Hence, there needs to be more research on linguistic features or the relationship between linguistic items and computer- mediated discourse/ online English written texts made by EFL stud
CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION
In the last two decades, how to learn English effectively at high schools and universities in Vietnam has received much attention from EFL learners in general and non-English major students in particular- much more than before In addition to the target of achieving good English test results, most learners expect an improvement in their English proficiency, especially productive skills such as speaking and writing in English However, learning to write effectively in English is one of the biggest challenges for EFL students because the ability to write a second or foreign language effectively requires extensive and specialized instruction (Richard, 2003)
The rapid development of high technology and the Internet has contributed to English language education for the past few decades Technology provides learners unprecedented opportunities to practice English and involve themselves in authentic language use environments The growth of computer-mediated communication (CMC) and blended learning or online learning has captured both popular and scholarly imaginations (Herring, 2004) A lot of communication and linguistic scholars have done relatively interesting research on CMC since the 1980s These CMC researches concerned four aspects: linguistic perspectives, social and ethical perspectives, cross-cultural perspectives, and CMC and group interaction
Regarding linguistic perspectives, many scholars explore that CMC is typed, so it resembles writing, yet exchanges are generally quick and informal, so it resembles spoken conversation (Herring, 1996b) Furthermore, the computer-mediated register has its own distinct elements, such as emoticons, graphics, specific lexis, and acronyms They also implicate that CMC is not homogeneous, but rather, like any other form of communication, comes in a variety of styles and genres, some of which are determined by technological limitations (e.g., real-time "chat" modes versus asynchronous e-mail), and others by human factors such as communicative purpose and group membership
In Viet Nam, a few online learning courses have utilized updated technologies to teach the English language online (Pham, 2020) Before the year 2020, conducting blended-learning English courses on free online English teaching platforms (i.e., Edmodo, Gnomio, Google classroom, or Padlet, and so on) was optional, and teaching English or other subjects via virtual learning environments or platforms like Zoom, MSteams, or Google Meeting was not as common in colleges or universities in Viet Nam as it is in the While- and Post- Pandemic time today Hence, there has been a limited amount of research on linguistic features or the relationship between linguistic items and computer-mediated discourse/ online English written texts made by EFL students in Viet Nam and abroad
All the abovementioned facts have encouraged the researcher to conduct the current study ' Linguistics Features of Online English Writings in Vietnamese Higher Education Context'’
This study investigates the remarkable linguistic features in online English writings made by English-major and non-English-major undergraduate students at some universities in Viet Nam in the last five years Besides, it tempts to determine the relationship between these linguistic features' use and the students' English online writing quality Thereby, it can provide English writing instructors with suggestions for teaching and assessing Vietnamese EFL students' online English writing
The study includes the three following objectives:
1 Investigating lexical features used by Vietnamese EFL students in their online English writings
2 Investigating grammatical features used by Vietnamese EFL students in their online English writings
3 Studying the relationship between lexical and grammatical features and the students' online English writing quality
1 What lexical features are remarkably used in Vietnamese EFL students' online English writing?
2 What grammatical features are remarkably used in Vietnamese EFL students' online English writing?
3 What is the relationship between lexical and grammatical features and the quality of the EFL students' online English writing?
This study mainly focuses on the asynchronous online English writings made by EFL students who have taken online or blended-learning English courses with different levels ranging from A2 to C1 at the University of Da Nang, Viet Nam, since the academic year 2017-2018 until now
Besides, the study provides various perspectives on teaching and assessing EFL students' online English writings provided by English teachers from various colleges and universities across the North, South, and Center of Viet Nam based on a survey's results
To avoid the misconceptions about the objectives of this study, the following terminologies are considered key to the interpretation and are defined as they are used in this study
- Computer-mediated communication : Computer-mediated communication
(CMC) is the written or text-based communication between students/users via the instrumentality of computers The text-based CMC is considered an online English learning environment where participants interact utilizing the written words, e.g., by typing the texts or writings on the keyboard of one computer, which is read by others on their computer screens, either immediately (synchronous CMC) or at a later point in time (asynchronous CMC)
- Computer-mediated discourse : Computer-mediated discourse (CMD) encompasses all kinds of interpersonal communication conducted on the Internet,
4 e.g., by email, instant messaging, web discussion boards, and chat channels (Herring,
- Writings : In the online Oxford Learners’ Dictionary, ‘writings’ is the plural form of the noun “writing” and refers to a group of pieces of writing, especially by a particular person or on a particular subject
- Online English writings : Online English writings refer to written texts, essays, or pieces of writing in English made by English learners while taking part in online English sessions or courses In this study, online English writings were done by EFL students while they were taking online or blended-learning English writing courses at member universities of the University of Da Nang, Viet Nam
- Synchronous writing : Synchronous writing is written communication in real- time via discussion software on Local Area Networks or Internet chat sites with all participants at their computers simultaneously According to Richards (2003), a synchronous online environment offers real-time conferencing between students, or between students and teachers in a virtual environment, which encourages greater peer involvement and interaction than in non-networked contexts He indicates that synchronous online English writing classes provide users with synchronous writing discussions, online teacher feedback, and peer conferencing on texts These communication contexts require specialized writing software such as CommonSpace, Interchange, Google Docs, or Google Class, allowing students to co-construct a discourse simultaneously
