Insights into autonomous language learning strategies at college of foreign economic relations efl learners perceptions and practices a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY ------ VO THI TU TRINH INSIGHTS INTO AUTONOMOUS LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES AT COLLEGE OF FOREIGN ECONOMIC RE

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

- -

VO THI TU TRINH

INSIGHTS INTO AUTONOMOUS LANGUAGE

LEARNING STRATEGIES AT COLLEGE OF FOREIGN

ECONOMIC RELATIONS: EFL LEARNERS’

PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES

MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL

Ho Chi Minh City, 2021

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

- -

VO THI TU TRINH

INSIGHTS INTO AUTONOMOUS LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES AT COLLEGE OF FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS: EFL LEARNERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND

PRACTICES Major: TEACHING ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES Major code: 8 140 111

MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL Supervisor: DUONG MY THAM, Ph.D.

Ho Chi Minh City, 2021

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify that the thesis entitled “Insights into Autonomous Language Learning Strategies at College of Foreign Economic Relations: EFL Learners’ Perceptions and Practices” is my original work It is based on my own research to meet the requirements for theses in Master’s Programs at Ho Chi Minh City Open University issued by the Higher Degree Committee

All sources used by me have been documented No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement

This thesis has not previously been submitted for assessment in this or any other subject

or course at this University or elsewhere

Ho Chi Minh City, 2021

VO THI TU TRINH

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, Dr Duong My Tham who has assisted me throughout the research Without her guidance, encouragement and compassion, it is impossible for me to complete this master thesis I have learned many useful things from her excellent skills and from her wide experience in research No words are adequate enough for me to express my gratitude

I am grateful to the lecturers who have taught me all subjects during my master’s studies

at Ho Chi Minh City Open University Thanks to their dedicated instructions, my knowledge related to the teaching and learning of English has been deepened and widened

I would like to express my particular gratitude to my beloved Family and my boyfriend for their unconditional love, understanding, encouragement and spiritual support over time and distance

I gratefully acknowledge the third-year non-English majors at College of Foreign Economic Relations for contributing data to this thesis

Finally, I owe a great debt of gratitude to my friend, MBA Truong Anh Tuan, for his dedication and enthusiasm for supporting me and giving me valuable advice when I encountered obstacles to completing this thesis

VO THI TU TRINH

ABSTRACT Autonomous language learning strategies (ALLSs) have been considered to significantly contribute to learners’ autonomous learning The present study aimed to investigate the College of Foreign Economic Relations (COFER) third-year non-English majors’ perceptions of the importance of ALLSs and their practices on ALLSs The mixed-methods study was conducted with the participation of 342 third-year non-English majors at COFER The quantitative data collected from the questionnaire were processed

by SPSS (26.0), whereas content analysis was employed to analyze the qualitative data obtained from the semi-structured interview The findings, in general, revealed that except for affective strategies, most of the remaining ones including memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, social strategies were thought to be significant by the large number of the students In terms of their practices on ALLSs, most of the participants utilized memory, compensation, affective and social strategies at the medium frequency Only some items in the groups of cognitive and metacognitive strategies were employed frequently by the majority of the participants Finally, it is recommended that more studies on learners’ perceptions and practices on ALLSs should be conducted

Keywords: autonomous language learning strategies, non-English majors, perceptions, practices, Vietnamese EFL context

