Efl high school students readiness for learner autonomy an investigation in a rural area of vietnam

CHAU THI MY NGANREADINESS FOR LEARNER AUTONOMY: AN INVESTIGATION INTO EFL HIGH SCHOOL ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIORS IN A RURAL AREA OF VIETNAM A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the

CHAU THI MY NGAN

READINESS FOR LEARNER AUTONOMY:

AN INVESTIGATION INTO EFL HIGH SCHOOL

ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIORS IN A RURAL AREA OF VIETNAM

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts (TESOL)

Ho Chi Minh City, 2021

CHAU THI MY NGAN

READINESS FOR LEARNER AUTONOMY:

AN INVESTIGATION INTO EFL HIGH SCHOOL

ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIORS IN A RURAL AREA OF VIETNAM

Major: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I, hereby state that, I, Chau Thi My Ngan, being the candidate for the degree

of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for the purpose of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for care, loan, or reproduction

of thesis

Ho Chi Minh City, September, 2021

CHAU THI MY NGAN

I, Chau Thi My Ngan, certify that this thesis entitled Readiness for learner autonomy: An investigation into EFL high school attitude and behaviors in a rural area of Vietnam is my own work

Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contains nomaterial published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which

I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma No other person s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis

This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma inany other tertiary institution

Ho Chi Minh City, September, 2021

CHAU THI MY NGAN

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to those who have greatly helped and encouraged me to complete my research Without their support, it would have been impossible for me to complete this thesis Accordingly, I would like to gratefully acknowledge their substantial contribution.

I would like to express my whole-hearted appreciation and deepest gratitude

to my supervisor, Dr Dang Tan Tin for his dedicated support, comprehensive counsel

as well as energetic encouragement during the time of carrying out the study

I own a great debt to Dr Ho Thanh My Phuong and Dr Nguyen Thi Thu Huyen for their fruitful suggestions on the modification of the Vietnamese version of the questionnaire In addition, I highly appreciate the contribution of the managing board, the English teaching staff, the form teachers and 620 students at Binh Phuc Nhut high school in the school year 2020-2021 to the completion of data collection Without their willingness, my research could not have been accomplished

My thanks are reserved for my MTesol017a classmates, who shared happiness and difficulties with me during the courses Particularly, I am indebted to Le Khai Minh Tri and Nguyen Tan Loi for their enthusiastic encouragement and honest advice

in the most difficult moment on the way of doing the thesis

Last but not least, I am deeply grateful to my parents, and my parents-in-law for their love and encouragement while I was doing my thesis Especially, my greatest thanks should go to my beloved husband and two little sons for their mental support and sharing of feelings

The issue of boosting learner autonomy in language learning has sparked the attention of scholars, practitioners, and educators worldwide In the general educational curriculum of Vietnam, fostering learner autonomy has been highlighted

as a fundamental goal In spite of the large number of research projects on the advantages of learner autonomy and on the strategies intended to promote it, less

ss to accept responsibility in learning, which is considered a prerequisite for the development of learner autonomy Such investigation is even scarcer in the context of high schools in rural areas.The present study was aiming at determining the readiness for learner autonomy of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) high school students by measuring their attitudes towards learner autonomy and their actual autonomous learning behaviors, as well as the link between those two concerns

Adopting a quantitative correlational research design, the study was carried out with 501 students from a high school in a rural area in Tien Giang province Data was collected from a questionnaire The findings indicated that students' attitudetowards learner autonomy was typically positive, but that their autonomous learning behaviors were merely moderately performed Students' attitudes and behaviors were positively correlated, although the connection was not strong The overall result suggests that EFL high school students in rural areas seem to be unready for learner autonomy Some suggestions were made to promote learner autonomy in rural areas

of Vietnam

Keywords: Learner autonomy; Autonomous learning behaviors; Attitude; High

school students; Rural areas

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS i

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

ABSTRACT iv

LIST OF FIGURES viii

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the study 2

1.1.1 LA in language teaching education 2

1.1.2 LA in Vietnamese education 3

1.1.3 EFL in high school education in Vietnam 4

1.2 Statements of the problem 6

1.3 Objectives of the study 8

1.4 Research questions 8

1.5Significance of the study 8

1.6Scope of the study 9

1.7Definition of terms 9

1.8Organization of the thesis 10

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12

2.1Concept of LA 12

2.1.1 Definitions of LA 12

2.1.2 Dimensions of LA 14

2.2Importance of LA 16

2.3 18

2.4Readiness for LA 19

2.4.1 Definition of readiness for LA 19

2.4.2 Record of attitudes towards LA in various contexts 21

learning behaviors 26

2.5Conceptual framework 26

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 31

3.1 Research design 31

3.2 Objectives and hypothesis 32

3.3 Research site and participants 32

3.3.1 Research site 32

3.3.2 Participants 33

3.4 Instrument 36

3.4.1 Structure of the questionnaire 37

3.4.2 The development of the questionnaire 37

3.5 Procedures 40

3.5.1 Data collection 40

3.5.2 Data analysis 41

3.6 Reliability 42

3.7 Validity 42

3.8 Ethical considerations 44

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 45

4.1Reliability of the instrument 45

4.2Findings 47

4.2.1 Attitude towards LA 47

4.2.1.1 Perceived values of LA 47

4.2.1.2 48

4.2.1.3 Emotions regarding LA 49

4.2.1.4 Intention to take responsibility 50

4.2.1.5 attitude towards LA 51

4.2.2 Dimensions of LA practiced by students 51

4.2.2.1 Initiating learning opportunities 53

4.2.2.3 Evaluating learning 55

4.2.2.4 Summary of autonomous learning behaviors 55

4.2.3 C and their actual autonomous learning behaviors 56

4.3 Discussion on the findings 58

4.3.1 Attitude towards LA 58

4.3.2 Dimensions of LA practiced by students 60

4.3.3 and their actual autonomous learning behaviors 63

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS 65

5.1 Summary 65

5.2 Empirical contributions 66

5.3 Pedagogical suggestions 67

5.4 Limitations and recommendations for further research 69

REFERENCES 70

APPENDICES 85

APPENDIX 3A: English scores of students in the entrance exam (school years 2018- 2019, 2019-2020 and 2020-2021) 85

