iii ABSTRACT This study investigates the effects of extensive reading on EFL students’ reading proficiency, vocabulary acquisition and students’s attitude towards reading at Ton Duc Tha
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
Reading plays a significant role in language teaching and learning It is also a pivotal tool in different fields and indispensable means of communication in an ever-evolving world Without reading, it is really hard to become successful in this world According to Lee (1987), reading comprehension makes the presentation of grammatical structure and vocabulary become easier thanks to the context that is provided in reading texts Omaggio (1993) also stated that the use of authentic materials makes reading comprehension crucial in communicative classroom It provides learners with linguistic input, such as ideas, vocabulary, structures that are crucial to the achievement of speaking and writing skill Moreover, according to the findings of research, there is a strong correlation between reading and academic success, which means proficient readers tend to perform better in school than less proficient ones In addition, reading helps to develop critical thinking, which leads to a successful professional career (Bakir, 2004)
Vocabulary is a crucial aspect of effective communication and overall success, as evidenced by research from Pikulski and Templetion (2004), who highlight its strong link to achievement and management skills A limited vocabulary can indicate linguistic imperfection and hinder expression (Ahoari & Farrokhi, 2014) Wilkins (1972) emphasizes the foundational role of vocabulary, stating, “without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed,” highlighting its importance in language mastery Additionally, Rubin and Thompson (1994) stress that “one cannot speak, read or write a foreign language without knowing a lot of words,” underscoring vocabulary’s central role in learning a new language.
Reading and vocabulary share a mutually reinforcing relationship, where vocabulary is essential for effective text comprehension, and reading exposure helps expand word knowledge Limited vocabulary knowledge has been identified as a major obstacle to reading comprehension (Cromley & Azevedo, 2007), and enhancing vocabulary is a common intervention to improve reading skills (Beck, Perfetti & McKeown, 1982) Numerous studies demonstrate that individuals with well-developed vocabulary tend to exhibit higher reading proficiency, highlighting the importance of vocabulary development for overall reading success.
Extensive reading significantly enhances students’ reading proficiency and vocabulary skills in foreign and second language learning Research by Anderson et al (1988) confirms that engaging in extensive reading leads to notable improvements in vocabulary knowledge and overall reading abilities Given these proven benefits, educators should prioritize incorporating extensive reading strategies into their language instruction to foster better language acquisition.
Immersion in the target language is essential for enhancing language knowledge, with extensive reading (ER) playing a crucial role in second language and foreign language curricula (Nuttall, 1982; Day & Bamford, 2004) ER not only improves reading skills but also enhances overall language proficiency, including spelling, grammar, vocabulary, and writing abilities (Schmitt, 2000) Motivation and positive attitudes towards language learning are often fostered through ER, as students experience improvements in reading and writing skills (Nishino, 2007) Additionally, ER increases reading speed and overall language competence, with repeated exposure to vocabulary in context significantly supporting vocabulary acquisition (Bell, 2001; Gatbonton & Segalowitz, 2005).
Statement of the problem
Reading is essential because written texts offer richer vocabulary compared to spoken language and provide important context for understanding words (Nation, 2001) Vocabulary knowledge is crucial for comprehending texts and mastering a foreign language As an indispensable means of communication in today’s evolving world, reading plays a vital role in language acquisition, with vocabulary being the most important factor Despite their significance, many students struggle to read English texts and learn vocabulary effectively due to various challenges.
Many ESL/EFL learners struggle with slow reading, which is often linked to classroom methodologies like intensive reading that prioritize language development over reading comprehension (Hamp-Lyons, 1983; Cooper, 1984; Nuttall, 1982; Alderson & Urquhart, 1984) Intensive reading typically uses texts to focus on grammatical structures rather than fostering actual reading skills, leading to limited reading fluency (Bartram & Parry, 1989; Hyland, 1990; Susser & Robb, 1990) Despite some teachers overestimating its effectiveness in creating fluent readers, intensive reading mainly aims to help students extract detailed meanings, improve vocabulary, and develop grammatical knowledge (Day & Bamford) As Day and Bamford emphasize, this approach builds skilled readers in language analysis but does not necessarily produce fluent, skilled readers in real-world reading contexts.
Although vocabulary acquisition is highly important, the most effective methods remain unclear due to various influencing factors (de Groot, 2006) This ambiguity often leads to confusion among both teachers and students, particularly because the strategies outlined in textbooks and syllabuses are not always practically implemented or prioritized in language learning.
Regarding Ton Duc Thang University, non-majored students have to take a 75- period course of English for general purposes Students mainly learn how to answer reading comprehension questions properly, study the language knowledge focusing on isolated vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation In addition, students at Ton Duc Thang University usually put equal importance on each word and use their syntactic knowledge to understand the sentence They read the text really slowly and struggle to understand the whole message (Kitao, Nozawa & Yamamoto, 1985) They tend to read word by word and read from the beginning to the end without paying attention to title or making predictions before reading When exposing to a new word, they usually try to look up the dictionary for its meaning Even the familiar words may make them confused because it is used in a different context
Research indicates that extensive reading significantly improves students’ reading proficiency and vocabulary development in second language learning (Anderson et al., 1988) Despite its benefits, many Vietnamese teachers hesitate to incorporate extensive reading into the curriculum due to concerns about students’ motivation to read outside the classroom Takase (2007) recommends making extensive reading activities compulsory in class to foster student engagement, which can encourage continued reading beyond the classroom This study examines the impact of extensive reading on students’ reading comprehension and vocabulary at Ton Duc Thang University (TDTU).