- Asynchronous writing : According to Richards (2003), asynchronous or time- delayed communication using networked computers includes email, newsgroups, and conferencing software Its vital benefit for EFL writing teachers is that because communication is not synchronous, a text can be composed and modified slower before transmission rather than being co-constructed by participants This procedure results in more thoughtful and reflective responses, as well as more participation from less proficient students Topics change more slowly, and contributions do not come
5 in a jumbled order, so responses are usually more considered, carefully edited, and nearly resemble written communication conventions
- Linguistic features : In linguistics, a feature is any characteristic used to classify a phoneme or word These are often binary or unary conditions which act as constraints in various forms of linguistic analysis Linguistic features in the present study include lexical and grammatical features in the EFL students’ English online writings while taking online or blended-learning English writing courses at the member colleges and universities of the University of Da Nang, Viet Nam
- Higher education : In the online Cambridge dictionary, higher education is defined as education at a college or university where subjects are studied in great detail and at an advanced level Similarly, in the Britannica Encyclopedia, higher education refers to any of various types of education given in postsecondary institutions of learning and usually affording, at the end of a course of study, a named degree, diploma, or certificate of higher studies Higher-educational institutions include not only universities and colleges but also various professional schools that prepare in fields such as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art Higher education also includes teacher-training schools, junior colleges, and institutes of technology The basic entrance requirement for most higher-educational institutions is completing secondary education, and the usual entrance age is about 18 years
The thesis findings may be of significant benefit to the following people and organizations as follows
- Language teachers and researchers : The findings will offer English linguistic teachers, educationists, and researchers a better understanding of Vietnamese EFL students' habits and experience of using lexical and grammatical features in their online English writings, as well as find out some causes which led to the students' writing quality Based on this, they will provide EFL students with appropriate writing tips or strategies to reduce mistakes in using lexical and grammatical features in their online English writings; and thus improve their English writing proficiency
CHAPTER TWO – THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND
Computer-mediated communication and computer-mediated
When computer networks were initially designed in the 1960s, their primary purpose was to facilitate the transfer of information protocol would come to be used predominantly for human-to-human social interaction (Rheingold,1993)
Computer networks or the Internet have sparked a surge in human behavior studies over the last fifteen years As more people regularly interact in chat rooms, Web forums, listservs, email, instant messaging environments, and other places, social scientists, marketers, and educators are studying their behavior to learn more about the nature of CMC and how it can be beneficial
The phenomenal growth of CMC has captured both popular and scholarly imaginations (Herring, 2004) Some earliest communications scholars (such as McCarthy et al., 1994; Chesebro, 1985; Riffe et al., 1998; and Murray, 1988) began to take a relative interest in CMC in the 1980s
According to Herring (1996), CMC is communication taking place between human beings via computers In text-based CMC, participants interact by means of the written word, e.g., by typing a message on one computer’s keyboard which is read
11 by others on their computer screens, either immediately (synchronous CMC) or at a later time period (asynchronous CMC)
Before Hearing (1996), some researchers and sociologists or communications scholars interested in CMC explored the implications of computer networks for U.S government communications in a project in 1991 However, although text-based CMC is constructed almost exclusively from linguistic signs, most linguists have not considered CM language a legitimate object of inquiry early, except for Murray’s
(1988) articles of Written Communication describing “interactive written discourse” as an emergent discourse genre (Herring, 1996)
Lauren Squires (2016) defines computer-mediated communication as a broad term that encompasses a variety of semiotic/linguistic modalities (such as speech, text, and picture), as well as technology interfaces and platforms (computer, mobile phones, tablets, social media, immersive online games, virtual workplace environments, and more) The term refers to communication that takes place through a mediating interface, and these interfaces create levels of structure that require linguistic and social negotiation Wherever there is human interaction, whether it is face-to-face, on a computer in a chat room, or through text messaging on a phone, there is language
There are three characteristics in CMC research Firstly, the language of CMC is typed, and hence like writing, but exchanges are often rapid and informal, and hence more like spoken conversation Moreover, the computer-mediated register has unique features of its own, such as the use of emoticons and other graphics, as well as special lexis and acronyms (Collot & Milena and Nancy Belmore, 1993) Secondly, because of the fact that participants interact without the benefit of extra- linguistic cues as to the gender, identity, personality, or mood of their interlocutors in CMC, the language of CMC is hypothesized to be impersonal or distancing Hence, CMC language is useful for the transfer of information but unsuitable for personal relationships More idealistically, others perceive in the lack of physical cues potential freedom from limiting gender, class, ethnic, and other status-based
12 prejudices; they claim CMC is inherently democratic- one is judged solely on the merit of what one says, not on who one is The last characteristic of CMC relates to the phenomenon of community formation in cyberspace, which generates norms of interaction and conflict resolution procedures in text that can be saved and mined later for insights into the genesis of human social organization The potential of CMC to bring people together, for better or worse, also has practical consequences both for individuals and the Social order (Herring, 1996)
