Doctoral thesis of philosophy students expectations and perceptions of service quality performance university student advisors in australia, malaysia and singapore

Students’ Expectations and Perceptions of Service Quality Performance: University student advisors in Australia, Malaysia and Singapore A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requireme

Introduction

Introduction

This chapter explores the crucial role of services in the global economy and highlights the diverse industries within the services sector It examines the background of higher education challenges across different countries, emphasizing their impact on economic development Additionally, the chapter outlines the purpose and significance of this study, clearly defining the research questions to guide the investigation A brief overview of subsequent chapters is provided to structure the research and ensure a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

The Role of Services in an Economy

In today’s competitive and dynamic environment, the services sector has become a crucial driver of global economic growth, representing the fastest-growing sector worldwide in terms of GDP and accounting for approximately two-thirds of global services trade (Lo, Ooi & Chin, 2007) The expansion of services in international trade is fueled by globalization, government liberalization, and rapid advancements in information and communication technology (ICT) Previously restricted by regulations and borders, many service trades are now accessible globally through international organizations, joint alliances, inter-governmental trade agreements, and increasingly sophisticated internet technology (IT) networks.

Kasper, Helsdingen and Gabbott (2006) argue that demographic changes and social demand are further factors that have led to the continued growth of services

The services sector plays a crucial role in the development and growth of other industries, significantly contributing to overall economic performance According to Lo, Ooi, and Chin (2007), the services industry is a key driver of many national economies worldwide, prompting governments to prioritize its development in their economic strategies For example, the United States, as the world’s largest economy, has seen continuous expansion in its core services sectors, particularly targeting the Asian region for outsourcing opportunities.

The services sector plays a crucial role in Singapore’s economy, particularly evident in its thriving hospitality industry Recent regulatory changes, such as the Singapore government's amendments to the Gambling Act, have facilitated the issuance of casino licenses by the Singapore Casino Regulatory Authority to expand the premium-player segment Additionally, Singapore hosts the prestigious Formula One race, with the racing circuit licensing agreement recently extended until 2017, reinforcing its status as a global tourism and entertainment hub.

Such events are expected to enhance its tourism and services sectors

The services sector plays a crucial role in the higher education landscapes of Malaysia and Singapore, reflecting their economic priorities In Malaysia, the focus on expanding the services industry aligns with the country's vision of becoming a developed nation, positioning the sector as the primary engine for sustainable economic growth Emphasizing the development of services is essential for Malaysia’s economic growth strategy, highlighting its significance in national progress.

The 10th Malaysia Plan (2011-2015) projected a 7.2% annual growth rate for the services sector, aiming to boost its contribution to GDP to 61% by 2015 (Malaysian Investment Development Authority, 2012) In recent years, the Malaysian government has empowered higher education institutions with greater autonomy to enhance academic standards Additionally, the development of EduCity in the southern region of Malaysia has been a strategic move to support the nation's educational and economic growth.

Malaysia that is expected to attract 100,000 international students by 2010 (Overland 2007; Rout 2007; The Malaysian Insider, 21 November 2008)

Singapore is establishing itself as a premier educational hub for both local and international students Strategically located in the heart of Asia, Singapore has become a global business epicenter, serving as a vital gateway between Western and Eastern economies This strategic position enhances its appeal as a center for quality education and international economic integration.

In 2012, the Singapore government granted local universities greater autonomy, allowing them to set their own fee structures This move aims to better meet students' needs and improve the overall quality of higher education institutions in Singapore.

2004, 9 December) A recently released report by Universitas 21, ‘U21 Ranking of

Singapore ranks 11th globally and leads in Asia for its high-quality higher education systems, according to Bakhda (2012) This ranking places significant pressure on Malaysian and Australian universities to enhance their educational standards and international reputation Research indicates that these countries must invest in improving their higher education frameworks to remain competitive in the global academic landscape.

Singapore and Malaysia are more active than ever in the international education industry (Follari & Pearce 2004)

In Australia, government funding for higher education has significantly declined, leading to increased financial pressures on universities Since 2004, Australian universities have been permitted to raise tuition fees, resulting in higher costs for students and reduced government support for higher education institutions.