APPENDIX 3B: Questionnaire (English version) 86

APPENDIX 3C: questionnaire (Vietnamese version) 92

APPENDIX 3D: Some screenshots of the Vietnamese online version of the questionnaire 98

APPENDIX 3E:Ethics approval from the school under investigation 100

APPENDIX 4A:Descriptive statistics of the items 101

APPENDIX 4B: Reliability analysis of the sub-scales 105

Figure 2.1: Dimensions of LA 27Figure 2.2: The ABC model of attitude (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993) 28Figure 2.3: Attitude towards LA (adaptation from ABC model of Eagly and Chaiken, 1993) 29Figure 2.4: Relationship between attitude towards LA and autonomous learning behaviors 30

Table 2.1: Dimensions of LA 15

Table 3.1: An extract from the table for determining sample size, confidence levels and confidence intervals for random samples 35

Table 3.2: Information about the participants 34

Table 3.3: An extract from the table for determining minimum returned sample size for a given population size for continuous and categorical data 36

Table 3.4: Structure of the questionnaire 38

Table 4.1 the Intention to take responsibility scale (8 items).46 Table 4.2 the Intention to take responsibility scale (7 items).46 Table 4.3: Number of items and internal consistency of the sub-scales 47

Table 4.4: Descriptive statistics on Perceived values of LA 48

Table 4.5: Descriptive statistics on .49

Table 4.6: Descriptive statistics on Emotions regarding LA 50

Table 4.7: Descriptive statistics on the Intention to take responsibility 51

Table 4.8: Overall attitude towards LA 51

Table 4.9: Descriptive statistics on Initiating learning opportunities 53

Table 4.10: Descriptive statistics on Monitoring the learning process 54

Table 4.11: Descriptive statistics on Evaluating learning 55

Table 4.12: Overall autonomous learning behaviors 56 Table 4.13: Pearson correlations between each component of attitude towards LA 57

CLT Communicative language teaching

EFL English as a Foreign Language

ICTs Information and communication technologies

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Researchers, practitioners and educators have been more and more interested

in the issue of promoting learner autonomy (LA) in education generally and in language learning particularly.LA is principally seen as an issue of students taking greater control over the content and methods of learning (Holec, 1981) The learner

is perceived as a decision-maker who has, or will develop the capacity for choosing from among available tools and resources to create what is needed for the task in hand (Dickinson, 1995) Benson (2011) considers LA

learning but also supports learners to become more responsible and critical citizens

in their society (p 1)

In the context of East Asian countries, along with the adoption of communicative language teaching and the orientation towards learner-centered teaching, the idea of LA has become a topic of discussion and a goal in language education (Sakai, Takagi, & Chu, 2010) Sharing this trend in education, Vietnam has set the building and fostering of LA as its focal objective in the general educational program, which was affirmed in the new general educational program (MOET, 2018)

Considering the vital role of LA, it may be claimed that every teacher should start to foster LA as soon as possible Everything seems perfect in theory, but the implications and applications of theories might change when they come into practicenonetheless Enhancing LA entails a change in responsibility between teachers and learners More importantly, this should start first by the learners themselves Without

for LA, the desire to boost autonomous learning may fail at the very first stage, no matter how much effort and what method is taken (Cotterall, 1995b)

This research was carried out with the aim of determining the level of readiness for LA among EFL students This was achieved by measuring their

attitudes towards LA and their actual autonomous learning behaviors, as well as the link between those two The results of such an investigation may bring about fruitful information and pedagogical implications for the local educational system in its effort to foster LA.

The remainder of this chapter provides an overview of the study It begins by describing the background of the study from which the rationale for the study emerges This is followed by the presentation of the objectives along with research questions and the significance of the study It then states the scope of the study The chapter ends with a brief explanation of how the thesis is organized

1.1 Background of the study

1.1.1 LA in language teaching education

The last few decades have witnessed some fundamental transformations in the context of language teaching, especially in EFL education Traditional classroom teaching with over-

diverse learning styles and consequently makes learning

likely to be petered out due to such a teaching approach According to Barman (2015), this teacher-centered approach apparently fails to address the ultimate conditions of effective education and, therefore, is facing a big challenge Teacher-focused classrooms with recognizable defects have paved the way for the advent of

a different pedagogical paradigm which puts learners as individuals at the core of the learning process

In line with the introduction of the leaner-centered approach,there has been

a ubiquitous recognition of language teaching being more and more communicatively oriented Communicative language teaching (CLT) accentuates

active engagement in a wide range of activities and tasks to develop all language skills and competence (Nunan, 1991) Learners in classes using CLT are encouraged to incorporate their personal experiences into their language learning and

to focus on the target language and the learning experience as well(Nunan, 1991)

The central aspect of both of the approaches is lea and individuality, in which LA is indispensable Since its first permeation into the field