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 2

1.3 Rationale for the Study 4

1.4 Research Objectives 6

1.5 Research Questions 7

1.6 Scope of the Study 7

1.7 Significance of the Study 7

1.8 Operational Definitions of Key Terms 8

1.9 Organization of the Study 9

1.10 Summary 10

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 11

2.1 Definition of Learner Autonomy 11

2.2 Definition of Autonomous Language Learning Strategies 12

2.3 Taxonomy of Autonomous Language Learning Strategies 13

2.4 Characteristics of Autonomous Language Learners 15

2.5 Applying Autonomous Language Learning Strategies in EFL Contexts: From Perception to Practice 15

2.6 Previous Studies 17

2.7 Research Gaps 20

2.8 Conceptual Framework 21

2.9 Summary 22

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 23

3.1 Research Design 23

3.2 Research Site and Participants 24

3.2.1 Research Site 24

3.2.2 Participants and Sampling Method 25

3.3 Instruments 29

3.3.1 Questionnaire 29

3.3.2 Semi-structured Interview 30

3.4 Pilot Study 31

3.5 Data Collection and Data Analysis Procedures 31

3.5.1 Data Collection 31

3.5.2 Data Analysis 32

3.6 Methodological Issues 33

3.6.1 Reliability 34

3.6.2 Validity 35

3.6.3 Ethics 35

3.7 Summary 36

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 37

4.1 Results 37

4.1.1 Non-English Majors’ Perceptions of the Importance of ALLSs 37

4.1.1.1 Overall Results 37

4.1.1.2 Detailed Results 38

4.1.1.2.1 Memory Strategies 38

4.1.1.2.2 Cognitive Strategies 40

4.1.1.2.3 Compensation Strategies 42

4.1.1.2.4 Metacognitive Strategies 45

4.1.1.2.5 Affective Strategies 47

4.1.1.2.6 Social Strategies 49

4.1.2 Non-English Majors’ Practices on ALLSs 52

4.1.2.1 Overall Results 52

4.1.2.2 Detailed Results 53

4.1.2.2.1 Memory Strategies 53

4.1.2.2.2 Cognitive Strategies 55

4.1.2.2.3 Compensation Strategies 57

4.1.2.2.4 Metacognitive Strategies 60

4.1.2.2.5 Affective Strategies 63

4.1.2.2.6 Social Strategies 65

4.2 Discussion of Findings 67

4.2.1 Non-English Majors’ Positive Perceptions of the Importance of ALLSs 67

4.2.2 Non-English Majors’ Moderate Use of ALLSs 69

4.3 Summary 71

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 72

5.1 Conclusions 72

5.1.1 Non-English Majors’ Perceptions of the Importance of ALLSs 72

5.1.2 Non-English Majors’ Practices on ALLSs 73

5.2 Pedagogical Implications 73

5.2.1 For Learners 73

5.2.2 For Teachers 74

5.3 Limitations 75

5.4 Recommendations for Further Studies 75

5.5 Summary 76

REFERENCES 77

APPENDICES 84

Appendix A.1: Student Questionnaire (English Version) 84

Appendix A.2: Student Questionnaire (Vietnamese Version) 90

PHIẾU KHẢO SÁT 90

Appendix B.1: Student Interview (English Version) 96

Appendix B.2: Student Interview (Vietnamese Version) 100

Appendix C.1: Reliability Indexes 105

(Students’ Perceptions of the Importance of ALLSs) 105

Appendix C.2: Reliability Indexes 111

(Students’ Practices on ALLSs) 111

LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework 22

LIST OF TABLES

Page Table 3 1: The Sample Size of the Study 26Table 3 2: Participants’ General Information 27Table 3 3: Summary of Instruments and Data Analysis in Relation to Research

Questions 33Table 3 4: Reliability Statistics on the Items Regarding the Non-English Majors’ Perceptions of the Importance of ALLSs 34Table 3 5: Reliability Statistics on the Items Regarding the Non-English Majors’ Practices on ALLSs 34Table 4 1: The Overall Mean Scores of Non-English Majors’ Perceptions of the

Importance of ALLSs 38 Table 4 2: Non-English Majors’ Perceptions of the Importance of Memory Strategies 39 Table 4 3: Non-English Majors’ Perceptions of the Importance of Cognitive Strategies 41 Table 4 4: Non-English Majors’ Perceptions of the Importance of Compensation Strategies 43 Table 4 5: Non-English Majors’ Perceptions of the Importance of Metacognitive Strategies 45 Table 4 6: Non-English Majors’ Perceptions of the Importance of Affective Strategies 48 Table 4 7: Non-English Majors’ Perceptions of the Importance of Social Strategies 50 Table 4 8: The Overall Mean Scores of Non-English Majors’ Practices on ALLSs 53 Table 4 9: Non-English Majors’ Practices on Memory Strategies 53 Table 4 10: Non-English Majors’ Practices on Cognitive Strategies 56

Table 4 11: Non-English Majors’ Practices on Compensation Strategies 58

Table 4 12: Non-English Majors’ Practices on Metacognitive Strategies 61

Table 4 13: Non-English Majors’ Practices on Affective Strategies 63

Table 4 14: Non-English Majors’ Practices on Social Strategies 65

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AEL: Autonomous English learning

ALLSs: Autonomous Language Learning Strategies

COFER: College of Foreign Economic Relations

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

LLSs: Language Learning Strategies

SILL: Strategy Inventory for Language Learning

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study

the aim of stimulating the study further as well as boosting the quality of English teaching and learning in Vietnam in order to meet the increasing trends of globalization

“Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Formal Educational System

in the Period of 2008 – 2020” Along with this is the application of the credit-based system The credit-based system training in Vietnamese higher education started from 2007–2008 academic year The Ministry of Education and Training required that up to