In 2012, government cuts and delays in research funding significantly impacted universities, as they missed out on millions allocated for research infrastructure under the Sustainable Research Excellence program and performance funding (Marszalek, 2012) To offset these financial shortfalls, universities are increasingly relying on the global demand for international education, especially targeting the Asian market This has intensified competition among institutions to attract both local and international students, emphasizing the importance of strategic recruitment efforts in the evolving higher education landscape.

According to the World Bank’s (2000) report, over 64 per cent of the world’s total output is in the services sector In rapidly developing markets such as those in East

Asia’s services sector accounts for 41% of the region’s GDP and has significant growth potential, driven by economic modernization (World Bank 2000) In Australia, the services industry is the largest contributor to national output, producing 78.5% of real gross value added as of June 2011 This sector continues to expand faster than other industries and remains a key driver of Australia's economic growth. -**Sponsor**Need help making your article shine and rank higher? As a content creator, I understand the importance of SEO and clear, impactful writing Rewriting articles to capture the essence of each paragraph while following SEO rules can be time-consuming But what if you could instantly generate SEO-optimized articles? With [Article Generation](https://pollinations.ai/redirect-nexad/KkhBWjyP), you can get 2,000-word articles instantly, saving you time and money compared to hiring a writer – think of it as your personal content team!

The ongoing development of services both regionally and globally signals a dynamic and expanding sector It is expected that the global services industry will continue to grow over the coming decades, creating new opportunities for nations worldwide However, significant challenges remain to ensure that all countries can benefit equally from the expanding services sector.

The Service s Sector

Services are traditionally difficult to define, primarily because of their diversity

Lovelock, Patterson and Wirtz (2011, p 6) categorise services as ‘consumer’ or

‘business’, as shown in Table 1.1

Table 1.1 Examples of the Diversity of Services

The services sector also encompasses publicly-offered services such as the police, fire brigades, army, taxation and education services (Kasper, Helsdingen & Gabbott

The key difference between services and manufacturing is that the tangible or physical component of a service is usually incidental to the overall value provided, as noted by Lovelock, Patterson, and Wirtz (2011) A product, or 'good,' is a tangible physical item that can be created, transferred, and stored for later use, ensuring its existence over time (Saser, Olsen, & Wyckoff, 1978).

Services usually deal with intangibles: things that one cannot hold, touch nor see before use

Services are primarily behavioral activities or performances rather than physical entities, including deeds, efforts, or processes that are offered to customers and consumed simultaneously with their production (Rathmell 1966; Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry 1988; Kothari 1988) They often involve interactions between customers and service employees and may incorporate physical resources, goods, or systems to address customer needs (Gronroos 1990) Service is defined as any act or performance that one party offers to another, characterized by its intangibility and lack of ownership transfer, which may or may not be linked to physical products (Kotler 1991) Key characteristics of services include intangibility and inseparability, emphasizing their unique nature in the marketplace.

(simultaneous production and consumption), inconsistency (heterogeneity), inventory (perishability), and inability to own (ownership) (Kaper, Helsdingen &

Gabbott 2006), all of which have an important implications for the delivery of services (Hill 1995)

1.3.2 Services – The higher education environment

Education is uniquely positioned as a 'pure service' since it involves no physical products, with its quality rooted in the responsiveness, dialogue, and relationships between teachers and students, as well as the effectiveness of teaching methods aimed at achieving learning outcomes Teachers' knowledge, skills, and attitudes are essential in facilitating student success and ensuring educational quality Unlike services like retail or catering, education involves multiple stakeholders beyond students, including parents, prospective employers, and society, all of whom are invested in the effectiveness and appropriateness of the educational system.

Higher education institutions must prioritize student satisfaction to thrive and maintain a competitive edge, similar to other customer-centric businesses According to Maguad (2007), education institutions function effectively as ‘customer-driven entities,’ which enhances their ability to meet student needs The success of universities increasingly depends on how well they identify and fulfill their students’ specific needs, emphasizing the importance of clear mission statements and understanding the diverse student populations they serve.

Due to significant economic pressures and reduced government funding, Australian universities are increasingly raising their tuition fees This financial strain is intensified by growing competition from both domestic and international institutions, including universities in Malaysia and other countries.

