans, larch arabinogalactan, locust bean (carob) gum, tara gum, xanthans

Branch-on-branch (bush-like) molecules Gum arabics

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2.1.2.2 Gums characterization

Solubility of gums: gums belong to the group of water – soluble, non – starch

polysaccharides (NPS) (Căpriţă et al., 2010) because they are polyhydroxy substances

and which are insoluble in most organic solvents (Mahmoud, 2000) Gums can be offered

as dry powders Gum particles absorb water, expand, and usually dissolve partially or completely when added to an aqueous system because polysaccharides have a strong affinity for water and hydrate rapidly (Bemiller, 2008) Hydrocolloids, the more specialized name for gums, refers to the particular way they interact with water (Nieto, 2009) But, the interaction of hydrocolloids with water molecules can diminish the dissemination rate of water molecules into the hydrocolloid network and easily induce gumballs or lumps formation The interaction rate is influenced by hydrogen

bonds, temperature as well as water cluster formation (Amid et al., 2012) According to

previous studies by Laaman (2010) and Mahmoud (2000), to completely dissolve some

of the gums with the aim of inducing the maximum viscosity, a heating process is carried out After fully dissolving in water, some hydrocolloids produce their greatest function Besides that, particle size has a significant impact on solubility This is due to the presence of smaller particles causes water to penetrate the hydrocolloid matrix in less time, resulting in better solubility (Laaman, 2010) Thus, the presence of hydroxyl groups, the type of monosaccharides, inter sugar linkages (α or β) and the capacity to

connect via intermolecular interactions all influence water solubility properties (Gorji et al., 2011)

Gum rheology: The rheological properties of hydrocolloids give useful information for defining their attributes at different conditions for the purpose of changing the texture

of food products (Sanchez Gil et al., 2014) Different circumstances such as temperature,

pH, shear rate, concentration, presence of ions and sugar all influence the rheological

characteristics of gums (Razavi et al., 2019) At low concentrations, polysaccharide gums

can impact the rheology of aqueous systems due to the viscoelastic characteristics and hydration ability of the long polysaccharide molecular chains, which enhance solution

viscosity (Sanchez Gil et al., 2014) Besides that, based on the research by Chang et al

(2017), at the same shear rate, the apparent viscosity of gums increased as the gum concentration increased It may be explained that as the mass fraction rose, the hydrogen binding force between molecules strengthened and the fluid movement resistance increased It is clear that, the polysaccharide's chemical structure, interactions, and molecular conformations have a highlighted impact on the rheological properties of gums

(Silva et al., 2020) Thus, different food gums, exhibit varying rheological behavior depending on their structure and nature in different conditions (Razavi et al., 2019)

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2.1.2.3 Gum applications

Polysaccharide gums are commonly used, due to their wide versatility, which enables them to be used in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic areas Its variety of functionalities are closely linked to its chemical structures in different processes and

products (da Silva et al., 2020) The structure – function relationship is investigated and

developed through the rheological properties This is due to the molecular structure determines the physicochemical properties, whereas the rheological properties determine the functionalities Most gums have a similar ability to gel and thicken the solution, but depending on the gum used, they impart different rheological properties to its solution Thus, certain gums have unique properties and provide specific functions superior to those in others (Bemiller, 2008)

Table 2 4 Applications of gums from various origins

Common

name

Scientific name

Thickener, emulsifier, and stabilizer in salad dressings and

sauces (Mudgil et al., 2014)

Controlling blood sugar levels and lowering the postprandial rise in blood glucose and

insulin levels (Patel et al., 2014)

Locust

bean gum

Ceratonia siliqua

Forming edible coatings to enhance the shelf life and reduce deterioration of stored fruits and

vegetables (Barak et al., 2014)

Prevention and treatment

of obesity and diabetes (FERGUSON et al.,

2005)

Reducing inflammation when incorporated with

guar gum (Barak et al.,

2014)

Gum

Arabic

Acacia senegal

Emulsifier in beverages and stabilizer foams for beer and soft

drinks (Mariana et al., 2012)

Adhesive agent in blusher and foam stabilizer in liquid soaps

gum (Viinanen et al.,

2011)

Alginate Macrocystis Improving the anti-freezing and Biomaterial for wound,

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gum pyrifera anti-aging properties in pasta

products/ Film forming properties are used as sausage casing for coating meat products

Xanthan

gum

Xanthomonas Campestris

Thickener, or emulsifier, and stabilizer water-based foods

(McArdle et al., 2011)