Computer-mediated discourse (CMD) encompasses all kinds of interpersonal communication carried out on the Internet, e.g., by email, instant messaging, web discussion boards, and chat channels (Herring, 2001) CMD has gotten much scholarly interest in the previous decade, especially from pragmatic, discourse- analytic, and sociolinguistic perspectives In contrast, methodological reflection lags behind other areas of discourse research
To begin with, while data collection over the Internet appears to be easy at first glance, CMD researchers face many non-trivial challenges Sample size and representativeness, data processing techniques, genre delimitation, the type and amount of contextual information needed, and ethical issues like anonymity and privacy protection are just a few examples There are few standard guidelines for CMD corpus design and publicly-available CMD corpora, so much research in this area has relied on small, ad-hoc data sets (Androutsopoulos J & BeiBwenger M.,
In terms of methodology, language-focused CMD research has drawn on methods and key concepts from a variety of linguistic research traditions (including pragmatics, conversation analysis, sociolinguistics, genre analysis, and the ethnography of communication), which have been successfully applied to study how people use linguistic resources to establish contacts, manage interactions, and construct identities within computer networks Critical thinking on the problems and challenges that arise when these research traditions are brought to the new contexts
13 and habitats of CMD, on the other hand, is notably nonexistent Does a one-to-one transfer of research paradigms, for example, contribute to contextually rich understandings of language use and interactional processes in CMD, or does it rather obscure some of its most important new aspects? CMD has crucial implications for comprehending fundamental ideas in discourse studies such as interactional coherence, participant frameworks, intertextuality, language-identity linkages, and community
Adapting or reconceptualizing existing concepts and methodologies appears to be an essential step in the ongoing development of CMD research, and new research frameworks, such as Herring's approach to the study of online communities, are already emerging such as Herring's approach to the study of online communities (Herring, 2004)
CMD studies typically have the following characteristics:
- Compilation and design of CMD corpora, including data and meta-data collection, pre-processing, and annotation, corpus storage, and maintenance technologies, and ethical issues
- Benefits and challenges of the combination of various data sets (e.g., log files, online observation, user interviews) for specific research questions;
- Methods of conducting "virtual" or "online" ethnography as a contextually rich view into the study of online behaviors and communities;
- Social and technical circumstances of CMD that need to be considered when applying recognized concepts and frameworks to the online discourse analysis; and
- Combining qualitative and quantitative methods in CMD research
The term computer-mediated discourse analysis (CMDA) was first coined in
1995 (Herring, 2001), although research meeting the definitional criteria for CMDA has been carried out since the late 1970s (Hiltz & Turoff, 1978) and the mid-1980s (Murray, 1985, 1988; Severinson Eklundh, 1986)
Since the mid-1990s, going along with the increase in computer-mediated communication (CMC) research, many researchers have focused on online discourse as a way to understand the effects of new technology However, different researchers have approached computer-mediated discourse with different questions, methods, and interpretations, often operating individually (Herring, 1996)
CMDA analyzes computer-mediated communicating products using methods adapted from language-based disciplines such as linguistics, communication, and rhetoric (Herring, 2001) It may be complemented by surveys, interviews, ethnographic observation, or other methods involving qualitative or quantitative analysis However, basically, CMDA is the examination of verbal interaction logs, including characters, words, utterances, messages, exchanges, threads, archives, and so on) In its broadest sense, computer-mediated discourse analysis refers to any study of online behavior based on factual, textual observations ('textual' refers to any forms of language, spoken or written, that can be captured and studied in textual form (Herring, 1996)
Online English writing
As mentioned above, CMC and CMD have long been of interest to teachers, learners, linguistics researchers, and educators (Lamy M & Hampel R., 2007) The computer-mediated English writing learning with the word processor encourages users to experiment with different means of expression and organization However, teachers sometimes discover that students tend to work in relative isolation with minimal interaction with other students when using word processors Absorbed by the machine and concentrating on developing their own texts, they rarely discuss their unfolding prose or exchange ideas to gain a deeper understanding of texts, audiences, and their fellow students (Richard, 2003) Therefore, linking computers together via Local Area Network (LAN) built on the advantages of individual machines through learners' collaboration improves their writing learning The networked computer- mediated writing learning brings learners an online writing environment where students appear to value peer support while composing rather than simply receiving comments on written products (Hyland, 1998) Online writing comprises synchronous and asynchronous writing
Synchronous writing is written communication in real time via discussion software on LAN or Internet chat sites with all participants at their computers at the same time (Richards, 2003)
According to Richards (2003), synchronous online environment offers real-time conferencing between students or between students and teachers in a virtual environment which encourages greater peer involvement and interaction than in non- networked contexts This researcher indicates that synchronous online English writing classes provide users with synchronous writing discussions, online teacher feedback, and peer conferencing on texts These communication contexts require specialized writing software such as CommonSpace, Interchange, Google Docs, or Google Class, allowing students to co-construct a discourse simultaneously Of course, this kind of virtual English writing environment contains both potential advantages (i.e., allowing all users equal rights and opportunities, encouraging weaker and shy students to participate, decentralizing teacher role, facilitating more student talk, and so forth) and disadvantages (such as unclear improvement of students’ writing quality, disjointed and incoherent messages to learners, or lack of physical co-presence among students)