Singapore, higher education institutions are now being driven towards more

‘customer-oriented’ approaches (DeShields, Kara & Kaynak 2005) Universities in

Australia and Malaysia are seeking to attract and retain student enrolments in order to meet their revenue targets and to accomplish their goals and objectives (The Star

In the competitive landscape of higher education, institutions are vying for market share by emphasizing not only their academic programs, prestige, and location but also the quality of student services and the overall student experience outside the classroom (Nealon, 2012, 13 May; Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005) A university's reputation now depends heavily on these factors, which influence student satisfaction and institutional success.

In recent years, students increasingly see themselves as both customers and active learners, critically evaluating the quality of service delivery at each institution This shift highlights how the approach to service provision has become a key factor that differentiates one university from another, influencing students’ choices and perceptions of academic quality.

The quality of each customer service encounter significantly influences their overall perception of the entire service experience (Dale, 2003) These encounters also shape customers’ impressions of the organization as a whole (Douglas, Douglas & Barnes, 2006, p 254), highlighting the importance of consistently high service quality in building positive organizational reputation.

Customer experiences directly influence their opinions, with satisfaction fostering positive word-of-mouth that enhances a business’s reputation and profitability Satisfied customers tend to re-enroll, remain loyal, and recommend services to others, contributing to sustained growth In contrast, dissatisfied customers often share negative feedback, which can harm a company’s image, lead to customer loss, and impact future enrollments and retention Therefore, providing excellent service is crucial for building positive customer relationships and safeguarding the business’s success.

To ensure total student satisfaction, universities must emphasize the importance of quality customer service across all staff levels, including front-line teaching and administrative personnel sowie management or administrative roles Research by Sohail and Shaikah (2004) highlights that contact personnel significantly influence students’ service evaluation, supporting Galloway’s (1998) finding that front-line staff directly impact student satisfaction Consequently, this study invited university business students from first- and third-year cohorts across participating countries to evaluate the quality of service provided by their advisors, who are considered front-line staff. -**Sponsor**As a content creator, rewriting articles to comply with SEO rules and extract key sentences for coherent paragraphs is my specialty If you're looking for a way to create SEO-optimized articles quickly and efficiently, check out [Article Generation](https://pollinations.ai/redirect-nexad/AInAKvyK) It helps you effortlessly produce high-quality content in minutes, perfect for boosting your online presence and saving valuable time and money With Article Generation, you can focus on refining your strategy and engaging your audience without breaking the bank!

New university students often arrive with unclear expectations, influenced by their experiences in high school or college, which differ from university environments Lacking detailed knowledge about the institution, they typically seek guidance from the university’s student service centre, where advisors serve as the first point of contact The quality of services provided by business student advisors is crucial, as they represent the university and play a vital role in shaping students’ experiences, ensuring high service standards to satisfy current students and foster positive perceptions that benefit future customers and society.

Higher education institutions must understand and effectively respond to their students’ needs to remain competitive in a customer-focused environment Recognizing the vital role of service quality, it is essential to examine and improve the services provided by university staff, particularly academic advisors This study investigates university business students’ expectations and perceptions in Australia, highlighting discrepancies between these expectations and the actual quality of advising services received Addressing these gaps is crucial for enhancing student satisfaction and maintaining institutional excellence.

Malaysia, and Singapore The study further examines the effect of cultural dimensions; and of gender in the rating of services provided by the student’s advisors.

Background of Problems

1.4.1 Higher education changes, trends and concerns in Australia

Traditionally, Australian higher education relied solely on federal government funding, with no concerns about student enrolment numbers Over the past two decades, Australian universities benefited immensely from the influx of full-fee-paying international students from Asia, making higher education Australia's third-largest export industry As federal funding for domestic students has become limited, international student fees have increasingly subsidized the cost of education for all students.

Australians and the research output of Australian universities (Gallagher & Garrett

Government financial support for higher education has significantly diminished over recent years, with funding declining from 77.2% in 1989 to just 46% in 2000, marking the first time federal funding fell below half of education costs (GSE 2002) In 2012, additional cuts of $1 billion over four years were announced, risking the loss of 1,450 research jobs, a decline in international student enrollments, and a reduction in graduate quality (Marszalek 2012; Trounson 2012).