2015, all universities completely transfer to the credit-based system training (Tran, 2016) From 2008 to 2010, almost all universities in Vietnam officially began to transfer from

a year-based to a credit-based system

The reformation of English language teaching and learning in Vietnam, in its turn, has resulted in the modification of the curriculum in which the emphasis has been placed on learners’ role in making their own learning decisions based on their ability and learning environments The reformed curriculum also makes room for learners to conduct self-study Teachers are encouraged to develop positiveness, self-awareness, activeness,

employment of learner autonomy “the ability to take charge of one's own learning”

the research topic for many researchers in Vietnam In a broader sense, thanks to its significance in improving learners’ English proficiency level, it has become the

important milestone in the field of second language acquisition (Joshi, 2011) Alzeebaree and Yavuz (2016) stated that learner autonomy has been receiving the attention in the

journey to master foreign languages in general and English in particular is, in fact, really challenging due to the complexity and variation of languages and the teachers’ incapacity

to transmit everything essential to students in class Training students to be autonomous learners by encouraging them to develop their own learning strategies, therefore, is the compensation for the limitation of classroom time and also provides students with the high chance of success on the road of language learning and acquisition (Hammer, 2007)

In a similar vein, Cotterall (1998) mentioned that in order to be more efficient in language learning, learners need to spend time studying on their own instead of waiting

may not always be available to give assistance and students do not always receive the kind or amount of individual instruction they need Apart from that, learner autonomy is assumed to benefit learners in allowing them to work on different tasks at different times,

in giving them opportunities to choose the input and output of language information, in rising their awareness of their own learning styles, and finally in providing them with good learning strategies to help them acquire a foreign language more efficiently (Lazăr, 2013)

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Learner autonomy has been promoted across the globe and, consequently, has gained currency as a buzzword in language learning and teaching (Little, cited in Schmenk,

world Talking about learner autonomy, to some degree, appears to indicate almost universal acceptance of the concept as an important, general educational goal (Le, 2007) Nonetheless, it seems to be true that none of us can escape entirely from the cultural

assumptions and practices that have shaped us, although at the same time we might believe in the existence of human universals (Ivanovska, 2015) As a result, Sinclair et

al (2000) defined that autonomy is cultural-bounded and can be differently interpreted

birth and nurtured place of learner autonomy, this concept is thought to be somewhat as

a Western belief, thus being only related to Western cultures rather than others like Asian,

Asian students, including Vietnamese, the tendency is to favour teacher-centred teaching approaches Teachers are considered as the authority and knowledge-transmitters in the traditional classrooms It is the teacher who determines what and how to learn and what students should do is to passively listen to their teachers Students are not expected to

and created passive learners (Al Asmari, 2013) Additionally, the overly dependent

stated by Althaqafi (2017), a political perspective of learner autonomy emphasizes empowerment of learners by giving them control over the content and processes of their

traditional classrooms In fact, many students are not equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary to determine the content and learning process to help them meet their targets in learning other languages when they come to school (Nunan, 1997) and it is quite rare for learners to have enough ability to completely learn by themselves (Tran &

Vo, 2019)

Furthermore, exam-oriented education is also the core reason hindering learner autonomy Yunus and Arshad (2015) stated, it seems that the absence of nearly all autonomous learning behaviors in the traditional classroom is due to the dominance of exam-oriented education In the context of Vietnam, learning is closely associated with

examinations in which students' grammatical and lexical knowledge is mainly tested

Hoang (2010) mentioned that in teaching English in Vietnam, almost all classroom activities are done with the purposes of helping learners to pass the end-of-school and university entrance examinations into colleges or universities

and learners and that learners’ autonomous English language learning is fully facilitated

by different means of learning tools and language learning centers, many EFL learners still cannot succeed in becoming autonomous learners due to poor awareness of autonomous language learning strategies (Tran & Vo, 2019) Consequently, in order to train students to be autonomous learners, apart from the necessity of boosting their awareness of the significance of ALLSs in English language learning since learners'

their practices which means their implementation of autonomous learning strategies should also be taken into consideration As stated by Smith (2000) and Ushioda et al (2011), learner autonomy is exhibited by the amalgam of appropriate attitudes, knowledge and skills and a real performance of a sequence of practices, not just the initial and superficial awareness recognized in the mind Frankly speaking, the superficial understandings on learner autonomy are not absolutely beneficial to learners

if they cannot harmonize their perceptions with practices In other words, learners' practices on learner autonomy completely mismatch with their perceptions of this concept

1.3 Rationale for the Study

century’s changing context of English teaching The development of this concept is,