, founded in

1971, LA has been widely spotlighted in the global language teaching community in the last few decades (Benson, 2011) Despite the lack of consensus among experts in the field about the definition of LA, a large body of them have claimed its values in language teaching and learning (Farrell & Jacob, 2010), e.g leading to more effective learning (Cotterall, 2000; Dickinson, 1995), addressing the need for more suitable teaching methods and situations (Dickinson, 1987), offering learners the right to be free to make choices and transferring learning strategies to other subjects (G Ellis & Sinclair, 1989), cultivating a continual positive attitude towards learning

in the future (Little, 1995), or enhancing language proficiency (Vickers & Ene, 2006), to name a few pivotal role in education, various efforts havebeen made to ignite this capacity Specifically, Teng (2019) affirms that LA is an educational goal of teaching EFL (p 1)

1.1.2 LA in Vietnamese education

Since the 1980s, LA has become a focal theme in educational research worldwide (Holec, 1981) In Vietnam, this concept has not been thoroughly understood (V L Nguyen, 2016) However, it has been brought to increasing national attention in the effort to improve the quality of education

In fact, the term , literally translated as "learning by yourself", has been mentioned in Vietnamese education since the 1960s, according to Cao (2001) In his discussion, Cao (2001) referred to as the so-called "self-directed learning" in language education, i.e "a broad field of inquiry into the process of non-institutional learning" (Benson, 2011, p 37) Moreover, the immortal saying "

" of Lenin, an eminent political scholar, in 1899 ( 2020), which was translated into Vietnamese as , , [Study, study more and study forever], has become a slogan hung in almost every classroom from primary schools to high schools in Vietnam This slogan implies the idea of lifelong and

independent learning It can be concluded that the notion of LA, although not explicitly mentioned, has existed in the Vietnamese philosophy of education in a certain way.

Policy makers and educationalists have recently recognized the improvement

of the capacity for LA as one of the leading objectives of educational reform (MOET, 2018; National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 2019) Given the

mbition to become one of the most economically powerful nations in the region, such a target is of great importance It is expected that when educated and trained towards LA, Vietnamese youth will contribute to a dynamic and skilled workforce that is capable of swinging into action with lifelong learning and adaptive to the continuous developments and unpredictable changes in the new era (Q K Nguyen & Q C Nguyen, 2008)

1.1.3 EFL in high school education in Vietnam

istory of foreign domination shaped its foreign language development Chinese dominated for over a thousand

English during American domination from 1954 to 1975, and Russian

socio-political alliance with the USSR prior to the 1990s It was not until 1986 that English gained its prevailing status as the first foreign language to be taught in Vietnam, thanks to the economic renovation and the open-door policy in the context

compulsory subject in the national curriculum and examinations ever since

When it comes to EFL teaching in Vietnamese high school education, it is necessary to mention three important periods with different orientations The first one is from 1982 to 2006, during which Vietnamese high schools used contemporaneously two sets of textbooks The former is the 3-year set for students starting studying English in grade 10 and the latter is the 7-year set for those starting studying English in grade 6 (Hoang, 2018) Both are mainly grammar-based with a comparatively dedication to reading comprehension and a very small proportion to

aural and oral skills (Hoang, 2018) It was in the school year 2006-2007 that all high schools in Vietnam began using the new textbooks for all subjects ("The fate of textbooks", 2020) The new English textbooks were developed to meet the requirements of Directive No 14/2001 TC-TTg of the Prime Minister on the Renovation of the Vietnamese General Education Curriculum Therefore, English textbooks

in Vietnam, were designed specially corresponding to the student-centered orientation and CLT approach approved by Vietnamese educators As To (2010) observed, these textbooks, although designed to be theme-based, have been

English macro-skills instead of the integrated model In particular, to boost EFL education, the National Foreign Language 2020 project approved in 2008 clearly determined all the aspects of improving EFL education with the co-operation of stakeholders from all levels of relevant ministries (Prime minister, 2008) Recently, MOET (2018) issued the new general education program together with Circular No 32/2018/TT-

-states the roadmap for applying the new program as follows: school year 2022 -2023 for grade 10; school year 2023-2024 for grade 11; and school year 2024 -2025 for grade 12 There are two noteworthy differences between the previous two periods and the current one First, unlike the previous two periods during which textbooks were compiled by the MOET and issued by the Vietnam Education Publishing House, the Circular implements the socialization of textbook compilation Accordingly, there will be several sets of textbooks for each subject Second, in the new general education program, textbooks are only reference materials in the teaching process that teachers do not have to strictly follow, but flexibly apply in the spirit of differentiated teaching (MOET, 2018) However, how to choose which textbook sets to teach and to what extent teachers can adapt the textbooks are unaddressed, at least until now

At present, almost all high schools in Vietnam are still using 2 sets of English

nâng cao [advanced set], with the standard set adopted by around 96%

of schools (Hoang, 2018) As regulated in Directive No 14/2001 TC-TTg, English accounts for 3 periods per week in a 35-week program distribution for a school year

In addition, there may

education, students can achieve level 3 in the 6-level Foreign Language Competency Framework for Vietnam at the end of this school level (see MOET, 2018 for specific abilities)

1.2 Statements of the problem

The quality of teaching and learning English in general education in Vietnam

is still relatively low, although numerous efforts have been made to improve it On November 16, 2016, Mr Phung Xuan Nha, the former MOET, admitted that the National Foreign Language 2020 Project, period 2008-2020, had failed after nine years of operation (Linh, 2016) Furthermore, with an EPI average score of 473 out

of 800, Vietnam ranked 65 in the EF English Proficiency Index 2020, falling 13 places in comparison with the rank in 2019 and was classified as having low proficiency (Q Nguyen, 2020) Regarding high school students, after seven or even ten years of studying English, most of them can not or do not confidently communicate with foreigners (Nhan, 2013; Trinh, 2015) Even worse, the average English score in the national high school graduation exams has been the lowest among the nine exam subjects in consecutive 6 years since MOET first announced the scores of all exam subjects (Huong, 2020) In particular, many Vietnamese leaders and experts have remarked that there is a big gap in the level of English proficiency between high school students in urban areas and those in rural areas (C Dang, 2019; H C Pham, 2021)