In short, synchronous online writing classes need careful consideration before being implemented According to Richards (2003), while decentralizing teachers' control to learners can promote writing, it can also lead to short-term, undeveloped contributions, impossible private exchanges, and can weaken interaction norms as well Furthermore, there has not been convincing evidence that a networked computer-mediated communication environment really improves learners' writing products so far While the virtual learning context is helpful for collaborative writing and exchanging ideas on writing projects, teachers are still experimenting with the best ways to apply this tool in writing instruction
According to Richard (2003), asynchronous or time-delayed communication using networked computers includes email, newsgroups, and conferencing software Its vital benefit for second language (L2) writing teachers is that because communication is not synchronous, a text can be composed and modified slower before transmission rather than being co-constructed by participants This procedure results in more thoughtful and reflective responses, as well as more participation from less proficient students Topics change more slowly, and contributions do not come in a jumbled order, so responses are usually more considered, more carefully edited, and more nearly resemble written communication conventions
Email seems to be familiar to many students as text files that can be read, saved, edited and forwarded to other users It is an effective tool for writing instruction because it lets teachers set up both classroom contact and long-distance conversations, encouraging students to concentrate on fluency and meaning while writing for an authentic audience and purpose L2 writing teachers also use discussion lists as a means of asynchronous communication (or mailing lists) Each list connects people with similar interests and has its unique purpose and scope For sources of language learning materials, the Internet is a great source of language learning materials in general, and writing tips in particular Not only does the Internet facilitate the modes of computer-mediated communication discussed in the last section, but it also enables both teachers and learners to easily find and read online texts which provide (a) data for projects; (b) information, tasks, and materials for classes; (c) authentic language for analysis; and (d) a place for students to publish their work (Richard, 2003)
In addition to the Internet, there are numerous CALL programs or software which support L2 writing instruction These differ significantly in terms of look, effectiveness, and the instructional philosophies that underpin them; therefore, caution should be taken when choosing resources for students CALL programs provide students with a learning experience that is considerably distinct from either
22 computer-mediated communication or the Internet Language learning and writing software provide students with engaging, multimedia settings in which they can study certain language areas at their own pace and with complete control over the paths they take, the content they focus on, and the time they commit to it In essence, these are tutors dressed up as digital textbooks, with much of the same benefits and drawbacks Their usefulness in writing classes, like traditional paper resources, is ultimately dependent on the teacher's ability to use them in ways that respond to students' proficiencies, interests, and target needs
In summary, in many circumstances, online writing instruction presents stimulating alternatives to traditional paper materials and writing tasks, and many commercial software and Internet sites are easy to learn, straightforward to use, and technically robust However, teachers should carefully consider choosing some software or Internet site most appropriate for the course purposes and know how to integrate them into a coherent writing course so that students can obtain significant benefits from taking part in their online writing courses.
Linguistic features in English second language writings
In 2002, Hinkel conducted a large-scale study of university-level L2 texts which analyzed the similarity and differences between the most common linguistic and rhetorical features in L2 texts written by advanced Non Native Speakers (NNSs) of English or English second language learners (ESL/L2) and those in the essays of Native Speakers (NSs /L1) enrolled in required first-year university composition courses All textual features in the study were selected for the analysis basing on four criteria: a) Their textual functions, meanings, and the implications of their uses in text; b) The prominence of their uses, meanings, and functions established in corpus analyses of published academic genre in English; c) The prominence of particular linguistic and rhetorical characteristics found in composition instruction and assessment, and d) Whenever possible, consideration of the uses of proximate syntactic, lexical, and rhetorical features in NNSs’ L1s
Hinkel (2002) classified the textual features of the university-level L1&L2 texts two major categories: linguistic features and rhetorical features as follows
- Semantic and lexical classes of nouns (such as enumerative, advance/retroactive, language activity, illocutionary, resultative, and vague nouns)
- Personal Pronouns (first-person singular and plural, second-person singular and plural, and third-person singular and plural pronouns)
- Slot fillers ( nonreferential it in the clause subject, and existential there in the clause subject position)
- Indirect pronouns (universal and negative pronouns, and assertive pronouns)
- Gerunds (-ing pronominals with noun functions)
- Verb tenses (the past, the present, the future)
- Verb aspects (progressive and perfect)
- Semantic and lexical classes of verbs (public, private, suasive, logical/semantic relationships, and expecting/tentative verbs)
- Modal verbs (possibility and ability, obligation, and necessity, and predictive)
- Copula be as the main verb
- Participles as adjectival or adverbial pre- and postpositional forms (present participles and past participles)
- Adjectives (attributive and predicative adjectives)
- Semantic and lexical classes of adverbs (of time, frequency, place, amplifiers, down toners, and manner)
- Noun clauses (noun/nominal clauses in the subject or object position, with explicit or omitted subordinators, noun clauses as adjective complements, and noun clauses as objects of prepositions)
- Adjective clauses (full adjective clauses with or without subordinators, and reduced adjective clauses in postnominal positions, postpositional adjectives, and appositives)
- Adverb clauses (full and reduced adverb clauses of cause, concession, condition, purpose, time, place, manner, and so on)