In order to improve learners’ autonomous learning, the application of ALLSs is considered extremely significant According to Williams and Burden (1997), being autonomous means that learners themselves can find their own ways of self-study, and only learning strategies can be the answer for this problem Plus, Li (2007) stated that ALLSs can effectively improve students' learning creativity, autonomous learning ability, learning efficiency as well as enhancing their enthusiasm in learning In order to highlight the significances of ALLSs, Zhao (2014) listed three beneficial aspects of ALLSs concluding (1) improving students' learning and learning effectiveness considerably by lessening learning incapacity and by raising self-confidence in learning, (2) guiding teachers’ teaching methodology more effectively by decreasing the teaching and training time, which in its turn, releasing the burden of students’ learning, and (3) being useful to new curriculum reform Finally, grasping the strategy of knowledge acquisition contributes to the grasp of more knowledge To conclude, Chamot and Kupper (cited in McDonough, 2001) revealed that successful learners use learning strategies more frequently, efficiently, and diversely than less successful students do Practically, as aforementioned, teacher-centered teaching approaches which result in students’ lack of freedom of choice and exam-oriented education are obstacles preventing learner autonomy in Asian and Vietnamese contexts These problems are also experienced by teachers and learners at College of Foreign Economic Relations (COFER) From the teacher researcher's observations and experiences, most of the COFER students, especially non-English majors are teacher-dependent Not only do they often base their teachers on their own learning decision-making, but they also hardly ever self-study or employ ALLSs outside classroom to improve their English proficiency The rationale for this weakness partly comes from the teachers themselves Some lecturers at COFER are used to their traditional role as a knowledge-transmitter in which they will decide what is going on in the classroom Chances are that, therefore, students’

freedom of choice is restricted or not fully equipped by their teachers In addition, due

to the pressure from helping learners to pass exams and from keeping up with the teaching schedule, instructors at COFER must follow the fixed syllabus which makes it almost impossible for them to guide and familiarize their students with the frequent utilization of ALLSs Consequently, although autonomous learning is not strange to COFER students, they hardly ever practice this concept

In sum, it is obviously stated that learner autonomy, particularly ALLSs brings many benefits to learners’ English language learning As a result, the author, a lecturer at COFER, would like to conduct the study in order to gain a clearer view of how important ALLSs are as perceived by COFER non-English majors or what strategies are considered significant or less crucial by them At the same time, the obstacles such as the overly dependent students or exam-oriented education facing the author and COFER non-English majors which prevent them from effective application of ALLSs were also the strong push for the researcher to administrate the present research By doing the survey

how much COFER non-English majors employed ALLSs or what strategies were frequently or less frequently used by them from which she could adjust her teaching method or familiarize her students with appropriate ALLSs to help them become autonomous learners

1.4 Research Objectives

From the rationale aforementioned, this study aimed:

1 To explore the perceptions of non- English majored students at COFER regarding the importance of ALLSs

2 To investigate the extent to which they self-assess their use of ALLSs

1.5 Research Questions

The study aims at finding the answers for the following questions:

1 What are COFER non-English majors’ perceptions of the importance of autonomous learning strategies in English language learning?

2 To what extent do COFER non-English majors self-assess they employ these autonomous learning strategies?

1.6 Scope of the Study

of 3000 non-English majors The author administrated the study at COFER which means that students from other universities and colleges in Vietnam were not included in this research Lastly, to collect quantitative and qualitative data, a closed-ended questionnaire and semi-structured interviews were utilized

1.7 Significance of the Study

The findings of the study may reveal the level of COFER students’ autonomous learning

In addition, the study may raise their awareness on the importance of employing ALLSs

in language learning from which they are more willing to adapt new language teaching and learning practices from their teachers and to train themselves to become more autonomous Plus, the study may also help to foster autonomy further at COFER Furthermore, the findings from learners’ perceptions and practices on ALLSs may serve

as a guidance for education administrators to put the teaching methods and classroom activities which appropriately and effectively enhance learner autonomy in the curriculum, to provide materials and support for implementing ALLSs in the classroom Lastly, since there are few studies regarding learners' perceptions and practices on

ALLSs conducted in the Vietnamese context, this study can serve as a useful research resource for future researchers

In conclusion, the current study is expected to raise COFER learners’ awareness about the importance of ALLSs, resulting in fostering learner autonomy at Vietnamese colleges

in general and at COFER in particular Besides, serving as a guidance for education administrators and as the resource for future research is also the benefit of the study 1.8 Operational Definitions of Key Terms

Autonomous language learning strategies refer to a series of tools such as particular steps, techniques, actions, or behaviors which are deliberately utilized by students to help them take active roles in their learning and assist them to becoming autonomous learners

in this study

Non-English majors are Vietnamese third-year students specializing in various majors including Import-Export Business, Trade Marketing, International Logistics, Trade Accounting, Electronic Business, Industrial Administration, Hotel Restaurant Business Management, and Business Finance but English at COFER in this study

Learners’ perceptions refer to the beliefs and attitudes learners hold about the importance of ALLSs in this study

Learners’ practices refer to ALLSs the learners used in this study

1.9 Organization of the Study

The thesis comprises five chapters, namely Introduction, Literature Review, Research Methodology, Results and Discussion, and Conclusions and Recommendations

Chapter 1, Introduction, provides the background of the study together with the statement

of the problem, the rationale and objectives of the study, research questions, scope of the study, significance of the study, and definition of key terms