Purposes of the study
This study was conducted because numerous studies claim that extensive reading has a positive effect on ESL/EFL learners, but this approach is not widely applied in classroom environments in Vietnam This study aims to compare an extensive reading class and an intensive reading class at Ton Duc Thang University in order to figure out which class performs better in terms of reading, vocabulary and reading attitude The findings of this study will help teachers to create an effective learning environment by raising students’ interest in reading and improve their reading proficiency as well as vocabulary acquisition The purpose of this research includes:
(1) Measure the impact of extensive reading on EFL students’ reading proficiency
(2) Testify the effect of extensive reading on vocabulary acquisition
Research Questions
The research is conducted to answer these 3 questions:
1 What is the effect of extensive reading on students’ reading performance?
2 What are the students’ attitudes towards extensive reading?
Hypothesis of the study
In line with the aforementioned research question, the following hypothesis has been formulated:
Vietnamese EFL students at Ton Duc Thang University are expected to achieve greater success in reading comprehension and vocabulary development through targeted learning strategies Their motivation to read is likely to increase as a result of these effective approaches Compared to students who engage solely in intensive reading, those participating in diversified learning methods demonstrate improved language skills and a stronger desire to explore English texts Ultimately, implementing comprehensive reading programs can enhance both proficiency and enthusiasm among Vietnamese EFL learners at Ton Duc Thang University.
The significance of the study
At TDTU, intensive reading (IR) is adopted as the primary reading instruction approach, emphasizing language learning over reading fluency This method encourages students to focus on individual words, which may limit their overall comprehension and ability to grasp the broader context of the text.
Students primarily focus on deliberate vocabulary learning by memorizing the meanings of new words taught by teachers However, a lack of understanding regarding how these words function and are used in context can lead to hesitation when applying them in specific situations Developing contextual understanding is essential for students to effectively incorporate new vocabulary into their language use.
Therefore, the study of ER is conducted with the aim of addressing these issues ER can be essential and beneficial in many different aspects
Electronic reading (ER) is an effective tool for establishing good reading habits among students By offering a diverse and abundant selection of reading materials tailored to various tastes and levels, ER encourages learners to engage with content that interests them Exposure to stories that match students’ needs increases their enjoyment of reading, fostering a long-lasting reading habit Additionally, ER supplies ample reading input, which supports the development of reading frequency and overall literacy skills.
ER enhances the teacher-student and peer-to-peer relationships by fostering meaningful interaction through story-reading activities These activities create valuable opportunities for students and teachers to discuss reading materials, promoting engagement and communication Additionally, reading assessment tasks like reading diaries, reading aloud, and group discussions encourage active student participation, improving reading comprehension and fostering a collaborative learning environment.
Vocabulary acquisition is enhanced through repeated exposure to words within meaningful contexts, as highlighted by Gatbonton and Segalowitz (2005) Language learning strategies such as Extensive Reading (ER) provide valuable opportunities for learners to encounter target language meanings and forms naturally Conversely, Intensive Reading (IR) focuses on processing vocabulary and improving reading comprehension skills These approaches collectively support effective vocabulary development and deeper linguistic understanding.
With the values of ER listed above, it is essential to integrate ER in teaching and learning at classes at Ton Duc Thang University.
Scope of the study
The scope of the study is defined as an investigation into the effectiveness of
Overview of thesis chapter
This research consists of five chapters:
Chapter 1 includes the background of the study, statement of problems, purposes of the study, research questions, hypothesis of study, significance of study and scope of study
Chapter 2 gives theoretical background for the research and points out research gap by reviewing previous studies related to reading, vocabulary and attitude towards ER
Chapter 3 provides the research methodology for the study, including research context, participants, research design, instructional design, measurement instruments, method analysis and validity and reliability measurement
Chapter 4 presents the findings of the study and discussions of the findings Chapter 5 summarizes the main findings of the study and presents limitations Also, the chapter gives some recommendations for further research and implementations for further practices.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Reading skill
According to Lynch & Hudson (1991), reading is the most important skill in the academic context, highlighting its significance for student success Therefore, it is essential for educators to understand and apply various teaching approaches to enhance reading instruction Utilizing diverse strategies can improve students' reading skills and overall academic performance Teachers' awareness of effective methods ensures a more engaging and effective learning environment for learners.
Reading is a complex cognitive activity involving the recognition, interpretation, and perception of written or printed materials, essential for acquiring information (Alfassi, 2004; Zhang, 1993) It plays a crucial role across all professional fields and is a fundamental means of communication in an ever-changing world Effective reading skills are vital for enhancing communication, expanding job opportunities, and enabling students to learn and extract meaningful knowledge from texts.
Reading comprehension involves understanding and processing written information, including identifying main ideas, emotions, and the author’s purpose (Kavcar, Oguzkan & Sever, 1994) It is a crucial skill for effective communication and is categorized into intensive and extensive reading based on purpose and attention level Intensive reading focuses on careful analysis to enhance comprehension, grammar, and vocabulary skills, whereas extensive reading aims to foster enjoyment and motivation through reading for pleasure Although intensive reading is widely practiced in Vietnamese schools, extensive reading often receives insufficient attention or is incorrectly implemented.
Reading attitude, as defined by Yamashita (2007), encompasses three key components: cognitive, affective, and coactive The cognitive component involves personal beliefs about the nature and value of reading, while the affective component relates to feelings and emotions associated with reading The coactive component reflects an individual’s willingness to take action toward reading These components are shaped by past reading experiences and influence the likelihood of continued reading in the future (Mathewson, 2004) Additionally, McKenna (2001) highlights that reading attitudes are connected to attitudes toward competing activities, which can impact reading habits A positive reading attitude is strongly associated with frequent reading, higher reading achievement, and lifelong reading engagement (Mori, 2004; Logan & Johnston, 2009), emphasizing the importance of nurturing positive attitudes to promote ongoing reading behavior.
A reading model is a theory of exploring readers’ thought while reading and trying to understand a text (Davies, 1995, cited in Skudiene, 2002, p.59) In other words, reading model can explain reader’s reading behavior
The bottom-up reading process involves decoding individual letters and words, then combining these elements to derive meaning, focusing on the text from part to whole According to Grough (1972), this model emphasizes linguistic clues, progressing from letter to sound, to words, and finally to meaning, which fosters literal comprehension but can cause information overload due to the need to memorize numerous separate pieces without higher-order connections Despite its limitations, the bottom-up approach remains popular in classroom settings and is often employed during post-reading instruction However, Skudiene (2002) argues that bottom-up models are less beneficial for high-proficiency learners, as they can automatically decode graphical input without relying heavily on such processes.