Recent years have posed significant challenges to Australian universities, including fluctuations in international student enrolments Between 2006 and 2009, rapid growth was observed, but overall numbers declined after 2010 due to global economic factors such as the strengthening Australian dollar, the Global Financial Crisis, and financial market uncertainties Safety concerns that emerged in 2009, along with the poor quality of some former education providers and increasing global competition for international students, have also contributed to these challenges Additionally, migration policies that encouraged enrolment primarily for migration outcomes influenced these trends, impacting the international education sector in Australia.

2009 boom, and the subsequent corrective action has been among the reasons why the high numbers of 2009 have fallen (Chaney 2012, p 3) West (2012) argues that

Australia’s education sector is experiencing a slow growth, with its first major crisis stemming from negative media coverage regarding the mistreatment of Indian students after violent incidents in 2008 and 2009 Additionally, stricter visa policies and a high Australian dollar have diminished the country's appeal to international students, while global economic instability has intensified competition among universities worldwide for the education export market.

Australian higher education institutions are increasingly diversifying their revenue streams in response to rising demand and economic pressures, transforming activities such as marketing into ‘quasi-commercial’ ventures Universities seek additional funding through research grants, summer programs, and overseas campus development, with some heavily relying on tuition fees from international students As autonomous service bodies, Australian universities independently manage their governance, including decisions on funding allocation, staffing, and academic course offerings.

2004, the Australian government has allowed universities to raise their fees from 25 per cent to 35 per cent of the total course cost (AAP General News Wire 2005, 25

February) This has resulted in increasing competition among universities in

Australia to recruit local and, in particular, overseas students

In a paper presented to the International Development Program of Australian

According to Follari and Pearce (2004), the Universities and College (IDP) conference highlighted the increasing activity of countries like Singapore and Malaysia in the international education industry, intensifying competition for Australian universities seeking to capitalize on the growing Asian demand IDP CEO Pollock (2005) stressed the importance of maintaining high-quality standards in teaching, learning, and support services such as recruitment, enrolment assistance, and academic counselling West (2012) observed that Asian nations are investing billions of dollars in their educational institutions, with Singapore emerging as a key competitor, already boasting four universities of comparable reputation to Australian institutions.

Singaporean students often look to their own universities before they look overseas

Evaluating the quality of service offered by Australian universities, especially their student customer service centers, is essential as they serve as the frontline interface between students and the institution Student satisfaction with these services directly influences positive word-of-mouth, enhancing the university's reputation Improved reputation can lead to higher enrolment rates and increased revenue, highlighting the importance of maintaining excellent student service experiences.

1.4.2 Higher education changes, trends and concerns in Malaysia

The Asian Financial Crisis of 1997–1998 led many Asian students to abandon their high-fee university placements abroad and return home, highlighting the economic upheaval experienced during that period (Srilal 1998) Subsequently, the 2007–2008 Global Financial Crisis exposed Asia to the interconnected risks originating from Western economies, resulting in stock market declines and currency devaluations across the region (Shah 2010) As demand for Asian products and services decreased in wealthy countries, many Asian economies faced slowdown risks, potential job losses, and social unrest, underscoring the vulnerabilities of interconnected global markets.

The economic crisis in Malaysia has led many students to abandon their plans for overseas higher education As families tighten their budgets, students are increasingly encouraged to pursue studies locally to save costs Despite these challenges, the outlook for local and private higher education institutions remains positive, as demand for domestic higher education experiences growth amidst the financial constraints (Malaysia: Economic crisis dashes study abroad dreams, 2009).

The Asian Financial Crisis has given the Malaysian government a chance to push ambitions for their country to become a regional hub for higher education (Sohail,

Rajadurai & Rahman 2003) Besides the affordability of higher education fees in

Malaysia's lower cost of living is a key competitive advantage for its universities, making them more appealing compared to more expensive countries like Britain, the US, and Australia (Rout, 2007) Additionally, Malaysia's shared socio-cultural background with neighboring Southeast Asian countries enhances its attractiveness to foreign students seeking a familiar and welcoming environment.