Chapter 2 named Literature Review is a summary of the theoretical background regarding the focus of the study It starts with the definition of learner autonomy and ALLSs and with the taxonomy of ALLSs followed by the characteristics of autonomous language learners and the employment of ALLSs in EFL contexts After this, it reviews several previous studies on learner autonomy in foreign and Vietnamese contexts from

conceptual framework of the study

Chapter 3 describes the research methodology of the study It first presents the research

for collecting and analyzing the data Lastly, the issues of validity, reliability, and ethics bring this chapter to an end

chapter continues with some pedagogical implications based on these findings Finally, some limitations along with recommendations for future research are mentioned

1.10 Summary

In order to provide readers with an overall introduction to this study, the background information was described Furthermore, the statement of the problem, the rationale along with the research objectives and questions of the study were also included After that, the significance of the study was presented with a focus on the expected benefits the study would provide The chapter ended with the definition of the terms used in this study The next chapter will present the relevant literature review and a summary of previous studies which support the whole study

CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW The literature includes the definition of learner autonomy and ALLSs along with the classifications of ALLSs, characteristics of autonomous learners as well as the employment of ALLSs in EFL contexts In the next part, the researcher presents studies

on learners’ perceptions and practices on ALLSs in foreign and Asian contexts along with studies on this field in the Vietnamese context from which gaps from previous research are drawn Finally, conceptual framework and the summary of literature brings this section to an end

2.1 Definition of Learner Autonomy

Learner autonomy has been defined differently by various researchers Holec (1981) defined learner autonomy as the capacity to take responsibilities for all decisions related

to entire aspects of learning such as deciding the learning targets, defining the study contents and progress, choosing the used methods and techniques, monitoring the procedure of language acquisition, and evaluating what has been obtained Meanwhile, learner autonomy is described as students’ ability to detach, critically reflect, make decision and act independently (Little, 1991) Furthermore, according to Benson, autonomy is “the capacity to take control of one’s own learning” (2001, p.47) Also, Farrell and Jacobs (2010) stated learner autonomy means that teachers no longer bear the whole responsibilities of running the class in a learner-centered approach Instead, they will let their students take more rights and control of their own learning “Learners must no longer sit there and expect to be taught; teachers must no longer stand up there teaching all the time Teachers have to learn to let go and learners have to learn to take hold” (Page, 1992, p 84) Lastly, in the Vietnamese context, Dang (2012) mentioned that learner autonomy includes three processes, namely initiating, monitoring, and

evaluating The initiating process involves students being aware of learning goals and strategies, identifying goals and setting goals, making plans or work agendas, and looking for resources Meanwhile, in the process of monitoring, students have the rights

to maintain agendas and keep track of learning, identify and employ suitable strategies, select appropriate materials, tailor, customize and personalize learning, be flexible and regulate learning, take actions or implement agendas, concentrate on learning, collaborate and interact with others, and express opinions and negotiate with peers Finally, students have the abilities to reflect critically, evaluate learning outcomes, and correct mistakes in the process of evaluating

In conclusion, learner autonomy allows students to have more rights and responsibilities for their own learning such as determining the objectives, maintaining agendas and keeping track of learning, selecting methods and techniques to be used, collaborating and interacting with others, expressing opinions and negotiating with peers, reflecting

autonomy have served as the core theory that assists the author in identifying the appropriate definition as well as the most comprehensive taxonomy of ALLSs in the following sections

2.2 Definition of Autonomous Language Learning Strategies

Language learning strategies (LLSs) are the techniques or devices possibly utilized by learners to acquire knowledge (Rubin, 1975) O’Malley and Chamot (1990) defined that LLSs are “the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information” (p.1) Meanwhile, Oxford (1990) gave a broad definition of learning strategies by saying that LLSs are “specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, enjoyable, self-directed, effective, and transferable to new situations” (p.8) Also, Williams and Burden (1997) affirmed that LLSs are a variety of operations taken by learners in order to make sense of their learning

Within the scope of the study as being inferred from the definitions of LLSs and of

particular steps, techniques, actions, or behaviors which are deliberately utilized by students to help them take active roles in their learning and assist them to becoming autonomous learners According to Riley (1986) “autonomous learning strategies in institutional settings inevitably requires both teachers and learners to modify their representations of these respective roles” (p.70) More specifically, the role of the teacher

is to create a learning environment in which learners accept responsibility for their learning role in order to become more autonomous (Little, as cited in Eldoma & Ahmed, 2015) The core of ALLSs is self-exploration, self-discovery, which focus is how to help students learn the language and skills (Zhao, 2014)