Unlike bottom-up model, top down model is considered as concept-driven reading process, arose by Goodman (1971) and Smith (1971) According to Paran
The top-down model, introduced in 1996, emphasizes the importance of socio-cultural knowledge and suggests that reading comprehension proceeds from the whole to the part, relying on the reader’s prior knowledge Top-down processing enables readers to activate their world knowledge to facilitate understanding of the text, making predictions that reduce dependence on the actual text for confirmation (Goodman, 1971) Research by Skudienne (2002) indicates that top-down models are most effective during pre-reading and while-reading activities However, these models may not be suitable for beginner or elementary-level learners, as Carrell and Eisterhold (1983) suggest that effective top-down processing typically requires familiarity with at least 5,000 words.
This innovative model is designed to address the limitations of both bottom-up and top-down approaches in learning According to Eskey (1988), it emphasizes continuous interaction between bottom-up and top-down processing skills, fostering a more integrated and effective learning process.
The interactive reading approach combines both bottom-up and top-down strategies (Clapham, 1996), emphasizing their equal importance in effective reading instruction According to Horiba (1993), readers use bottom-up processing to extract information directly from the text and top-down processing to apply background knowledge and schemas, enabling a deeper understanding of both the text and individual words This integrated method highlights how combining these processing styles enhances reading comprehension and learning outcomes.
A reading strategy is a process of employing different actions to form meaning, as defined by Gardner (1987), while Olshavsky (1977) describes reading strategies as methods for understanding a writer’s intention Barnett (1989) highlights that reading is an interactive series of actions involving both top-down and bottom-up approaches, making the use of appropriate strategies essential for improving reading comprehension Strategies refer to how readers approach a text to understand its content, involving various skills and techniques The article will explore three key types of strategies: cognitive, metacognitive, and compensation strategies, which are crucial for effective reading.
Cognitive strategies, as defined by Chamot and Kupper (1989), are methods learners use to process and manage learning materials to complete tasks effectively Windstead (2004) emphasizes that cognitive strategies focus on the learner’s approach, considering factors such as the learning environment, prior knowledge, and intrinsic motivation to enhance information processing through both cognitive and metacognitive techniques These strategies include making predictions based on prior knowledge, recognizing text organization patterns, self-questioning, summarizing, note-taking, translating, inferencing, and transferring knowledge (Chamot & Kupper, 1989; Numrich, 1989; Oxford, 1990) They are crucial for academic success and are broadly categorized into three main types: rehearsal, elaboration, and organizational strategies Incorporating these strategies can significantly improve learning efficiency and academic performance.
Rehearsal strategies include underlining the text, saying a word or phrase aloud, or using a mnemonic These strategies help students to choose and memorize important information
Elaboration strategies involve paraphrasing or summarizing the material, making comparisons, taking notes, giving an idea explanation to others, inquiring and responding to the text
Organizational strategies consists of selecting the key information, drawing out what to be learned, and employing various techniques to select and organize the information in the material
Exploiting metacognitive knowledge and strategies significantly enhances students' reading performance by fostering awareness and self-regulation of the learning process According to Chamot and Kupper (1989), metacognitive strategies encompass thinking about learning, planning, monitoring progress, and evaluating understanding, which are essential for effective comprehension Pintrich (1999) outlines three key stages of metacognitive strategies: planning, monitoring, and regulating, all of which contribute to improved reading skills and academic success.
Effective planning activities, such as goal setting, pre-reading, skimming texts, and proposing questions, are essential for enhancing learners' comprehension These strategies help students activate prior knowledge and employ cognitive techniques, making it easier to understand the text and its organization Incorporating goal-oriented planning into study routines improves overall reading comprehension and supports more efficient learning.
Monitoring activities include keeping track of attention during text reading and self-testing by answering questions to check for understanding (Pintrich, 1999)
Regulatory strategies play a crucial role in supporting the monitoring process during learning, as they help students track their progress toward specific goals or criteria According to Pintrich, these strategies remind students to stay focused and achieve their learning objectives by raising questions about comprehension, slowing reading pace when encountering challenging tasks, revising study materials, and postponing difficult questions Research by Carrell (1989), Pintrich (1999), and Whyte (1993) indicates that regulatory strategies significantly enhance second and foreign language reading skills by enabling learners to adjust their behaviors, overcome comprehension challenges, and improve overall language proficiency Incorporating these strategies into language learning can lead to better understanding and more effective study habits.
Students often struggle with unfamiliar vocabulary and concepts that hinder their comprehension of texts (Zhang, 1993) To address this, teaching active compensation strategies can help students predict the meanings of unknown words effectively (Oxford, 1990; Sinatra & Dowd, 1992) Sinatra and Dowd (1992) propose a comprehension framework that emphasizes the use of context clues, including syntactic clues related to grammatical structures and semantic clues involving intra- and inter-sentence meaning relationships They highlight the importance of recognizing how writers use specific structures and identifying semantic hints—such as restatements, examples, and summaries—to infer new word meanings.
This article discusses 10 compensation strategies for improved reading comprehension, divided into two main categories: linguistic clues and contextual clues Linguistic clues involve analyzing suffixes, prefixes, and word order to infer meanings, while contextual clues utilize text structure elements such as introductions, summaries, conclusions, titles, transitions, and general background knowledge These skills are crucial for helping students overcome vocabulary limitations and enhance their ability to guess the main theme of a reading text Developing these strategies can significantly improve reading speed and efficiency, as supported by studies from Winstead (2004) and Zhang (1992, 1993) Incorporating these techniques into language learning can lead to more effective reading comprehension and overall academic success.
Extensive Reading
Extensive reading, as defined by Bright & McGregor (1997), involves reading a large volume of materials in the target language over a specific period, focusing on reading for pleasure (Day & Bamford, 1998) This approach exposes learners to a variety of texts that match their linguistic abilities, aiming to enhance reading skills rather than serve academic purposes (Extensive Reading Guide, 2011) It helps develop good reading habits, expand vocabulary and understanding of language structures, and foster students’ interest in reading (Richards & Schmidt, 2002) According to Frank Smith (1988), people learn to read by reading extensively, and numerous studies support that developing reading fluency is most effectively achieved through extensive reading.