- Coordinating and logical conjunctions/prepositions (phrase-level coordinating conjunctions, sentence-level coordinating conjunctions, and logical/semantic conjunctions and prepositions)
- Hedges (epistemic adjectives and adverbs, lexical, possibility, quality, hedged performative verbs)
- Fixed strings, including phrasal verbs, idioms, and collocations
Generally, identifying the most common features in NS and NNS texts establishes priorities of syntactic, lexical, and rhetorical features in writings made by speakers of different languages Furthermore, determining order ranks of features’ median rates in NNS texts relative to those of NSs can provide valuable insights into L1 and L2 use with practical applications of the analysis applied in curriculum design and L2 teaching (Hinkel, 2002)
The relationship between linguistic features and English writing
In general, the linguistic features examined by writing researchers fall into three large constructs: lexical, syntactic, and cohesion These features are important elements of discourse structures and have close links to the quality and development of English Second Language (ESL) writings (McNamara et al., 2010)
2.1.4.1.Lexical features and the English writing quality and development
According to Crossley (2020), lexical items are considered the most used linguistic feature to analyze the quality of texts The quality of lexical items can be classified into three categories: lexical diversity, lexical density, and lexical sophistication The first category refers to the number of unique words in a text The second one means the number of contents to function words; and the rest includes words that are more likely found in academic texts or words that are less concrete, imageable, and familiar, or more specific words, or words that are less diverse based on context (Crossley & McNamara, 2011; McDonald & Shillcock, 2001; and Saito et al., 2016) Of them, lexical sophistication tends to provide the richest metrics of text quality and can be thought of as the proportion of advanced words in a text (Read,
2000) Furthermore, with usage-based approaches to understanding lexical knowledge, it is said that the existence of more sophisticated words in a writing sample is indicative of greater lexical knowledge and thus better writing ability (Crossley, 2020)
2.1.4.2 Syntactic complexity and English writing quality and development
Lu (2011) defines syntactic complexity as the sophistication of syntactic forms created and the variety of syntactic forms produced The underlying notion is that more complicated syntactic structures signify more advanced writing abilities (Crossley, 2020) Traditionally, standard ways to evaluate syntactic complexity include calculating sentence length with the assumption that longer sentences are more complicated and T-unit counts, where a T-unit is a dominant clause plus all subordinate clauses However, T-units features are problematic because they often report conflicting results across studies and can be challenging to interpret (Norris & Ortega, 2009) Latter researchers and linguistics implicated that phrasal complexity is more characteristic of academic writing, but clausal complexity is more prevalent in speech Therefore, using large-grained clausal complexity indices like T-units would fail to distinguish between these two types of complexity (Biber et al., 2011)
2.1.4.3.Text cohesion and English writing quality and development
Text cohesion is related to the inter-connectivity of text segments of text based on textual features and is an essential element of writing because it can indicate lexical, semantic, and argumentative dependencies within a text (Halliday & Hasan,
1976) Text cohesion can occur at the sentence level (i.e., local cohesion) or across larger segment gaps such as paragraph, chapters (i.e., global cohesion), or even texts (e.g., inter-document cohesion)
The most common approach to identifying cohesion within texts is to examine overt connections between text segments including referencing previous elements, repeating lexical items, substituting lexical items and the use of conjunctions to connect ideas If cohesion in a text is not maintained, it may be difficult for readers to evaluate the systematic relationship between shared lexical items, at which point a reader's mental representation of the text may break, affecting comprehension (Crossley, 2020)
Review of previous related studies
Previous studies of computer-mediated communication and computer-mediated discourse analysis
Studies of CMC and CMDA have been conducted for more than three decades so far (Lauren Squires, 2016) Guided by Herring's theoretical backgrounds relating to CMC, CMD, and CMDA mentioned above, this part of the chapter reviews fourteen previous CMC and CMDA studies abroad and in Viet Nam that examine computer-mediated language issues
2.2.1.1 Previous CMC and CMDA studies abroad
Collot, Milena and Nancy Belmore's (1993) study named "Electronic Language" analyzed lexical and grammatical features of a large corpus of computer- mediated messages sent to an electronic bulletin board system in virtual conferences Canada The researchers applied Biber's (1998) factor analysis to their corpus, comparing the electronic corpus with computerized corpora of spoken and written English They identified two types of electronic language online and offline and
27 situated them along six dimensions: informativity, narrativity, explicitness, persuasion, abstraction, and elaboration Finally, they concluded a more exact characterization of electronic language than possible by simply contrasting it with
In the study titled ‘Oral and written linguistic aspects of computer conferencing,’ Yates’ (1996) described the construction of a large CMC corpus including messages exchanged on a computer conferencing system at the Open University in the United Kingdom Yates compared his corpus with computerized corpora of spoken and written English, following a Hallidayan model that considers textual, interpersonal, and ideational functions of language His results revealed that CMC would be more like written language concerning vocabulary use (textual), more like spoken language with respect to the use of personal pronouns (interpersonal), and made greater use of modal auxiliaries (ideational) than either speech or writing Werry and Mowbray (2001) analyzed data as a synchronous mode of computer- mediated discourse composed by the English and French language exchanged in chat sessions on an Australian channel, focusing on exchange structures, forms of adhesivity, abbreviation prosody, and gesture The author hypothesized that the formal properties and patterns of communicative interaction identifiable would emerge out of a complex set of temporal, spatial, contextual, and social constraints