The Malaysian government has announced plans to revitalise its struggling university system to position Malaysia as a leading educational hub in Southeast Asia, competing with Singapore and Australia To achieve this goal, the government is committed to creating a knowledge-based society that emphasizes information and communications technology, education, and workforce retraining (Austrade 2007, p 1) As part of its recent Business Development Plan, Malaysia aims to strengthen higher education and attract international students to boost its regional educational prominence.

Third Outline Perspective Plan 2001–2010 (OPP3), the government renewed its commitment to increase investment in education (Economic Planning Unit 2001)

In 2006, Higher Education Minister Dato’ Mohamed emphasized that the National Higher Education Plan serves as a strategic roadmap for elevating university standards The plan aims to grant institutions greater autonomy, foster quality improvements, and increase internationalization by doubling the number of foreign students These initiatives are part of broader efforts to enhance the global competitiveness and academic excellence of the country's higher education sector.

EduCity in the south of Malaysia, the government set a goal of attracting 100,000 international students by 2010 (Overland 2007; Rout 2007)

A recent news release from the Malaysian government states that since the Asian

Financial Crisis, the government has engaged actively in promoting and marketing

Malaysia is positioning itself as a premier hub for higher education by rebranding and upgrading its institutions to meet international standards, aiming to attract more overseas students The Education Ministry projects the foreign student population will reach 150,000 by 2015 and 200,000 by 2020, reflecting Malaysia's strategic efforts to compete with neighboring Singapore This initiative seeks to draw international students away from Singapore and boost the competitiveness of Malaysian universities within the Southeast Asian region.

The Malaysian government allocates approximately 20% of its annual budget to educational development, primarily focusing on enhancing intellectual capital through academic staff training and research in universities (Razak, 2006) The Ninth Malaysian Plan (9MP) emphasizes human capital development as a vital pillar for national growth; however, it notably excludes training for non-academic staff, creating a disconnect with the overall strategic objectives of the plan.

The lack of proper training raises concerns about the quality of service provided by non-academic staff in Malaysian educational institutions This includes customer service advisors who interact with both existing and potential students, highlighting the need for targeted training to enhance their professionalism and customer engagement skills Improving staff training is essential to ensure high service standards and positively impact the overall reputation of educational institutions in Malaysia.

1.4.3 Higher education changes, trends and concerns in Singapore

In Singapore, the government has accepted the recommendations of the University

Autonomy, Governance and Funding (UAGF) Steering Committee to devolve greater autonomy to its three publicly-funded universities: the National University of Singapore (NUS), Nanyang Technological University (NTU), and Singapore

Purpose and Significance of the Study

Services lie at the hub of economic activity in any society Service activities are crucial for the economy to function and to enhance the quality of life and can range from a banking industry that transfers funds, a transportation industry that moves food products to areas that cannot produce them, and personal services such as restaurants, lodging, cleaning, and child care Government services play a critical role in providing a stable environment for investment and economic growth Services such as education, health care, roads, safe drinking water, and public safety are necessary for any nation’s economy to survive and people to prosper (Fitzsimmons

Services are essential components of a healthy economy, serving as the backbone that supports manufacturing and other goods-producing activities Recognizing that services are not just peripheral activities but integral to societal function highlights their critical role in economic development As a key driver of the global economy, the service sector facilitates economic growth and modernization, making it indispensable in today’s interconnected world.

In today's highly competitive higher education landscape, students face unprecedented challenges, notably evidenced by rising university tuition fees For example, tuition costs increased significantly in Australia in 2004 (The Age, 5 December 2003), as well as in Singapore, highlighting the global trend of escalating higher education expenses.

2005 to 2006 (Teo 2006), again in 2008 (Singapore News 2008, 13 February; Hoe

2008); and to come in 2013 (AsiaOne News 2012, 9 February; The Star 2012, 12

February) The allocation of funds for educational development in Malaysia goes against this trend but, as discussed earlier, does not include training and development of non-academic staff (Razak 2006)

Higher education institutions are increasingly prioritizing the quality of education and services they provide, driven by the rising expectations of fee-paying students These students now behave as consumers, demanding value for their money and seeking a more responsive and personalized experience As their voice becomes more influential, universities are focusing on enhancing student satisfaction and engagement to meet these evolving demands.