Extensive Reading should be taught following Day and Bramford’s (2002)
“Top Ten Principles for Teaching Extensive Reading” Reading material is suitable with learners’ level of language proficiency, reading is individual and silent, and reading is for enjoyment
2.2.2 Ten Principles for teaching ER
Ten principles is offered for teaching extensive reading as a tool for professional development (Day, R & Bamford, J., 2002) These are considered as the basic characteristics of extensive reading
1) The reading material is easy
To achieve optimal reading comprehension, texts must align with the learner's proficiency level Hu and Nation (2000) emphasize that knowing 98% of the words in a text is essential for understanding independently Easier materials enable beginners to perform better, as they can read autonomously (1991: 8) Additionally, selecting simple texts helps keep students more engaged in reading, enhancing overall learning effectiveness.
2) A variety of reading material on numerous topics must be available Lots of reading material on different topics can satisfy students’ interest and purpose They can easily find the books/topics they are interested in, which stimulate their reading Moreover, it also allows students to apply different approach to reading depending on the type of texts they are exposing
3) Learners choose what they want to read
According to this principle, leaners are free to select reading material and encouraged to cease reading when the text is too difficult for them to understand
4) Learners read as much as possible
To develop strong reading skills, students should focus on reading large quantities of material, aiming to read at least one book per week Engaging in extensive reading helps build a solid reading habit, which is essential for improving comprehension and vocabulary Consistent reading not only broadens knowledge but also fosters a lifelong love for learning, making it a key factor in acquiring effective reading abilities.
5) The purpose of reading is usually related to pleasure, information and general understanding
Extensive Reading (ER) encourages learners to read like first-language readers, focusing on purpose and enjoyment rather than just comprehension The primary goal of ER is to provide personal reading experience and spark interest, rather than achieving 100% understanding Learners aim to gain enough understanding to meet specific goals, such as gathering information, enjoying a story, or passing time, making ER an enjoyable and purposeful approach to language learning.
6) Reading is its own reward
Extensive reading aims to enhance students' reading experience and enjoyment without focusing on comprehension questions Instead, teachers can implement check-up activities to assess students’ understanding, attitudes towards reading, and the volume of texts they engage with These activities also foster opportunities for sharing personal experiences and connecting reading to other curriculum areas Popular tasks include writing about favorite characters, reflecting on the best or worst books read, or performing dramatic readings of exciting scenes, all of which boost students' motivation and engagement in reading.
7) Reading speed is usually faster rather than slower
Choosing reading materials that align with learners' linguistic abilities and serve personal enjoyment or general purposes, rather than academic needs, promotes more fluent reading According to Nuttall (1996), reading rate, enjoyment, and comprehension are interconnected; weak readers tend to read slowly, show little interest, and spend less time reading, while strong readers read faster, understand better, and enjoy reading more To enhance reading fluency, students should avoid frequent dictionary use for new words and instead employ strategies like guessing unknown words, focusing on overall meaning, and becoming comfortable with some level of ambiguity.
8) Reading is individual and silent
Extensive reading is a personal interaction with the text, and allows readers to read at their own pace They are free to choose when and where to read by themselves
9) Teachers orient and guide their students
High-level students may find easy reading materials boring and become demotivated, so teachers should guide them to see how accessible and engaging texts can enhance their reading skills Explaining that extensive reading (ER) not only improves reading proficiency but also boosts overall language development can motivate students to engage more actively Teachers can reassure students that partial understanding during reading is acceptable for most purposes, encouraging them to select topics that interest them to foster motivation Additionally, incorporating activities focused on students’ personal experiences, rather than traditional tests, can deepen comprehension and make reading more meaningful.
The final element of orientation is practical, involving exposure to reading materials at various difficulty levels to help students select texts suited to their abilities Teachers play a crucial role in assisting students to find appropriate materials, especially those who struggle with searching independently During extensive reading sessions, teachers should monitor students’ reading habits, including what they read, how much they read, and their reactions to the material This information enables teachers to motivate students to read more and provide tailored support to improve their reading skills.
10) The teacher is a role model of a reader
According to Nuttal (1996), reading occurs when individuals see or hear others engaging in reading rather than through direct instruction Maley emphasizes the significant influence teachers have on students, who not only learn academic content but also model teachers' attitudes and behaviors towards reading, often memorizing these behaviors even after leaving the classroom (1999) Therefore, teachers should exemplify designated reading practices and demonstrate a positive attitude toward reading to serve as role models Henry highlights that teachers involved in extensive reading should also read the same materials as their students, fostering a shared experience, which encourages discussion and helps both teachers and students discover the enjoyment and value of reading together.
2.2.3 Purposes and benefits of extensive reading
Extensive reading aims to expose students to diverse genres and topics, fostering their interest in reading and promoting reading autonomy By encouraging students to take responsibility for their own reading, rather than completing follow-up exercises, extensive reading enhances learner engagement This approach offers numerous benefits, including improving language skills, increasing vocabulary, and developing a lifelong reading habit Incorporating extensive reading into language learning strategies can significantly boost learner motivation and overall reading proficiency.
Extensive reading has been shown to significantly improve reading speeds and reduce the negative effects of slow, intensive reading approaches (Light, 1970) It helps students develop good reading habits and fosters positive feelings towards reading, increasing motivation and engagement (Mason & Krashen, 1997) Learners become eager to read and develop a focus on understanding the general meaning, often skipping unfamiliar details to grasp the overall message instead of analyzing every word meticulously (Day & Bamford, 2000).