Given the current situation, a lot of resolutions have been proposed, including changes in educational policy, in teaching content and methods, and in the way of

testing and assessment as well as retraining high school English teachers (MOET, 2018) As can be seen, none of these resolutions take students into consideration, whereas the students themselves, as R Ellis (2015) contends, play a decisive role in their acquisition of English Instead, these turn into the objectives to be reached, among which is the ability to "use a variety of learning strategies to manage learning time, apply information technology to learning and self-learning, consolidate self-learning and self-assessment methodologies, take responsibility for learning outcomes, and form lifelong learning habits." (MOET, 2018, p 7) This ability is often referred to as LA which has been recognized as playing an important role in EFL in Vietnam; therefore, a lot of concerns are put towards improving this capacity (T T Dang, 2012) However, such a desire may fail if it is carried out without

Therefore, it is urgent that

mpt on this issue (Chan, Spratt, & Humphreys,2002)

carried out all over the world, e.g Alrabai (2017), Bozkurt and Arslan (2018), Chan (2001b); Hadi (2017, 2018), Riasati and Mollaei, (2014), to name a few These studies have provided contradictory results, confirming the widely accepted idea that

-cultural contexts Reviewing the literature on this phenomenon in Vietnam, some pioneers, such as Trinh (2005),

T C L Nguyen (2009), T V Nguyen (2011), T T Dang (2012), and Q X Le (2013), have led their way in the exploration of LA Nonetheless, all of them conducted their studies in tertiary education in big cities Recently, Tran (2016)

City It seems that the notion of learner autonomy remains untouched in rural areas, not only in Vietnam but also in other parts of the world, while students in rural areas are found to lack motivation (Saiful & Triyono, 2018), to be reserved, shy, and less confident in comparison with their counterparts in urban areas (Peerzada, 2014)

1.3 Objectives of the study

The study is aimed at estimating the extent to which EFL high school students in a rural area of Vietnam are ready for LA by:

determining their attitude towards LA

investigating what dimensions of LA they actually practice

gauging the relationship between their attitude towards LA and their actual autonomous learning behaviors

3 To what extent does the attitude of EFL high school students in a rural area

of Vietnam towards LA correlate with their actual autonomous learning behaviors?

1.5 Significance of the study

The results of this study can contribute to the area of LA in rural areas, which

is little documented in the literature, in many aspects Firstly, the study may raise

in the course of developing LA Secondly, it reveals whether EFL high school students in the rural areas of Vietnam are prepared to operate autonomous learning Such understanding is very beneficial before any attempt to adopt the notion of autonomy in the rural areas of Vietnam as well as in other similar socio-cultural contexts It may shape the starting point for the process of boosting LA through portraying which aspects of LA EFL students in rural areas are ready for This aids EFL teachers in designing more appropriate autonomous learning tasks and classroom activities for EFL learners in rural areas

1.6 Scope of the study

The study was conducted at a high school, which is in a rural area in the Mekong Delta, with a view to measuring the level of readiness fo

students illustrated through their attitude towards LA This is coupled with inspecting their actual autonomous learning behaviors as well as the correlation between these practices and their attitude

There exist two restrictions arising from the scope of the contemporary study

rounded if EFL teachers were included in the survey However, starting with the

-oal of the study is to provide instructional

one single high school in a rural area of southwestern Vietnam, restraining the findings from being generalizable Nevertheless, thanks to the thorough sampling method, the findings can be generalized to the population under investigation in this study

1.7 Definition of terms

-operatively in the learning process with three dimensions, i.e initiating learning opportunities, monitoring learning process, and evaluating learning

high correlation with the level of frequency with which they engage in actual autonomous learning behaviors

High schools refer to schools for children aged from 15 to 18 corresponding from grade 10 to grade 12 in the Vietnamese education system In this thesis, high schools and upper secondary schools or higher secondary schools are used interchangeably

density, and characterized by prevailing adverse working and living conditions as place-based issue

1.8 Organization of the thesis

Apart from Retention and use of the thesis, Statement of authorship, Acknowledgements, Abstract, References, and Appendices, this thesis is divided into five main chapters, namely "Introduction, Literature review, Methodology, Results and discussion, Conclusions".

Chapter 1, Introduction, provides an overview of the study It begins by

describing the background of the study from which the rationale for the study emerges Next, it continues with the presentation of the objectives along with the research questions and the significance of the study It then states the scope of the study, along with a brief clarification of some basic terms used throughout the thesis The chapter ends with a brief explanation of how the thesis is organized

Chapter 2, Literature review, including five parts, establishes the foundation

for the theoretical framework adopted in the study The first three sections present

an exhaustive review of relevant theories, including definitions, different dimensions and values of LA as well as the roles of teachers in LA The next part is preserved to

a systematic analysis and synthesis of previous studies having the same focus as the present The remainder of this chapter is to make clear the conceptual framework of the study

Chapter 3 clarifies the methodology of the present study The argument for the research design is presented first After that, the objectives and hypothesis of the study are enlightened The chapter then describes in detail the research site and the participants Next, it restates the objectives and corresponding research questions This is followed by the justification for the instrument development, together with data collection and data analysis procedures Finally, the issues of reliability, validity and ethical considerations are in turn notified

Chapter 4 reports on the data quantitatively collected from the instrument These are then examined to work out the findings, which are further discussed in comparison with previous studies on the same topic