2003) Moreover, high performance clearly improves an institution’s reputation and results in increased enrolments, regardless of fee costs (Shelley 2005)

Researchers (Gronroos 1983; Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry 1985, 1988; Teas

Understanding how customers perceive service quality is essential for effective management (Gronroos, 1993) By grasping how users evaluate services, providers can identify strategies to influence these perceptions and improve overall customer satisfaction.

Gronroos (1983) identified two key dimensions of service quality from the customer's perspective: technical quality, which pertains to the actual outcome or result of the service, and functional quality, which relates to how the service is delivered While these criteria are valuable for understanding service quality, Lagrosen (2001) suggests that their applicability may vary across different contexts Therefore, to comprehensively evaluate service quality, it is important to consider specific situational factors, as emphasized by Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry.

(1985) have based on Gronroos’ research and further expanded on the concept of quality of service

Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry’s (1988) service quality model highlights that customers' perceptions of quality are shaped by four separate organizational gaps These gaps on the part of the marketer or service provider can hinder the delivery of services perceived as high quality This gap analysis framework forms the basis of Parasuraman’s approach to improving service quality and customer satisfaction.

Zeithaml and Berry’s (1985, 1988) research into quality of service Their studies in

In 1985 and 1988, research highlighted that delivering a high-quality service depends on meeting or exceeding customer expectations, as identified by Gap 5 in the service quality model Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1988) emphasized that when customer expectations are fulfilled, perceived service quality results in customer satisfaction, whereas failing to meet these expectations leads to customer dissatisfaction.

When the customer’s expectations are exceed, the quality of service is perceived to be more than satisfactory

To date, much of the published work on the quality of service in higher education has concentrated on effective course delivery mechanisms, and the quality of courses and teaching (Athiyaman 1997; Bourner 1998; Cheng & Tam 1997; McElwee & Redman 1993; Palihawadana 1996; Soutar & McNeil 1996; Yorke 1992; Varey 1993); healthcare (Moullin 2002); or educational setting (Huang 2006; Nealon 2005) Very little research has been carried out or reported on non-academic staff; little of that with regard to services provided at Student Service Centres, and even less on the services provided to business students This study explores business students’ expectations and perceptions of the quality of service provided, and the discrepancies between them

The following research questions have been identified for examination The major research question for the study is:

What discrepancies can be discerned between students’ expectations and their perceptions in regard to the quality of service of university student advisors in

The minor research questions for this study are:

Individual cultural tendencies significantly influence students’ expectations and perceptions of university student advisor services in Australia and Malaysia Cultural differences shape how students assess the quality of support received, contributing to perceived gaps or discrepancies between expectations and actual service delivery Understanding these cultural nuances is essential for improving advisor-student interactions and enhancing overall service quality in diverse educational contexts.

(2) Does students’ gender affect their service ratings of the quality of service provided by university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore?

The study is considered to be of significance for a number of reasons:

 It has the potential to improve the quality of service providers in universities by increasing understanding of needs in the marketing of university programs

 It provides a deeper understanding of the pros and cons of students’ enrolment systems

 It increases the body of knowledge of business students’ expectations and perceptions of service provided by their student advisors

 More accurate data will be available to business academics in marketing, enrolment and teaching; non-academic marketing specialists in universities; and business student advisors of student enrolment and information

This research analyzes the gaps between business students’ expectations and perceptions of the service provided by student advisors By identifying these discrepancies, student advisors can effectively address areas of dissatisfaction and improve their overall service quality Understanding these differences enables targeted management of service deficiencies, leading to enhanced student satisfaction and a more positive academic experience.

 Results can be used as a foundation on which to improve business student advisory services to build a long-term relationship between the university and its students

 Over time the improvements implemented as a result of the findings of this research may contribute to a university’s state, national and international reputation.