Extensive reading is a pedagogically efficient approach that significantly contributes to vocabulary acquisition and reading development (Huckin & Coady, 1999) It positively influences learners' reading attitudes and encourages repeated exposure to interesting, meaningful L1/L2 reading materials, leading to improvements in reading rate, comprehension, and vocabulary (Asraf & Ahmad, 2003; Davis, 1995; Ellis, 1995; Elley, 2000; Elley & Mangubhai, 1983; Hitosugi & Day, 2004; Kirin, Poolsap, & Plongthong, 2012; Mason & Krashen, 1997; Yamashita, 2008) Additionally, extensive reading fosters learner autonomy, making reading more engaging and motivating, while providing more opportunities to encounter words in varied contexts (Thornbury, 2002) It also helps learners develop vocabulary recognition by memory without conscious effort to discover meanings, leading to substantial vocabulary growth (Coady, 1997; Nagy, Herman, & Anderson, 1985; Nation & Coady, 1988) Research by Hayashi (1999) supports these findings, confirming the effectiveness of extensive reading in language learning.
Krashen’s (1985) Input Hypothesis emphasizes the importance of providing comprehensible input for effective language acquisition The concept of lowering the affective barrier has been linked to improved language learning outcomes, highlighting the role of a positive emotional climate Additionally, research by Elley indicates that extensive reading significantly enhances learners' vocabulary development, reinforcing the connection between exposure to comprehensible input and successful language acquisition.
(1991), children who read extensively seem to learn incidentally, and have positive attitudes towards books when immersed in meaningful text
Extensive reading has been shown to positively impact vocabulary development and overall second language proficiency A study by Cho and Krashen (1994) demonstrated that Korean immigrants in the U.S experienced significant improvements in vocabulary after reading 8 to 23 books, despite initial disinterest in reading English Additionally, Yamashita (2008) explored the broader effects of extensive reading on various aspects of foreign language ability, further confirming its benefits.
Theoretical framework of vocabulary
Vocabulary encompasses the knowledge of words and their meanings, playing a crucial role in mastering a foreign language and enhancing reading comprehension A sufficient vocabulary is essential for effective communication, as understanding most words within a text directly impacts comprehension, with text difficulty predicted by the number of complex words (Anderson & Freebody, 1981) However, acquiring vocabulary involves more than just partial knowledge; in-depth understanding is necessary, yet many vocabulary instruction methods often fail to improve reading comprehension (Mezynski, 1983; Pearson & Gallagher, 1983; Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986) Word inference skills are vital for developing vocabulary, especially when encountering unfamiliar words in texts, highlighting that vocabulary development depends heavily on reading practice (Nagy, Anderson, & Herman, 1987) Effective vocabulary instruction must be complemented by reading skills, as failing to identify words or lacking sufficient vocabulary can hinder literacy success; the National Reading Panel emphasizes that targeted vocabulary instruction is essential for reading development.
be direct for a specific context (Nagy & Judith, 2000)
encounter vocabulary items many times (Stahl, 2005)
include vocabulary words that the learners will find useful in many contexts
restructure vocabulary tasks as necessary
involve active engagement which goes beyond definitional knowledge so that vocabulary learning is effective
use computer technology effectively to help teach vocabulary
cover multiple vocabulary instruction methods, which may result in optimal learning (NICHD, 2000)
Many assume that word meaning is the most crucial aspect of language learning, often undervaluing the importance of form elements Research indicates that L2 learners frequently struggle with word form recognition, with Laufer (1988) highlighting that students often confuse words with similar forms The most challenging pairs are those differing only by suffixes, such as "comprehensible" and "comprehensive," or by vowels, like "adopt" and "adapt," emphasizing the importance of focusing on morphological and phonological features for effective vocabulary acquisition and language proficiency.
Mis-analyzed word forms can lead to misinterpretation, as exemplified by "outline" being mistaken for "out of line" (Laufer, 1984) Similar confusing pairs in L2 include words like "pool," "polo," "pollen," "pole," "pall," and "pill" (Grainger & Dijkstra, 1992) According to Bogaards (2001), the form of lexical items supports vocabulary development, especially in learning multiple senses of polysemous words Therefore, both word form and meaning are crucial for effective vocabulary acquisition.
L1 significantly influences L2 vocabulary learning and use, impacting the process in various ways (Swan, 1997) Psycholinguistic research shows that L1 remains active during L2 lexical processing for both beginners and advanced learners (Hall, 2002; Jiang, 2002; Sunderman & Kroll, 2006) When acquiring new L2 words, learners initially link the new form to their internal representation of the corresponding L1 word, facilitating the formation of the form-meaning connection (Hall).
2002), so an L1 translation is a natural vehicle for achieving this, such as with L2- L1 word cards At the initial stage of learning a language, learners tend not to absorb much contextualized knowledge, so using the L1 to establish initial meaning is beneficial However, the exposure of new lexical item in L2 contexts is essential to improve contextual word knowledge at next stages In other words, using L1 to study vocabulary may be appropriate at some stages, but not others Thus, different teaching methods should be sued at different stages of vocabulary learning
Moreover, it is believed that the higher frequency of exposing to a new word will lead to the higher likeliness of studying it According to Craik and Lockhart’s
(1972) Depth/Levels of Processing Hypothesis, if an item is given more attention and more manipulation, it is more likely to be remembered Hulstijin and Laufer
According to 2001, the vocabulary learning process involves three key components: need, search, and evaluation Need refers to the desire to complete a task, such as understanding a passage by knowing a specific word Search involves actively seeking information, like consulting a dictionary to find the meaning of that word Evaluation is the process of determining and choosing the most appropriate meaning that fits the context.
Effective vocabulary acquisition depends on multiple factors, including well-designed learning materials that facilitate incidental vocabulary learning, as emphasized by Hulstinjin and Laufer’s Involvement Load Hypothesis Additionally, students’ motivation and positive attitudes are crucial, as engaging content alone cannot enhance learning if students lack interest Strategic learning behaviors and self-regulation also play a vital role, encouraging students to actively participate and utilize effective vocabulary strategies Ultimately, considering these key factors—material quality, motivation, attitude, and strategic behavior—is essential to support successful vocabulary development in learners.
more attention given on the lexical item
increased noticing of the lexical item
more willing to learn the lexical item
required to learn the lexical item (by teacher, test, syllabus)
a need to learn/use the lexical item (for task or for a personal goal)
increased manipulation of the lexical item and its properties
more time allocation on the lexical item
amount of interaction spend on the lexical item
Frequent exposure, attentive engagement, and extended focus on lexical items significantly enhance vocabulary acquisition Research by Mason and Krashen (2004) also confirms that increased testing frequency improves vocabulary performance, highlighting the importance of consistent practice and assessment for effective language learning.