The thesis ends with chapter 5, i.e Conclusions In this section, the significant

findings of the study are highlighted Next, some empirical contributions are affirmed and pedagogical suggestions are made so as to stimulate LA in EFL education in the context of rural areas The final part is dedicated to the limitations

of the study and some directions for future research

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review is intended to present the theoretical and practical basis

of the survey The chapter begins with an overview of the concept of LA regarding its definitions and dimensions Next, the review looks at the importance of LA This

is followed by a synthesis of the roles of teachers in LA It continues with the exploration of the readiness for LA including its meaning as well as findings from previous studies on this issue The review ends with an explanation of the conceptual framework adopted in the study

2 1 Concept of LA

2.1.1 Definitions of LA

Since its first penetration into the field of education through the Council of

increasing attention from researchers, practitioners, educators, and teachers worldwide This capacity is often used for schools, teachers, and learners, referred to

as school autonomy, teacher autonomy, and LA respectively While the first two are

g attributes, which is the focal point of this study

In fact, there has been no consensus on the definition of LA T T Dang (2010) spotted that LA has been defined, perceived and translated into practice in different ways, depending on particular political, social and contemporary situations One of the most cited definition in the literature is that of Holec (1981), i.e

responsible for all of the decisions relating to all respects of the learning process from

content and progression, selecting the method and the techniques to be used,

Furthermore, he also contended that this capacity must be acquired either intentionally or incidentally rather than an innate capacity

In agreement with Holec, Dickinson (1987)

in which the learner is totally responsible for all of the decisions concerned with his

He also expands the attitude as the inclination to assume responsibility for making all the decisions relating to s Being active, students can also set up or change

(Dickinson, 1987)

LA is defined by Dam, Eriksson, Little, Miliander, and Trebbi (1990

readiness to take charge of one's own learning in the service of one's needs and

and

in collaboration with others as a socially responsible individual (Dam et al., 1990,

p 102) Such a definition implies the absence of power in the political perspective of

LA which highlights learners power and freedom to make informed choices in their learning process (S Nguyen & Habók, 2021; Oxford, 2003)

Benson (2011)

Autonomy

is a capacity - for detachment, critical reflection, decision making, and independent

(p 3) According to Little, the capacity for autonomy is exhibited not only in the way learners learn but also in their ways of applying what has been learned to wider contexts By this way, LA is addressed as a cognitive and self - management process of learning (Benson, 2011)

Taking the position that autonomy is a legitimate and desirable goal oflanguage education, Benson (2011)

the author, control over learning may take diverse forms at different levels of the learningprocess Moreover, autonomy is acknowledged as a multidimensional capacity

exhibited in distinct form for each individual, and this capacity may vary for the same individual depending on the particular setting or time (Benson, 2011, p 58).

Although expressed differently in the above definitions, LA comprises active learner participation and effective learning as its core concepts, from which a number

of other definitions have been adapted Such diverse versions of the definition of LA

do not reflect the confusion of the notion Instead, this signifies a common developmental fashion that should be expected (T T Dang, 2012) This is consonant

) argument for the importance of pinpointing the form in which

we decide to recognize LA with regards to the specific context of our own exploration and practice The current research embraces the LA definition of Dam et al (1990), which extracts learners

learning process, as mentioned above This definition lends itself to the context of high school education in Vietnam, where both teachers and students in general education institutions have not been able to choose or take control of their learning objectives and content, at least until now Instead, they must follow and implement the learning objectives and content predetermined by institutional and national curricula LA in the current study is referre

act independently or co-operatively in the learning process, both in and out of class

2.1.2 Dimensions of LA

In line with the continuous modification of LA definitions, its dimensions have changed throughout time This is comprehensible due to the inherently complex construct of LA, which makes it possible for diverse dimensions to emerge depending

on the specific socio-cultural contexts (Benson, 2011; Tassinari, 2012) However, various researchers have used inconsistent terms to refer to dimensions when it comes

to LA in language learning (T T Dang, 2012) Some of these terms are stages used

by Chan (2000, 2001b), and Reinders, H (2010); processes by Cotterall (2000); or aspects by Holec (1981), Dickinson (1993), Trinh (2005), Yan (2007), and T C L Nguyen (2009) The researcher embraces the term dimensions in that they imply an

equal reciprocal correlation among them rather than the hierarchical relationship as

indicated in stages and processes or the independence in aspects A brief summary

of the different dimensions of LA used by various researchers is presented in table 2.1

Table 2.1: Dimensions of LA

determining the objectives, defining the content and progression,

selecting the method and the techniques to be used, monitoring,

and evaluating

Holec (1981)

planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning activities Little (1991)identifying what's been taught, formulating learning objectives,

selecting and implementing appropriate learning strategies,

monitoring the use of learning strategies, self-assessment

Dickinson (1993)

planning, pacing, monitoring and evaluating Little (1994) setting goals, identifying and developing learning, developing

plans, identifying and selecting relevant resources and support,

and evaluating progress

Chan (2000)

setting goals, determining content, selecting resources and

techniques, and assessing progress

Cotterall (2000)setting goals, identifying and developing learning strategies,

developing plans, reflecting on learning, identifying and selecting

relevant resources and support, and assessing progress

Chan (2001b)

strategy use and monitoring, monitoring the learning process and

performance, formulating learning objectives and plans,

monitoring the use of learning methods, and identifying the

importance of classroom teaching and learning

Yan (2007)

self-initiation, making plans, self-control, flexibility, and taking

self-initiation (in & out of class) and self-regulation (planning,

monitoring, evaluating)

T C L

Nguyen (2009)identifying needs, setting goals, planning learning, selecting

resources, selecting learning strategies, practice, monitoring

progress, and assessment and revision

Reinders (2010) planning, organization, and evaluation of learning Benson (2011)monitoring, initiating, goal-setting and evaluating, and using ICTs T T Dang

(2012)