He indicated how participants had evolved a number of innovative linguistic strategies that both Compensate for and adapt to these constraints He also stated that the drive shaped communication at many different levels on IRC to recreate or imitate the discursive style of face-to-face spoken language In the end, the work concluded that the practice of naturalistic interpersonal exchange crucially inflected language of this kind of CMD and the tendency to create forms of expression would enable or be appropriate to such exchange
Herring (1999a) conducted a study analyzing the schematic organization of electronic messages posted to two academic mailing lists, one primarily male and the other primarily female, to evaluate the popular stereotype that men and women use
28 e-mail for different purposes (information exchange vs social interaction) The results did not support the stereotype: both genders post electronic messages to exchange views and information in interactive ways However, women's and men's messages were structured differently, with female users exhibiting alignment and male users opposing their addressees
Alkhataba et al (2018) investigated six major website 2.0 technologies such as Edmodo, Google docs, Zoho writer, Blogs, Wikis, and Facebook, most capable of providing online writing in blended or virtual online classrooms Applying the observation method, the researcher found that various social sites classified as Web 2.0 could be used for different purposes, and they all allowed for online interaction by either closed user groups with access to the internet The work implicated that despite the enormous applications of Web 2.0 technologies in education, they did not formally enact as part of the educational curriculum However, their techniques were widely considered to aid learning or social interaction purposes
Thomas Cho's (2010) study analyzed the linguistic features of email and written memoranda in an academic workplace, a university department in Australia Ten subjects contributed email and completed a questionnaire via email on their use of email The study compared the subjects' emails to memoranda samples from two subjects of the same department It found that the email sample differed markedly from the memoranda in containing more structural reductions, expressive features, greeting and leave-taking formulas, and instances of linguistic innovation The study's finding claimed that the requirement to maintain social interaction between users could temper linguistic economy in emails Besides, email style is less formal than other written workplace communication types; furthermore, emails contain oral or speech features
Fiona and Francesca's study (2013) examined the textual characteristics of 936 text messages in English (13391 words) supplied by young adult English-speaking samples collected in Ireland The authors examined the message length in terms of sentences, words, and characters per text message; prevalence and types of
29 nonstandard spelling; textisms as a function of message length; sender and message characteristics affecting spelling choice; and word frequency The study showed that nonstandard spelling was found in 25% of word content, with the removal of capital letters being the most common category The types of nonstandard spelling differed only slightly based on the text message's purpose, but the overall proportion of nonstandard spelling did not change considerably Less than 0.2% of content was 'semantically unrecoverable.' Besides, the study provided some implications for experimental studies of textisms
Ami and Francis carried out CMC research named Computer-mediated communication in collaborative writing in 2002 This study aimed to determine if using computers to communicate during group writing tasks is an effective mode of communication Three-member groups wrote term papers in one of three conditions: face-to-face, synchronous computer-mediated communication (Net meeting), or email The participants had six weeks to complete the task The key difference in the product was that email groups generated shorter rough drafts than FTF groups, implying that the email groups' rough drafts were less well thought out Overall, process measures demonstrated that communication mechanisms that allow for interactivity were effectively utilized in a collaborative writing environment Furthermore, it did not appear that a lack of expressiveness hindered groupwork The finding showed that email alone might not be an appropriate setting for writing collaboratively, whereas teams in a synchronous computer-mediated communication setting, such as Net meeting, should be able to produce quality work satisfactorily Robert and Teffrey (1998) examined the relationship between electronic and face-to-face discourse in two undergraduate university writing classes where CMC was employed to supplement regular in-class lectures and discussions The research investigated the impact of in-class discussion on the nature and frequency of student engagement in online discussions to find any differences or similarities between electronic discourse and in-class face-to-face discourse Its results demonstrated complicated linkages between online and in-class dialogue in the context of a specific
30 course The form of in-class lecture and debate, as well as the instructors' management of the CMC technology use, were found to be related to rates of student participation in online discourse and the nature of that participation; In addition, the study implied that students' uses of CMC technologies relate to their complex perceptions of students' enrollment status in an online course at a university Finally, the findings reported that comprehending course-related online dialogue within the context of a university course and undergraduate student experience is critical
2.2.1.2 Previous CMC, CMDA, or online studies in Viet Nam
Nguyen (2008) conducted a study that discussed three major fields correlated to the design of EFL multimedia courseware basing on the literature and the author's reflection on the current context of foreign language teaching and learning at the University of Danang (UD), Viet Nam The study consists of three parts: exploring potential users of a CALL product, what should be included, what strategies are needed to select the product's contents and the essential criteria for the multimedia design Firstly, the study suggested that characteristics of the potential users need to be taken into account before designing multimedia language courseware The characteristics of the potential users can be the learners' variables of "knowledge of the learners' age, sex, physical abilities, education, cultural or ethnic background, training, motivation, goals, and personality, and computing experience a The study noted that the more the multilanguage courseware designers know the needs and characteristics of the users, the better the courseware design could be Also, it advised the designer should also be sensitive to factors that emerge consequence of individual learner characteristics Secondly, the study indicated that the courseware content should be authentic and proper to the intended users and engage the learner in meaningful tasks In order to attain this, the designer should choose themes or topics appropriate to the users' preferences and interests, consider an adequate number of proper learning materials included in each courseware, and design more listening and speaking tasks in the courseware to improve Vietnamese English learners' communicative skills The final crucial issue discussed in the study is screen design