Suspending agents for dressings,

sauces, etc (Jindal et al., 2018)

Gelling agent, binder in

disintegrating agent, controlled drug release

Replacing gelatin and pectin in various gelatin desserts by its functional properties:

transparency, stability, water absoprtion- maintains shape and consistency for a longer period

of time./ Replacing undesired ingredients, especially fat, obtaining low-calorie foods, or satiety-enhancing products

((Iurciuc et al., 2016)

Gelling agent, tablet binder, controlled release dosage in drug delivery (Milivojevic et al.,

2019)

Blood cholesterol control, controlled release of drugs in

medical (Gonzalez et al.,

2017)

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2.2 Overview about ice cream

2.2.1 Introduction about ice cream

Ice cream is defined as a frozen food product, which includes a mixture of air, water, milk fat or non dairy fats, milk solids – not – fat (MSNF), sweeteners, stabilizers,

emulsifiers, and flavors (Clarke et al, 2015) Ice cream has a complicated

physicochemical and colloidal system consisting of many complex ingredients that can influence textural quality and physical attributes of products Ice cream typically comprises about 5% fat droplets, 30% ice crystals, 50% air bubbles, and 15% matrix

(sugar solution) by volume (Parid et al, 2021) Therefore, ice cream consists of all three

states of matter: solid as ice and fat, liquid as sugar solution and air as a gas Accordingly, ice crystals and fat droplets will be known as the solid and gas phase and the matrix as a continuous liquid phase Ice cream consists of simultaneously fat droplets (emulsion), air bubbles (foam), ice crystals (sol) and also casein micelles, other proteins

and polysaccharides as colloids in the matrix (Clarke et al, 2015)

Figure 2 2 Schematic diagram of the microstructure of ice cream (Clarke et al, 2015)

2.2.2 Ingredient composition

a Milkfat

Milkfat is an ingredient of major importance in ice cream Examples of milkfat include fresh cream, butter, butter oil, frozen cream, and condensed milk blends

Generally, the fat content is usually from 10 to 12% (Arbuckle et al, 2013) Concerning

the texture attributes, the rise in milk fat content was followed by a considerable increase

in the richness of flavor, greasy and creamy in ice cream, and decrease in meltdown, hard and coarse attributes By the partial coalescence during dynamic freezing, fat globules contribute to the stabilizing air bubble, resulting in the advantageous properties of dryness, glossy texture, and melting resistance A mix having a higher fat content will be

sweeteners or their molecular weight (Arbuckle et al, 2013; Marshall et al, 2003) For

instance, the freezing temperature of a mix with higher content of sweeteners is lower than that of a mix with lower ones Furthermore, the lower freezing temperature, the

softer the ice cream and in contrast, the ice cream will be harder (Clarke et al, 2015) The

sugars used as a source of sweetening can also affect the viscosity of the matrix and the total solid (TS) of the mix The influence of them is to enhance the body and texture of the products only if the sugar concentration does not exceed 16% or the TS concentration

does not exceed 42% (Arbuckle et al, 2013) Accordingly, the product tends to be too

soft or too dense if beyond these limits

For many years, sucrose was typically used as the main sweetener added to ice cream However, approximately 45% of the sucrose can be replaced by corn syrup solid

It helps to provide a firmer and chewier body to the ice cream

c Egg yolk solids

Egg yolk solids are highly valuable in foods but the cost of ice cream is also greatly risen by egg yolk addition Ice cream with egg yolk will impart a characteristic delicate flavor provided the egg does not have any off flavor as it can be easily noticeable by

consumers (Syed et al, 2018) Due to the existence of lecithin in a lecithin – protein

complex, egg yolk solids tend to improve the whipping ability of the product They are highly desirable in mixes where TS are lowered and prepared from such ingredients as

butter oil and butter (Arbuckle et al, 2013)

d Stabilizers

The primary purpose for utilizing stabilizers in the manufacture of ice cream is to produce smoothness and homogeneity in texture and body of finished products Stabilizers are used in small amounts to have a negligible impact on food value and flavor The amount of stabilizers used in ice cream is in the range 0 – 0.5%, while 0.2 to

0.3% seems most desirable (Marshall et al, 2003) Various stabilizing gums including

gelatin, guar gum, agar, carrageenan, locust bean gum, and xanthan have been used as additives to prevent the ice and lactose crystal growth when storing, shipping and

handling of ice cream According to Arbuckle et al (2013), the excessive use of

stabilizers may result disadvantages in finished products They consist of undesirable