As can be seen from Table 2.1, each dimension refers to either a specific or general facet of LA A thematic analysis reveals that some dimensions overlap with

some others, despite being differently worded In particular, determining the objectives, defining the content, identifying and selecting relevant resources and support, formulating learning objectives, developing plans, setting goals, and identifying needs generally express the first things to do in the learning process;

hence, they should be put together under the heading initiating Moreover, selecting

the method and the techniques, implementation, pacing, strategy use, practice and

developing learning are specific elements of monitoring Obviously, evaluating

emerges as the most consistent dimension used in the literature despite being differently expressed As information and communication technologies can be used throughout the learning process, it is advisable that this dimension be integrated in any of the other three

2 2 Importance of LA

LA is the key to success, efficiency, and proficiency Therefore, it has been an ultimate goal in EFL education (Benson, 2011; Teng, 2019) The argument for the promotion of LA can be tracked on psychological, philosophical, pedagogical, and economic grounds

The psychological and most convincing rationale for enhancing LA in language classes is that individuals learn better when they have control over their own learning, as confirmed by Cotterall (2000) Ellis and Sinclair (1989) add that learning

is more meaningful and fruitful when learners, particularly adults, are involved in making decisions about the pace, the order, the approach of instruction, and the content of what is being studied Likewise, those who are responsible for their own learning can carry on learning outside the classroom and transfer learning strategies

to other subjects Additionally, learners involved in making decisions about various parts of the program are more likely to feel secure, motivated and enthusiastic about English learning (Dickinson, 1987)

Philosophically, every individual has the freedom to make their own decisions, not simply in terms of learning a language but also in other aspects, according to Crabbe (1993) He also asserts that societies are happier and healthier when

individuals are free and do not become victims of social organizations' decisions.In addition, Knowles (1975) underlines the critical requirement of educating students for a rapidly changing future in which independent learning will be required for effective societal functioning (as cited in Cotterall, 1995a) Learners will be able to optimize their life choices with such preparation for independent learning.

It is argued by Dickinson (1987) that stimulating LA has become a must by virtue of pedagogical issues LA lends itself to the implementation of CLT in EFL classrooms (T T Dang, 2012) in that it aids in the development of communicative competence Moreover, Geng (2010) points out that the enhancement of LA matches with the movement in modern education towards a student-centered approach Rather than aiming to create a course for everyone, courses are tailored to certain groups of learners, hence students are given greater chances, responsibility, and authority to manage their own learning T T Dang (2012) insists that students must be able to manage all of the activities offered to them during each learning phase in order to fully profit from this process They can better gain the benefits of the contemporary method if they are given the assistance they need to build this capacity, which is described as LA.There has been existed a need of more suitable teaching situations where teachers are not always available and, consequently, students should know how

to learn by themselves (Tudor, 1993) In other words, LA facilitates virtual learning, online learning or distance learning that require willingness, self-consciousness and the capacity to take on responsibility

Regarding the economic argument, Ciekanski (2007) emphasizes that people must supply for their own learning needs since society cannot continue to offer the high quality of teaching necessary by industrial and commercial growth through educational institutions, particularly given fast technological developments.Individuals must be able to learn even after they have completed formal schooling Therefore, LA is considered crucial for lifelong learning as well as socioeconomic well-being T T Dang (2012) complements that LA is pivotal for knowledge building and long-term learning in today's globalized environment More specifically,

education must ensure the preparation for students being reflective in their learning and adaptable in their learning techniques as well as developing critical and creative thinking (Benson, 2005, as cited in T T Dang, 2012) As a result, learn-to-learn skills have been actively promoted in different education systems in order to create a higher qualified workforce, as maintained by Trinh (2008).

2 3

There exists a need for the changes in the roles of teachers and learners to ensure the promotion of LA (Benson, 2011; Cotterall, 1995b) However, this does

roles are of no importance Ganza (2008) claims that LA is an

and sustain an inter-relational environment in which teachers refrain from influencing

(2008), even with a more independent mode of learning, teachers may be seen as a source of support for learners as they progress towards becoming more autonomous

-centered classroom differ from those

in a traditional classroom has caught the attention of various experts in the field, e.g Oxford (1990), Little (1991), and Benson (2011)

tolerant, empathic, open, judgment

non-motivated and raising their awareness

The main function of teachers in situations in which LA is encouraged, according to Camilleri (1999), is self-awareness This means that they must be aware

of their own personal impact on the learning process, as well as possess pedagogical knowledge and managerial abilities Accordingly, besides the roles listed above, teachers are regarded as managers by Camilleri (1999) As a manager, they are capable of planning the widest range of possible routes for their students, as well as the consequences of taking each route

2 4 Readiness for LA

2.4.1 Definition of readiness for LA

Cotterall (1995b) is one of the pioneers that argues for the investigation of readiness for LA before any attempt is made to promote LA Following this, ample researchers showed their interest in this issue So far in the literature, too few researchers explicitly define the concept of readiness for LA, except for Cotteral (1995b), Q X Le (2013), and Lin and Reinders (2018) Instead, LA readiness is inferred from students' levels of factors mediating LA as shown below

behaviors determined by their beliefs and experience by Cotterall (1995b) Later, in

-efficacy, important strategies (knowledge, confidence and willingness to adopt, acceptance of responsibility for adopting), dimensions of strategy-related behavior, and the nature of language learning Q X

autonomy in terms of psychology and metacognition The former emphasizes the positive attitudes and beliefs that enhance their willingness to learn autonomously

The latter stresses sufficient knowledge and skills in the process of learning, which

enables learners to actually perform autonomous learning (i.e metacognitive knowledge) Lin and Reinders (2018) define readiness for LA as the extent to which learners are psychologically, technically, and behaviorally prepared to exercise their autonomy Although differently expressed, the first two components are similar to Q