2.3 Taxonomy of Autonomous Language Learning Strategies

ALLSs have been classified by many scholars White (1995) divided ALLSs into three

strategies deal with the process of reflective thinking, while metacognitive strategies relate to the learning management such as planning, monitoring and evaluating the learning process Finally, for social strategies, students learn through interactions with either peers, teachers, or experts In the similar vein, with the adaptation of O'Malley and Chamot's (1985) classification of LLSs, Wang (2010) divided ALLSs into three categories, namely cognitive strategy, metacognitive strategy, and social mediation strategy Accordingly, cognitive strategy concerns the techniques of memorizing, taking notes, reading and asking questions Meanwhile, students are able to make plans for learning, collect data, self-supervise, self-evaluate, reflect on their learning, and arrange the individual's learning life in metacognitive strategy Finally, social mediation strategy allows students to gain relaxing behavior during the learning activities, make group's

rules, cooperate with their peers, communicate effectively, and get the support for evaluating fellow students' task

Oxford’s (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) were divided into 6 categories: memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, social strategies.Accordingly, Memory strategy includes various methods that help students memorize things while in Cognitive strategy students show how to solve and treat learning materials in all kinds of ways When students encounter obstacles in English learning, they often use Compensation strategy which is thought to be helpful in coping with students' weaknesses of language knowledge Metacognitive strategy is one type of autonomous tool that assists learners in managing, monitoring, and evaluating learning process by themselves Finally, whereas Affective strategy, a type of psychological strategy, supports learners in controlling emotion, overcoming anxiety, and strengthening interests and confidence in learning English, with the assistance of Social strategy, students' language communication skills can be developed by learning social norms of target language culture

Furthermore, Reulens (2019) drew on student's self- efficacy beliefs about the use of

White’s (1995) classification of three ALLSs together with the recognition of the role of learner autonomy, specifically ALLSs, in measuring students’ appraisal of their efficacy

In the current study, with the aim of providing the most comprehensive judgement of the students’ perceptions and their employment of ALLSs, the author categorized ALLSs into six groups, namely memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies based on the adaptation of Oxford’s (1990) classification of language learning strategies

2.4 Characteristics of Autonomous Language Learners

From the aforementioned definition of learner autonomy, it is inferred that “learners who are autonomous might take responsibility by setting their own goals, planning practice opportunities, or assessing their progress” (Cotterall, 1995, p 219) Apart from the willingness to set goals and assess the learning progress, autonomous learners also have the ability to make and carry out the choices governing his or her actions independently (Joshi, 2011) and the capability to put realistic and reachable goals, select appropriate methods and techniques to be adopted and monitor their own learning process with the teacher scaffolding to a certain degree (Benson, Dam, Holec, Little, Wenden, Scharle & Szabo, cited in Doğan & Mirici, 2017) Lastly, in order to be autonomous, second language learners not only need to be able to have the choice of the content and the methods, but they also should feel responsible for their own learning and for their counterparts’ learning (Farrell & Jacobs, 2010)

In conclusion, the common characteristics of an autonomous learner involve setting learning goals, making learning choices, monitoring their learning process, selecting appropriate methods and techniques, and self-assessing their learning progress

2.5 Applying Autonomous Language Learning Strategies in EFL Contexts: From Perception to Practice

In the EFL contexts, the perceptions and utilizations of learner autonomy, specifically ALLSs, have been recognized by many researchers However, in contrast to the variety

of studies concerning the correlation between teachers' perceptions and practices (e.g., Asmari, 2013; Doğan & Mirici, 2017; Duong, 2014), few regarding students' attitudes and behaviors were conducted in the contexts of EFL With the focus on learners' perceptions and practices on autonomy, particularly ALLSs, only studies related to this aspect were mentioned in this section

As stated by some scholars such as Spratt, Humphreys and Chan (2002); Bekleyen and Selimoğlu (2016), teachers play a significant role and have more responsibilities in the language learning process as perceived by the large number of the students Therefore, despite holding relatively positive attitudes towards learner autonomy and being aware

of their responsibilities for some areas of language learning, students’ full control of their language learning was constrained to a great extent In the same lines, Jafari, Ketabi and Tavakoli (2017) reported that intermediate learners did not consider themselves responsible for or capable of selecting learning materials and activities used in the classroom due to their limited involvement in making decisions about these matters In contrast, advanced students tented to be more in charge of their own learning, to recognize their capacity for learning autonomously, and to perform more autonomous learning activities

Furthermore, the findings from Yan’s (2007) study revealed that in spite of having strongly positive attitudes to autonomous English learning (AEL), postgraduate students practiced autonomous learning outside class at a moderate level Students' perceptions and behaviors were statistically crucially related, but the correlation was not high enough

to make sure that positive attitudes will bring about high frequency of AEL behaviors Similarly, in their study, Tran and Vo (2019) showed that although English majors perceived that learner autonomy was important to their English language learning, they showed an only moderate level of autonomous learning practice Finally, according to Nouioua (2018), learners had positive attitudes to learner autonomy and the employment

of strategies in which cognitive and metacognitive strategies got the highest evaluation, whereas the least attention was paid on social strategies