Learning words in phrases is a crucial aspect often overlooked in language acquisition While much research emphasizes individual vocabulary, phrasal vocabulary is highly prevalent in everyday language (Wray, 2002) It serves various functions, such as conveying nuanced messages like "beat around the bush" to avoid directness, or declining invitations with phrases like "I’m sorry, but." Additionally, mastering phrasal expressions is essential for achieving fluency in speaking and writing (Wood, 2006; Kuiper, 2004) Due to its significance, experts like Michael Lewis and colleagues have highlighted the importance of incorporating phrasal vocabulary into language learning strategies (Lewis et al., 1993).
According to 2000, integrating phrasal vocabulary into language teaching methodologies is essential for effective learning Boers et al (2006) found that learners who develop awareness of phrasal vocabulary through listening and reading tend to demonstrate greater speaking proficiency than those taught using traditional grammar-lexis approaches Emphasizing the importance of context-rich input, these findings highlight the benefits of focusing on phrasal vocabulary to improve overall language proficiency.
Vocabulary learning is divided into two types, known as deliberate learning and incidental learning Deliberate learning is the approach of focusing on learning vocabulary in a straight line, including conscious vocabulary learning strategies and means of memorizing words The current teaching mainly focuses on learning based on meaning, where language characteristics are acquired by using them rather than by explicit focus, but with the support of language forms (e.g explicit grammar teaching) when necessary (e.g Doughty and Williams, 1998) However, there are strong arguments for including explicit vocabulary teaching:
Learners who grasp an understanding in the whole message often skip the precise meaning of separate words
Meaning prediction based on the context is often inexact, especially if 98% of words is not known
Incidental learning plays a significant role in extensive reading, which is primarily aimed at reading for pleasure This approach involves acquiring vocabulary naturally through engaging in tasks and activities that are not explicitly focused on language learning By emphasizing enjoyment and motivation, incidental learning during extensive reading enhances vocabulary acquisition seamlessly and effectively.
Incidental learning is essential to consolidate and strengthen knowledge of lexical items Despite the disappointing result, early research on vocabulary acquisition from incidental learning is blamed for methodological weaknesses, lack of control of text difficulty, small numbers of target words, and no delayed post- tests
2.3.4 Principles for constructing effective vocabulary learning tasks
2.3.4.1 Use activities that maximize learner engagement with target lexical items
Maximizing engagement is the most important factor in vocabulary learning
In order to raise students’ engagement, some activities are suggested:
using an on-line resource that is rich in vocabulary learning activities, involving a dictionary and a quiz feature (Horst, Cobb, & Nicolae, 2005)
using an online program, with the task of sequencing pictures to make a story or making a decision (Smith, 2004)
Translating a target word into L1, then apply in in a sentence (it works better than reading examples with L1 translation only) (Webb, 2005)
Providing students time to come up with new word forms before showing the forms to them (Barcroft, 2007)
Making students aware of the figurative language (Boers, 2000)
Retelling the text based on words and information that students already read (Joe, 1998)
Asking students to take notes words with different word knowledge and creating activities that use these words (Walters and Bozkurt, under review)
2.3.4.2 Maximize repeated exposures to target lexical items
Repeated exposure and recycling of vocabulary are crucial for effective word acquisition, with research indicating that words can be learned after five to twenty encounters Recycling helps to reinforce and consolidate previously learned vocabulary, preventing forgetfulness and ensuring long-term retention Without regular recycling, learners risk losing their vocabulary knowledge, wasting the effort invested in learning According to Nation (2001) and Baddeley (1990), incorporating systematic recycling into teaching programs is essential to combat the natural tendency to forget words once the classroom session ends, thereby enhancing vocabulary mastery.
2.3.4.3 Consider which aspects of lexical knowledge to focus upon
Vocabulary learning is a multifaceted process that involves acquiring various types of knowledge beyond just understanding meanings According to Nation (2001) and Nation and Hu (2007), a four-strand approach effectively supports vocabulary development: meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, language-focused learning, and fluency development Each of these strands is equally important in promoting comprehensive lexical proficiency and effective language acquisition.
Learning vocabulary from meaning-focused input (Listening and Reading)
Graded Readers
Graded readers are specially designed books for second language learners, featuring limited vocabulary, controlled grammar, and appropriate length to match learners’ language abilities These books reduce the number of unknown words, helping learners read successfully and enjoy the reading process Less proficient learners typically begin with the lowest level of graded readers to develop their language skills gradually.
Graded readers focus on improving reading skills and fluency by providing carefully controlled vocabulary and grammar, unlike textbooks that emphasize questions and exercises Their primary goal is to help learners reinforce previously learned language structures while enjoying the reading process To accomplish this, graded readers incorporate sufficient repetition and ensure that word difficulty matches the learner's proficiency level, making reading both effective and enjoyable.
2.4.2 Reasons for using graded readers
According to Christine Nuttall in her book *Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language* (1982), immersing oneself among native speakers is the most effective way to enhance language knowledge However, authentic texts often contain challenging vocabulary, making them more suitable for advanced learners For developing learners, graded readers are highly recommended because they are specifically adapted to different proficiency levels, facilitating effective language acquisition (Nation & Wang, 1999; Al-Homoud).
While some critics argue that graded readers are poorly written and overly simplified, David Hill (Day and Bamford, 1998) highlights a selection of well-crafted readers suitable for both teachers and learners Without graded readers, language learners lack opportunities to read comfortably and develop fluency in a second language due to the extensive vocabulary found in authentic materials According to Michael West’s *New Method Supplementary Readers* (1995), graded readers serve four key purposes: providing additional reading practice, consolidating and deepening vocabulary knowledge, and encouraging sustained language study.