X

in autonomous learning behaviors

readiness through their perspective on responsibilities and decision-making abilities

in learning English as well as their autonomous learning behaviors This has become the most adapted model of readiness for LA in the literature so far (e.g in Daflizar,

T V

learning as Chan (2001b, 2002), others pay attention to metacognitive strategy use (e.g Bozkurt, 2018; Kocak,

knowledge (e.g Q X Le, 2013) Some others examine other factors, such as willingness to take responsibility (e.g Khalymon & Shevchenko, 2017;

-centered learning and learning autonomously (in Chikwa, Al-Damen, & Mathew, 2018)

The prominent point emerging from the three definitions of Cotterall (1995b),

Q X Le (2013), and Lin and Reinders (2018), as well as implied in the models used

positive attitude towards LA This is considered the psychological gateway to LA (Little, 1999) Besides, many of the aforementioned researchers paid attention to l

autonomous learning behaviors considering them as evidence of readiness for LA Accordingly, in this study, readiness for LA is referred to as students

attitude towards LA in high correlation with the level of frequency with which they participate in actual autonomous learning behaviors

2.4.2 Record of attitudes towards LA in various contexts

LA has been catching the attention of researchers all over the world As a

towards LA disclosing rather conflicting results

LA has its origin in Western culture and is assumed to be mostly appropriate

in Western culture, as above-mentioned It is understandable why there are so few

knowledge Ironically, results from these studies indicate that students from Western countries do not show their preference for LA in language learning Breeze (2002) worked with a group of 57 subjects from intermediate level English language classes

at a Spanish university language institute to track their attitude towards LA It is noticeable that these students were not studying for credits, and the course was voluntary Employing a quantitative approach, the study revealed that while Spanish students claimed to be responsible for their own learning and to enjoy some independent work, they also showed a high level of teacher dependence and believed that they could not progress without a class

Hadi (2017, 2018) made an attempt to examine the notion of LA in Algeria, both at secondary school and at tertiary level In both studies, Hadi adopted mixed methods with various instruments, including questionnaires for students and teachers, classroom observation and semi-structured interviews with school/university inspectors From the data analysis, EFL learners in Algerian secondary education were found to be "neither aware of the importance of autonomy nor ready to engage

in it" (Hadi, 2017, p 51) As for the university informants, Hadi (2018) found that students were not prepared to take charge of their learning in that they possessedwrong beliefs about autonomy and expressed a negative attitude towards the concept According to the findings of the study, Algerian students, like the participants in

decisions

The survey by Maliqi (2016) conducted with 300 students from three secondary schools in Kosovo provided a contradictory result According to the findings, the participants were enthusiastic about the adoption of LA in language learning Moreover, the surveyed students also expressed their consensus on diverse benefits of LA, such as ensuring lifelong learning and effective learning, or promoting willingness, voluntariness, and motivation for English learning.

Asian researchers appear to pay more attention to LA than their Western counterparts Ample studies with participants of different levels of language proficiency have been proceeded in the field of LA in general and attitude towards

LA in particular These studies disclose

surprise, many indicated that the participants showed positive beliefs and attitude towards LA

the one by Chan (2001b), which was conducted in Hong Kong The study assessed the language learning attitudes of 20 English major sophomores using a questionnaire and follow-up interviews The findings indicated that students had a very positive attitude towards autonomous learning with distinct perspectives on the nature of LA and were highly conscious of its requirements One year later, Chan et al (2002), conducting another study at the same university using similar instruments, discovered another side of the picture of LA Students were found to perceive quite confidence

in their decision-making abilities but seemed to be overly dependent on their teachers The key difference in the two studies was the participants, i.e 20 second-year

departments across the three years in Chan et al (2002) In a similar context, Yan (2007) and Lin and Reinders (2018) discovered strong positive attitudes towards LA among students in China Although the subjects in the two studies were of different level of proficiency in English, i.e non-Enlish major postgraduates in the former and non-English major undergraduates in the first two years of the program, the students had a very favourable view of their roles and a high level of confidence in their

language learning abilities They also indicated considerable opposition to teachers' conventional roles in students' language acquisition.

I adapted the questionnaire designed by Chan et al (2002) to investigate the attitude towards LA among 130 freshmen at a university in Turkey From what was reflected i

university level Turkish EFL students are ready to take more responsibility for their language learning process.Under the same interest, in the same context, and similar

epe, and Trimble (2018) also realized Turkish EFL

acceptance of the teacher's power and authority in the learning process

Daflizar (2017) carried out a mixed method study with 402 first yearundergraduate students in four higher educational institutions in Indonesia Results from the questionnaire revealed that despite their good evaluations of their decision-making abilities, the students believed teachers were in command of their learning Through the in-dept interview with 30 students, it was discerned that the students realized the importances of LA, among which were the compensation for time and resource scarcity in the classroom, ensuring personalized and effective learning, enabling students to broaden their knowledge Likewise, in their qualitative research, Swatevacharkul and Boonma (2020) interviewed 23 graduate students from China, Myanmar and Thailand, who were participating in the Master of Arts in English Language Teaching in an international university in Thailand, to find out their attitude towards LA From thematic content analysis, the researchers determined that the participants held LA in high regard They acknowledged that LA enhanced learning responsibilities outside class and motivation for learning English, and aided in the formation of self-development principles as well as an awareness of their own strengths and weaknesses Moreover, they recognized the equivalent importance of both teachers and students in promoting LA as well