In short, although students considered learner autonomy, specifically ALLSs, beneficial, they practiced autonomous learning at a moderate frequency Most of them thought that teachers should have more responsibilities in the language learning process Besides,

advanced students tented to practice autonomous learning more often that those with intermediate level of English proficiency

2.6 Previous Studies

In order to give the overall picture of learners’ perceptions and practices on learner autonomy, twenty previous studies were summarized in terms of the purpose of the study, participants and setting, research design, and methods of collecting and analyzing data

Bekleyen and Selimoglu (2016) administered a quantitative study (using questionnaire) with 171 undergraduate students of a state university in Eastern Turkey to investigate the learners’ behaviors and perceptions of autonomous language learning at the university level The findings revealed that (1) despite considering themselves to be in charge of a few aspects of language learning and sharing the responsibility with their teachers in some cases, students still thought that their teachers were more responsible for the language learning process, and (2) there was a significant difference in the

employment of autonomous learning activities between students with high and low levels of perceived motivation

With the purpose of designing a tool that is easy to administer and interpret to measure language learner autonomy in higher education, Ruelens (2019) conducted a pilot study using questionnaire with sixty-three English majors enrolling in a second-year academic literacy course at the University of Antwerp The results revealed that strategy training enables learners to evaluate their learning process Furthermore, students' sense of autonomy might be positively affected by positive experiences when they search for the support from their tutors or teachers The study suggested that future researchers can apply the framework proposed in the article to teaching practice in order to examine how much it can help students enhance their employment of LLSs

In the context of language learning in Vietnam, Dang (2012) conducted a study with 562 Vietnamese undergraduate students from four universities across Vietnam to investigate the students’ perceptions of learner autonomy and their performance in online and offline

questionnaire, log records, and a semi- structured interview The results demonstrated that students probably viewed learning as a product itself with ultimate scores rather than

a process of their learning experiences In addition, the author explored the socio-cultural factors that might shape learner autonomy and the factors influencing students’ autonomous learning, such as their technological competence, learning attitudes, and goal orientation

Moreover, Le (2019) carried out a study with 20 EFL teachers and 285 English- majored students at a University in Mekong Delta With the aim of (1) understanding Vietnamese EFL teachers’ perceptions and practices on learner autonomy and (2) exploring students’ understanding of learner autonomy and the ways they learn English autonomously and (3) investigating the relationship between the EFL teachers’ and the EFL students’

perceptions and practices on learner autonomy, the researcher utilized mixed-methods approach using questionnaire and interviews The results revealed that most of the teachers and students had positive understandings in relation to aspects and levels of

findings of the study also indicated there was a directly proportional relationship between teachers’ and learners’ perceptions and practices on learner autonomy More specifically, the positive attitude on the importance of learner autonomy will lead to the more frequent practice on this concept

Finally, in a study with 393 English majors of different levels of academic year from one

Ho Chi Minh City-based university, Tran and Vo (2019) investigated English majors' perceptions of the importance of learner autonomy and their utilization of ALLSs in a Vietnamese EFL context Through the quantitative data collected from questionnaire, the findings showed that despite English majors’ positive perceptions of the importance

majors were at, the higher their perceptions of the importance of learner autonomy were; nevertheless, their language learning strategy use was at a similar extent

In summary, twenty previous studies aimed at investigating learners’ perceptions and practices on learner autonomy and at identifying the types of ALLSs being used most frequently by learners, the reasons they use ALLSs, and the extent to which they employ these ALLSs

Regarding research methods, most previous researchers utilized a mixed-methods design whereas a few had conducted their studies with either pure quantitative research or pure qualitative research Concerning population of the study, most of the participants of the previous studies were university students The largest number of participants of all was

a total of 560 in a study which used a mixed-methods approach to the research By contrast, the smallest number of participants employed in a qualitative study was ten With regard to the data collection methods, questionnaire and interviews are main research instruments employed in these previous studies

In respect of the procedures for collecting and analyzing data, t-tests or one-way ANOVA, descriptive statistics, and correlation analysis were the most regularly utilized methods of analysis for quantitative data while content analysis was used to analyze qualitative data

2.7 Research Gaps

From the synthesis of 20 previous studies related to learners’ perceptions and practices

on learner autonomy, the research gap had been drawn which created the premise for the author's present study To be specific, due to the positive influences of learner autonomy

on English language teaching and learning, many studies on this field have been published in foreign as well as Vietnamese contexts However, there have been no studies on students' perceptions and practices on learner autonomy, particularly ALLSs conducted at COFER so far By conducting the current study at COFER, therefore, the author would like to explore how learner autonomy is perceived and practiced by COFER students from which enhancing their language proficiency level thanks to their development of practices on autonomous learning