This can help learners read fluently without being shocked by the amount of unfamiliar vocabulary and structures
Graded readers are ideal for extensive reading because they help learners enjoy reading by featuring simple vocabulary, minimal questions, and exercises, encouraging more reading beyond textbooks They also enhance reading fluency by providing abundant practice with easy language, enabling students to develop better reading habits and learn to understand text in meaningful chunks Additionally, graded readers offer ample comprehensible input, exposing learners to practical language use and reinforcing classroom learning through authentic examples.
Previous Studies
This section includes previous studies on the effect of ER on learner’s reading comprehension, vocabulary acquisition and their attitude towards ER, conducted in many different countries, including Vietnam
A seven-week study by DoHuy, Hull, and Tepsuriwong (2006) investigated how extended reading (ER) impacts students’ confidence in reading abilities and the use of reading strategies in Vietnam The research involved six undergraduate Computer Science students at Saigon Institute of Information Technology, who read various genres and reflected on their experiences weekly Data collection methods included questionnaires, interviews, and reflection reports Results showed that students’ motivation and time spent on extensive reading increased, along with their belief in improved reading skills across different areas Additionally, participants became more aware of metacognitive and cognitive reading strategies Despite these positive outcomes, the small sample size and short research duration highlight the need for future studies with larger samples and extended timelines.
A study on the influence of extensive reading on reading comprehension as well as their perspectives towards this approach was conducted by De Morgado
In a 2009 study involving 60 EFL scientific reading students at Universidad Simon Bolivar in Venezuela, participants were divided into control and experimental groups to assess the effectiveness of an e-learning reading (ER) program The experiment lasted from April to July 2008, with both groups following similar curricula, but the experimental group dedicated 45 minutes out of four hours weekly to ER activities The research utilized quantitative methods, including pre-tests, post-tests, and questionnaires, to evaluate improvements in reading comprehension and students' perceptions of ER Results indicated that ER significantly enhanced reading comprehension skills and increased student interest in the program, though the exclusive use of quantitative data suggests that future studies should incorporate qualitative methods for a more comprehensive understanding.
Pazhakh and Soltani (2010) investigated the impact of extensive reading on vocabulary development among EFL learners at Dehdasht Language Institute, highlighting that students who engaged in reading short stories showed significant improvement in vocabulary comprehension compared to those who only studied classroom textbooks The study involved 80 participants divided into upper-intermediate and lower-intermediate groups, with both experimental and control groups, allowing for a comparison of the effects of extensive reading Data collection included pre- and post-tests alongside semi-structured interviews, revealing that experimental learners outperformed their counterparts and demonstrated positive attitudes toward reading, which increased their motivation and vocabulary understanding The research employed both quantitative and qualitative analysis, confirming that extensive reading can effectively enhance vocabulary knowledge in EFL learners However, the study also noted that the 10-week duration was relatively short, suggesting the need for longer-term research to better assess the sustained impact of extensive reading on vocabulary development.
Chen et al (2013) investigated the impact of extensive reading on EFL university students’ reading attitude, comprehension, and vocabulary development Their study involved 89 freshmen aged 18-19, divided into an experimental group that participated in a 10-week extensive reading program and a control group that followed the traditional curriculum The research used standardized instruments, including Stokmans’s Reading Attitude Scale, TOEFL reading tests, and Schmitt et al.’s vocabulary test, administered before and after the intervention The findings showed that students engaged in extensive reading demonstrated significant improvements in reading skills, vocabulary, and a more positive reading attitude This research suggests that extensive reading enhances EFL students’ reading proficiency and motivation, although it relied solely on quantitative data without exploring students’ attitudes through qualitative methods such as interviews.
Yen-Hui (2013) conducted a study on incidental vocabulary learning through extensive reading to examine the impact of ER on word knowledge improvement
This study involved 45 first-year lower-level EFL Taiwanese students from a technological college The English reading (ER) course was conducted once weekly over a 15-week period, consisting of three 50-minute sessions each week The ER intervention was implemented in one session per week, providing consistent exposure throughout the semester Prior to the start of the treatment, all students completed a 50-minute pre-test without prior notice to establish baseline proficiency levels During the intervention, participants engaged in reading activities designed to enhance their English comprehension skills.
This study involved students completing 30 English reading texts independently, without dictionary or teacher support, along with reading comprehension exercises A post-test identical to the pre-test but with items reordered was administered four months later to measure vocabulary retention The findings revealed that after 15 weeks of engaging in extensive reading (ER), students showed a modest improvement in incidental vocabulary acquisition While ER contributed to vocabulary growth, the progress was modest It is important to note that the study solely used tests as research instruments and did not incorporate qualitative methods like interviews to assess students’ attitudes toward ER.
Alzu’bi (2014) investigated the impact of extensive reading on the language proficiency of 41 EFL students across Jordanian universities using a one-group pretest-posttest design over three semesters The study demonstrated that extensive reading significantly improved students’ vocabulary, grammar, reading comprehension, cultural knowledge, and overall linguistic competence Although the findings highlight the benefits of extensive reading, the researcher did not specify the criteria for participant selection or their initial English proficiency levels Data analysis using T-tests confirmed notable gains post-intervention, but the study relied solely on pre-test and post-test instruments.
Al-Nafisah (2015) also investigated the influence of an extensive reading program on reading comprehension of students at university There were 54 male students randomly chosen from King Saud University and equally assigned into experimental and control group The experimental group received an extensive reading treatment through three 50-minute periods a week, while the control group was taught by traditional method, including the close study of vocabulary and grammar The research was carried out within three months by using a reading test consisting of 40 multiple choice questions, which was used for both pre-test and post-test before and after the intervention According to data analysis, students who were treated by using extensive reading program method showed better achievement in reading than those who were taught through the conventional method However, in this study, all participants in this study were male, so we are not sure whether gender affects the result of the research Moreover, only test was carried out to measure the effectiveness of extensive reading, so the findings may be unreliable
Teng (2015) investigated the impact of extensive reading on EFL learners’ vocabulary development using two different instructional approaches with 46 lower-intermediate business English students The study compared an experimental group receiving extensive reading combined with output-pushed activities to a control group engaging in extensive reading alone, with both groups taking vocabulary size tests before and receptive and productive vocabulary assessments after four weeks The results indicated that while both groups showed vocabulary improvement, the group with added output activities outperformed the control group, highlighting the effectiveness of combining extensive reading with output practices The study also found that learners' initial vocabulary size influenced their vocabulary acquisition However, limitations included the short duration of four weeks and limited research instruments; incorporating interviews and questionnaires could provide a more comprehensive understanding.