31 which covers such micro factors as presentation of text, graphics, sound, movie, and colour Based on Richard’s (2003) point of view: "presentation on screens should visually stimulate, be easy to read, and exhibit no annoying or distracting features', the study advised designers to make use of multimedia technology facilities to arrange as much suitable material as possible on the computer screen systematically, easy- accessibly and artfully It concluded that designers should master these triangular issues to design future valuable courseware programs for the students of English at the University of Danang, Viet Nam
In 2011, Nguyen carried out a study named "Vietnamese learners' reflections on and perceptions of the application of CMC into collaborative learning." The study conducted an interview survey for teacher trainees from a TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) class in the University of Foreign Language Studies, University of Da Nang, to obtain English teachers' perception of CMC in Vietnamese higher education context The survey result found positive attitudes from major participants toward the use of CMC in collaborative classrooms All of the participants stated a preference for computer-assisted learning and indicated a desire for and willingness to take part in further CMC-enhanced courses like the current one in the future In detail, the number of participants preferring synchronous CMC is equal to those being interested in asynchronous CMC Also, it reported that the course helped improve the learners' computer skills and collaborative experience; Whereas, it found little clear evidence of CMC English courses' supports to improvements to the learners' English language skills From the learners' perspective, the research encourages the integration of CMC technologies into collaborative learning because of their feasibility and applicability However, in order to transform this potential into practical application, the author noted that institutions' ICT infrastructure should be well prepared, as well as CMC applications used in the classrooms need to be fit with particular curriculums in order to bring about the success of the CMC application into English collaborative learning classes
Previous studies of linguistic features in English writings
Linguistic features are essential elements of identifying discourse structures, and they have strong influences on the quality of the text (Crossley, 2018) According to MacArthur et al (2019), with the development of automated analysis of linguistic features, research on the features of written language using natural language processing tools to analyze lexical, syntactic, cohesive, and semantic features of text has increased This part of the chapter reviews several previous large-scale studies relating to these linguistic features of English writing text made by university NNS English learners around the world
Hinkel (2002) compared frequencies of 68 linguistic features in a corpus of 1,457 essays written by English-speaking-country students (L1 writers) and English language learning students (L2 writers) from six language backgrounds studying in U.S universities The L1 writers were all first-year students taking a placement test for the first-year composition courses at public and private universities in the U.S and were asked to choose one of six designed prompts to write an argumentative or expository essay of about 290 words; They all had no or very limited experience of academic writing practice and none of them had received college-level writing instruction before composing these essays L2 writers were the senior students and enrolled in courses in their major in the U.S universities at the time of the study They were given the same essay prompts as the L1 writers to compose an essay with a medium length of about 300 words These students all had previously completed English language training in intensive English programs or received at least 9 years of L2 instruction in U.S universities Therefore, they had had more college-level academic writing experience than the group of L1 writers The results of the analysis found 26 features with significantly different frequencies between the L1 and L2 groups Sixteen features associated with simplistic writing in the English language learners (ELL) texts had a median frequency rate statistically higher than that of the English L1 writing samples (i.e., interpretive nouns, vague nouns, assertive pronouns, public verbs, private verbs, expecting/tentative verbs, modal verbs of
35 necessity, be as a main verb, predicative adjectives, amplifiers, other adverbs, adverb clauses of cause, phrase-level conjunctions, sentence-level conjunctions, exemplification markers, and emphatics) Ten features were more frequent in L1 writing samples such as it-cleft, past participles, perfect aspect, reduced adjective clauses, progressive aspect, reduced adverb clauses, predictive modal would, passive voice, fixed strings (idiomatic phrases and collocations), and present participles There existed 42 features that were not found in significantly different frequencies included personal and indirect pronouns, existential there, verb tenses (past, present, and future), and modals of possibility and ability The results showed that the writing of the L2 English university students trained in academic writing was significantly less grammatically and syntactically complex than the writing of native English speakers who had not received instructions in college-level writing Hinkel concludes that by educating students about the pitfalls of simple writing, teachers could help students identify these traits in their writing and correct them using methods that they have been taught She provides practical examples to better prepare students for the expected writing proficiency in their college courses
Biber (1988) examined the co-occurrence of 67 linguistic elements to come up with variation continuums that anticipate the differences between spoken and written registers The study discovered that a greater type/token ratio corresponds to a lower frequency of private verbs, emphatics, amplifier adverbs, be as a main verb, and coordinating conjunctions on a continuum between spoken and written English, and vice versa This is because the latter set of features indicates interactive communication with a non-informational focus However, when combined with several other features, the type/token ratio indicates a text with a high informational focus, a high density of information, and concise and precise informative communication Thus, academic writing has a higher type/token ratio because writers have had more time to develop their thoughts, carefully select their words, and edit their selections to ensure that the words adequately represent the nuances of their views On the other hand, the conversation has a lower type-token ratio since the