Furthermore, few studies concerning ALLSs have been administrated worldwide in general and in Vietnam in particular which became the big gap for the researcher to carry out the research

2.8 Conceptual Framework

This framework is designed in order for the author to demonstrate the core theory and guide the readers towards the objectives as well as the intent of the research As mentioned earlier, the manifestation and performance of learner autonomy would be established by the amalgam of attitudes, knowledge and skills Consequently, in order for learners to completely perform autonomous learning, two interrelated elements, namely cognitive (students’ perceptions or what learners believe) and behavioral

Dang (2012), the effective and efficient practice of students’ behavioral and cognitive processes will help them achieve quality learning In the current study, with the research purpose of identifying COFER non-English majors’ perceptions of the importance of ALLSs and the extent to which they self-assess they practice these strategies, the author adapted Ruelens’s (2019) self-efficacy questionnaire of language learning strategies along with Oxford’s (1990) SILL and Dang’s (2012) learner autonomy attributes Accordingly, six autonomous learning strategies, namely memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies were used to compare and contrast COFER non-English majors’ perceptions with their practices

2.9 Summary

In sum, the definition of learner autonomy and of ALLSs along with the taxonomy of ALLSs, characteristics of autonomous learners as well as the utilization of ALLSs in EFL contexts were presented in this chapter In addition, this chapter also reviewed previous studies on learners’ perceptions and practices on ALLSs in foreign and Vietnamese contexts together with their research gaps Finally, the overall picture of the study was illustrated in the conceptual framework section

Metacognitive Strategy

Affective Strategy

Social Strategy

Memory

Strategy

Cognitive Strategy

Compensation Strategy

Autonomous Language Learning Strategies Adapted from Oxford’s (1990) SILL, Ruelens’s (2019) self-efficacy questionnaire of language learning strategies, Dang’s (2012) learner autonomy attributes

Assessment of Their Practices

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This chapter falls into four sections which explain the overall research design and the methodological issues of the study The first part describes the type of research design This section is followed by the site of research, the participants and the sampling method Later, the third section focuses on the data collection instruments of the study Finally,

in the last part the data collection and data analysis procedures along with methodological issues such as reliability, validity, and ethics are also described

3.2 Research Site and Participants

3.2.1 Research Site

College of Foreign Economic Relations is a state college established in 1997 It is a training centre for human resources at college level The college is also a centre of scientific and technological research and experimentation serving training, production, business and service in the trade and social sector contributing to socio-economic development and national education and training The institution has four branches, namely A, B, C, and D Due to the fact that the researcher is working at brand D, which

is located at 106A, Boulevard 3, Phuoc Binh Ward, District 9, Ho Chi Minh City, all of the information in this part focuses on Brand D of the college only

Each year Brand D welcomes about 3500 students enrolling in various majors including one English major and eight non-English majors In details, the subject of Business English (English major) has the smallest number of students of 451 In contrast, other courses which belong to the non-English major group, namely Import-Export Business, Trade Marketing, International Logistics, Trade Accounting, Electronic Business, Industrial Administration, Hotel Restaurant Business Management, and Business Finance are registered by 1087, 303, 220, 507, 110, 195, 248, 320 students, respectively

English majored classes each semester The average number of students for each class is about 40 Non-English majors have to take different subjects including general English and English for specific purposes depending on their majors Concerning the teaching staff, their academic titles are various ranging from bachelor, master to post doctor in which lecturers with a bachelor’s degree and a master’s degree account for the largest

Lastly, the school facilities are an important element contributing to the quality of

training at the college Apart from the spacious classrooms, libraries, computer rooms, and interactive language labs are also equipped in order to bring the best learning conditions to learners

3.2.2 Participants and Sampling Method

The study recruited 353 non-English majored juniors taking the course of English for Business Communication 2 at COFER for two principal reasons Firstly, they are juniors, thus gaining the most experiences in English learning Secondly, they are going to graduate from the college; therefore, autonomous learning will play an important role in promoting their life-long learning and getting them ready to take part in the job market

in the future In order to take the course, students have to pass three other English subjects at the first and second semesters, namely General English 1, General English 2 and English for Business Communication 1 According to the author’s observation throughout the course of English for Business Communication 2, nonetheless, these students are mostly low-qualified in terms of four English macro skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing They are likely to be anxious to speak up in the classroom Also, when assigned with the writing tasks, they have made a lot of grammatical errors

In the present study, in order to have the sample size of 353 students for the research among the population of 3000 non-English majored learners who are taking the course

of English for Business Communication 2 at the second semester of third year, the author adopted the data based on Glenn’s (1992) sampling method (cited in Singh & Masuku, 2014) (Table 3.1) Accordingly, with the population of 3000 students and with the size

of the sample for the precision of ±5% (highlighted numbers below), the sample size is

353 students

Table 3 1: The Sample Size of the Study