Karimpour & Aidinlou (2016) studied the impact of Extensive Reading on vocabulary development among 60 Turkish-speaking students aged 8-14 across 7 classes, dividing them into experimental and control groups The experimental group engaged in extensive reading, while the control group received traditional vocabulary instruction, with both groups' language proficiency equalized using the PET test Using a quasi-experimental design with pre-test and post-test assessments analyzed through SPSS and t-tests, the study found that the experimental group achieved significantly higher vocabulary gains, indicating the effectiveness of Extensive Reading However, the research acknowledged limitations in measurement instruments and suggested incorporating tools like interviews, questionnaires, or reading diaries in future studies to better assess the effectiveness of Extensive Reading.
A study by Subramaniam & Zainal (2016) investigated the impact of extensive reading on vocabulary acquisition and students' attitudes towards reading among 14-year-old learners in a Malaysian school The research involved 30 students from a mixed ability class, who participated in a 30-minute extensive reading program outside school hours over a two-week period, with five sessions per week Using a quasi-experimental design, the study employed pre-tests, post-tests, interviews, and questionnaires to measure outcomes Results demonstrated that extensive reading significantly enhanced students’ vocabulary knowledge and positively influenced their reading attitudes However, the short duration of only two weeks suggests that further research with a longer timeframe is necessary to confirm these findings.
Suk (2017) investigated the effects of extensive reading on reading comprehension, reading speed, and vocabulary acquisition through a 15-week quasi-experimental study involving 171 Korean university students The study’s experimental group received an additional 30-minute extensive reading session alongside standard intensive reading, while the control group engaged in other activities during that time Pre- and post-intervention assessments demonstrated that extensive reading significantly improved students’ reading comprehension, reading rate, and vocabulary skills However, the study relied solely on quantitative methods and did not explore students’ attitudes or perceptions towards extensive reading through qualitative analysis.
Celik (2018) conducted a study to examine the impact of extensive reading on students' vocabulary development and sentence structure improvement The research involved 12 adult English learners at elementary and pre-intermediate levels The findings suggest that extensive reading significantly enhances learners' vocabulary and helps improve their sentence construction skills This study highlights the importance of incorporating extensive reading programs into language learning to foster better language acquisition outcomes.
The study utilized “The Coldest Place on Earth” (Vicary, 2008) as reading material and employed tests to assess students’ vocabulary, sentence structure, and pronunciation, demonstrating that such reading activities can enhance learners' understanding of word meanings, sentence types, and prepositions—highlighting differences between English and their native language However, the research has notable limitations, including a very narrow sample size with only one book and 12 male participants, which restricts the ability to generalize the findings Additionally, the study did not explore gender differences, as all participants were male, indicating a need for more diverse and comprehensive research to better understand the full impact of extensive reading on language learning.
Endris (2018) explored the impact of extensive reading (ER) on students' reading comprehension and attitudes at a secondary school, involving 92 eighth-grade students divided into experimental and control groups The study spanned two periods of 6 and 12 weeks, with the control group receiving traditional instruction and the experimental group engaging in ER activities Research tools included pre- and post-tests with passage-based questions and a questionnaire to assess students' attitudes towards ER Findings indicated minimal differences between groups after 6 weeks, but after 12 weeks, the experimental group showed significantly improved reading performance and increased motivation The study concluded that incorporating ER and motivational activities over an extended period enhances reading skills and student engagement, though it recommended future research to include qualitative methods for more comprehensive insights.
Research gap
Numerous studies have demonstrated the positive impact of Extensive Reading (ER) on students’ reading proficiency, vocabulary development, and attitudes toward reading (DoHuy, 2006; Nelly, 2009; Pazhakh & Soltani, 2010; Chen et al., 2013; Yen-Hui, 2013; Alzu’bi, 2014; Al Nafisah, 2015; Maryam, 2016; Subramaniam & Zainal, 2016; Suk, 2017; Celik, 2018; Endris, 2018; Aka, 2019; Hussein Hakeem Barzani, 2020; Thuy & Thuc, 2020; Bui & Macalister, 2021; Thanh & Vien, 2021) However, these studies also highlight existing research gaps that should be addressed in future investigations to deepen understanding of ER's full potential and implementation strategies.
Most previous studies on the effect of ER on reading and vocabulary acquisition primarily relied on quantitative methods, such as those by Chen et al (2013), Yen-Hui (2013), Al-Nafisah (2015), Teng (2015), and Maryam (2016), which limited the depth of understanding Incorporating both quantitative and qualitative approaches in this study enhances research diversity and provides a more comprehensive analysis Additionally, many earlier studies had short durations (e.g., DoHuy, Hull, & Tepsuriwong, 2006; Teng, 2015; Subramaniam & Zainal, 2016), which were insufficient to draw conclusive evidence about ER's effectiveness on language proficiency The study by Al-Nafisah highlights the need for longer-term research to establish more persuasive results.
Previous studies by (2015) and Celik (2018) involved only male participants, leaving uncertainty about gender’s impact on research outcomes Although numerous studies worldwide have examined the effect of ER on learners' reading performance, they often did not address issues such as slow reading or the effectiveness of intensive teaching approaches faced by students at TDTU To fill this gap, this study employs both quantitative and qualitative methods to investigate whether ER can help resolve the learning challenges encountered by TDTU students and to assess their attitudes toward reading.
Chapter summary
This chapter highlights the significance of integrating extensive reading (ER) into EFL teaching to enhance reading and vocabulary skills It presents a comprehensive theoretical framework covering definitions, principles, and characteristics of reading, vocabulary, graded readers, and ER Additionally, it reviews previous studies demonstrating ER’s positive impact on reading performance, vocabulary acquisition, and students’ attitudes toward reading Identifying research gaps from these studies provides the foundation for conducting this new research, aiming to advance understanding in this area.