36 speakers have to employ more commonly used words due to the limits of online production These findings shed light on how the relative frequency of a group of linguistic features influences registers
Zein et al (2017) used a qualitative content analysis method to analyze linguistic features and local wisdom content in EFL students' narrative texts and their instructional implementation The study's subjects were narrative texts created by 25 EFL students from the University Sumatera Utara's Cultural Sciences faculty under the theme of folktales from North Sumatera, Indonesia Guided by experiential function in systemic functional grammar theory and Sibarani's concept, the researchers analyzed the text samples to identify linguistic features of the text to discover kinds of local wisdom contained in the text The study results found twelve different titles of folktales found in the data In terms of linguistic features, most of the students have difficulties using the past and present tense, especially using regular and irregular verbs and the missing of dialogue existence The local wisdom content's characteristics represented in the texts included keeping promises, obedience to parents, honesty, not being haughty, and patience The consequence was that the students could not write narrative texts correctly because some language elements were absent, and they could not recognize the local knowledge contained in them Finally, it was proposed that students practice writing this text more and that lecturers devote more time to teaching this text so that students can understand and apply linguistic features and integrate local knowledge material into narrative text
Briefly, these previous studies focused on examining and comparing the frequency of lexical, grammatical, syntactic, or rhetorical features used in NNS students' texts with NS students' ones Based on the textual functional theory of language features as well as their usage habits in L1 and L2, some studies like Hinkle's analyzed textual contexts and explained the function of each linguistic feature in the essays of different groups of L1 learners While it is helpful to know which characteristics ELL students use with lower or higher frequency than L1 students, Hinkel's study did not examine more in-depth to discover and compare the
37 situations and reasons for which the two groups of writers employed features with significantly different frequencies in their writing contexts The present study addresses the need to understand better the causes of using these remarkable features in EFL students' online writing Furthermore, it also discovers these linguistic features' influences on the EFL students' online English writing quality, which has yet to be studied in the research on linguistics or education
2.2.3 Previous studies of the link between linguistic features and English writing quality
Regarding to lexical linguistic features, a lot of research on NNS or L2 learners’ writings report that more sophisticated words represent higher-quality texts while writers develop overtime to produce more sophisticated lexical items For example, word frequency predicates human ratings of writing proficiency such that more proficient L2 learners tend to produce less frequent words, familiar and meaningful words (Crossley & McNamara, 2012), and words with more letters or syllables (Grant
& Ginther, 2000) More proficient L2 writers also tend to use more specific words (Guo et al., 2013; Kyle & Crossley, 2016) and less imageable words (Crossley et al.,
2015) than less proficient L2 writers Furthermore, several L2 studies which focus on phrasal sophistication in predicting writing quality reveal that more proficient L2 writers produce a more fantastic range of phrasal structures standard in L1 language speech and writing samples and produce these structures more frequently than lower proficiency writers (Kyle & Crossley, 2015)
In concerned with syntactic features, Crossley & McNamara made various analyses on the links between syntactic complexity features and L1/L2 writing quality during five years, from 2011 to 2016 Their studies reported that better writers used greater syntactic complexity (i.e., a more significant number of words before the main verb) The researchers revealed that simple declarative sentences correlated negatively with essay quality while the length of noun phrases and the number of words before the main verb correlated positively Their study in 2014 indicated significant growth in L2 writers' syntactic complexity due to time spent in a writing
38 class Specifically, L2 writers produced longer noun phrases, sentences that were less syntactic similar, more words before the main verb, and fewer verb phrases over a semester Basing on the results of McNamara's et al study (2013), Crossley and Kyle
(2017) examined differences between T-unit features and usage-based syntactic complexity features that measure lexical-grammatical features (e.g., average main verb lemma frequency, verb-argument frequency) to predict L2 writing quality and found that fine-grained features predicted more than double the amount of variance in writing quality In the study 2018, Kyle and Crossley illustrated the interpretation problem in evaluating writing quality by the mean length of T-units Many studies that go beyond T-units have been conducted for the last two decades like the studies of Grant & Ginther (2000), Taguchi, Crawford, & Wetzel (2013), Guo, Crossley, and McNamara (2013), Crossley & McNamara (2014), and Friginal & Weigle (2014)
In their study in 2000, Grant & Ginther indicated that higher scored L2 essays had more clausal subordination and occurrence of passive structures The two studies in
2014 suggested that the production of dependent clause features such as infinitives and 'that' verb complements and a greater number of complex syntactic structures, including syntactic structures related to clause complexity, are indicators of higher quality L2 essays Guo, Crossley, and McNamara (2013) found a link between mean noun phrase length and writing quality and agreed with Taguchi, Crawford, & Wetzel’s (2013) findings which indicated that increased phrasal complexity in writing is also associated to increased writing proficiency
In concerned with the relationship between text cohesion devices and writing quality and development, studies examining the connection between text quality and associative features in L2 text are rarer than in L1 writing Crossley (2020) Jarvis's