In another large scale study, Sakai, Takagi, and Chu (2010) investigated 769 students from 15 universities in Japan and 133 students from one university in Taiwan

in phase 1 and 73 (44 Japanese and 29 Taiwanese) university students in phase 2 Unlike the aforementioned research, the participants in this survey are of different levels, from freshmen to juniors The subjects reported being willing to get involved

in various class management activities, expressing diverse reasons for their choice of engagement

indicated that the students had been conditioned to credit their teachers for their language acquisition success or failure as a result of their previous educational experiences The participants, on the other hand, stated that if given the opportunity, they are capable of learning autonomously In the same year, Riasati and Mollaei also

ents from Malaysia and the Middle East who studied at the International Islamic University Malaysia appeared quite confident in their ability to operate autonomously, although they were not yet ready to be involved in taking responsibility in the learning process, as found

among Saudi students in (2013) and Alrabai (2017), although the subjects

Sharing the same concern, Chikwa et al (2018) tested 173 students currently

majority of participants were shown to rely excessively on their teachers in the language learning process and that, as a result, they displayed low levels of autonomy and little inclination towards developing as autonomous learners

At secondary school level, Tayjasanant (2016), in an attempt to get insight into

-based

qualitative study with 76 English language teachers and 116 students from 41 lower secondary schools in Thailand So far, Tayjasanant is one of the very few researchers applying only a qualitative approach to such a rather big sample The overall results indicated that both teachers and students held positive beliefs about autonomous learning Another research carried out with secondary school students is the one byBozkurt and Arslan (2018) What is special about the population is that they are from Syrian refugee schools in Turkey The results from both quantitative and qualitative data analyses indicated a strong positive attitude towards autonomy in the English language learning of Syrian refugee students.

LA has become one of the primary goals of the new educational development strategy in Vietnam, as aforementioned LA, however, is a relatively new concept in the local This explains why more and more researchers with diverse goals have made

an effort to investigate this notion in the local context Among the works on this issue

in the local context, those by T V Nguyen (2011), Q X Le (2013) and Tran (2016)

LA T V Nguyen (2011) worked with 631 non-English majors from 24 universities and colleges across Vietnam, all of which have already applied the credit-based system

programs A 42-item questionnaire was employed after being judiciously developed and translated into Vietnamese T V Nguyen (2011) found that LA seemed to be alien to the students, and although students would like to change the way they are learning English, their wish was not strong enough This means that they are unwilling to be responsible for their own learning For the purpose of tracking

Q X Le (2013) collected data from a cohort of 200 university students adopting a mixed-method approach with the utilization of 2 questionnaires and an in-depth interview The researcher concluded that the participants seemed to be psychologically ready to take greater responsibility for learning In other words, they held a positive attitude towards LA Furthermore, the respondents also believed that LA could ensured lifelong learning and stimulate their

motivation for learning English In 2016, Tran did research with 134 twelfth grade students in a secondary school in Ho Chi Minh City, ultilising a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview From the data analysis results, Tran recorded a positive signal for LA among the participants who reported having some ability to decide on many of the activities related to their learning, despite believing that teachers should take on the majority of the responsibilities in the classroom.

2.4.3 Profile of the relationship between attitudes towards LA and autonomous learning behaviors

To date in the literature, there have been few studies that have paid attention

to the link between students' attitudes towards LA and their actual autonomous learning behaviors On the one side, Yan (2007) and Daflizar (2017) both found a statistically significantly positive correlation between students' attitudes towards LA and their actual autonomous learning behaviors among their participants in higher education institutions in China and Indonesia, respectively However, this correlation was not strong enough to guarantee positive attitudes towards LA leading to actual autonomous learning behaviors On the other side, it was maintained that there was even a mismatch between these two factors in the studies by Chan et al (2002) andLin and Reinders (2018) with non-English major undergraduates from the Hong Kong Polytechnic University in Hong Kong and from universities in Anhui in China

2 5 Conceptual framework

As earlier presented in section 2.1.2, the present study refers to LA as

-operatively in the learning process with three dimensions, i.e initiating learning opportunities, monitoring the learning process, and evaluating learning Autonomous learning behaviors either with

or without the support of ICTs regarding each of the three dimensions are explored both in and out of class The dimensions, as contended earlier, are equally important and complement one another to help students learn effectively For example, depending on the objectives identified, students can select corresponding strategies

Or, after evaluating the learning outcome, students may recognize that either learning

strategies or learning content or both are inappropriate, and they then may make some modifications to successfully acquire a second language Figure 2.1 (on page 28) visualizes this inter-correlated relationship among these dimensions of LA.

ttitude towards LA through other variables rather than explicitly exploring it Nor was the link between the construct of attitude and that of

LA elucidated Therefore, it is desirable that such a link be clarified

ude as "a psychological tendency that

is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor" (p.1, as cited in Albarracín, Johnson, Zanna & Kumkale, 2005) Moreover, they proposed the ABC model of attitude with three components, including cognition, affect, and behavior as demonstrated in figure 2.2 The cognitive component involves

rences about the attitude

towards the attitude object

Initiating

EvaluatingMonitoring

LA

Figure 2.2: The ABC model of attitude (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993)

willingness to act independently or co-operatively in the learning process both in and out of class As contended by a body of experts and agreed by various researchers,

influence on their assuming responsibility in or out of class and their readiness to learn English autonomously (S Nguyen & Habók, 2021) Victori and Lockhart (1995) highlight the importance of beliefs by the fact that students who acquire or perpetuate misconceptions about their roles, or who place undue emphasis on variables outside of their control, are less likely to take a responsible and active approach to learning, and may never achieve autonomy Therefore, beliefs about

Moreover, how students value LA also has an impact on their inclination towards LA,

ived values

of LA can be considered vitally another cognitive component of their attitude towards

LA

CognitionKnowledgeBeliefsPerceptions

BehaviourActionsIntentions

AffectFeelingsEmotionsPreferences

ATTITUDE