Structure and Outline of Thesis

The thesis is organised into six chapters

Chapter 1 provides the background to the role of services in an economy, with a discussion of the range of services encompassed by the services sector and a particular focus on higher education services in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore This chapter also explains the focus, purpose and significance of the research

Chapter 2 presents a comprehensive review of the background literature for this study, including the nature and characteristics of service, definitions of quality, identification of the customers in service delivery, and an understanding of the

This article explores the 'disconfirmation of expectations' paradigm, emphasizing its role in understanding and improving perceived service quality It discusses various research tools, notably the SERVQUAL instrument, analyzing their validity and reliability in measuring service quality The relationship between service quality, customer satisfaction, and behavioral intentions is examined, with a specific focus on higher education services Additionally, the article investigates how cultural influences impact service perceptions and assesses the effect of gender differences on perceived service quality.

Chapter 3 discusses the research design and methodology, encompassing the selection of students and countries, pilot testing, sample procedure, questionnaire administration, choice of research instruments, reliability and validity of the instruments selected, and methods of data analysis

Chapter 4 presents the research findings, beginning with a preliminary examination of data screening and followed by normality and reliability testing and analysis of the respondents’ profiles

Chapter 5 analyses the findings on the quality of service of university business student advisors, and is divided into three parts: first, students’ expectations and perceptions, and the resultant service gaps; second, the effect of cultural values on students’ expectations and perceptions, and the resultant service gaps; and third, students’ gender as a function of service rating

Chapter 6 presents an overview of the study and its theoretical and practical contributions This chapter summarises the research, highlights the significance of the findings, discusses the research limitations, and suggests future research directions.

Summary

This chapter provides an introduction top understanding the role of services in an economy, the range of industries in the services sector, the background of higher education issues across selected countries, and the purpose and significance of this

This chapter explores the fundamental concepts of service quality, including its definition and key characteristics, emphasizing the vital role of customers in service delivery It highlights the importance of customer contact personnel and explains the ‘disconfirmation of expectations’ model that influences perceived service quality The chapter provides a comprehensive framework for evaluating service quality, focusing on tools like the SERVQUAL instrument, its validity, reliability, and common criticisms along with counterarguments Additionally, it examines the nature of service within higher education, considering cultural influences and their impact on service quality, as well as how gender may shape students’ perceptions of service experiences.

Literature Review

Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of the vital role of services in the economy and explores the diverse industries within the services sector It examines the background challenges faced by education systems across different countries and highlights the purpose and importance of this study Additionally, the chapter defines key research questions and outlines the structure and course of the research, setting the foundation for an in-depth analysis of the sector's impact on economic development and educational improvements.

This chapter discusses the definitions of quality, the definitions and characteristics of service, the role of customers in service delivery, customer contact personnel, the

This article explores the 'disconfirmation of expectations' paradigm as a key framework for understanding perceived service quality and its development It details the instruments used to measure service quality, highlighting the validity and reliability of the SERVQUAL instrument, along with its criticisms and justifications for continued use The discussion examines the relationships between service quality, customer satisfaction, and behavioral intentions, particularly within the context of higher education Additionally, the article considers the influence of cultural factors on service quality and includes a comparative analysis of various approaches in this field.

Hofstede’s and Trompenaars’ cultural dimensions The chapter also examines the influence of gender on students’ perceptions of service

Quality is an elusive and indistinct construct Often it is mistaken for imprecise adjectives like ‘goodness, or luxury, or shininess, or weight’ (Crosby 1979);

According to Takeuchi and Quelch (1983), customers often find it difficult to clearly articulate their quality requirements Nevertheless, quality remains a key factor in customer satisfaction and is highly sought after As a vital source of competitive advantage, organizations consistently strive to deliver high-quality products and services to meet these customer expectations (Kasper, Helsdingen & Gabbott, 2006).

Before investigating quality of service, there is a need to understand the various definitions of quality that exist in social and business environments

Before World War II, quality was primarily defined by a product’s physical characteristics, emphasizing conformance to standards (Tenner & DeToro, 1992) According to Llosa, Chandon, and Orsingher (1998), efforts to define and measure quality mainly developed within the manufacturing sector The main focus was on assessing variations in product or service characteristics from established standards and addressing the manufacturing or delivery processes responsible for these deviations, highlighting a process-driven approach to quality management.

Japanese manufacturing philosophy emphasizes zero defects, defining quality as doing it right the first time with no tolerance for failure (Corsby, 1979) Corsby (1979) describes quality as conformance to requirements, highlighting the importance of establishing clear requirement specifications to achieve quality Once these specifications are set, all functions within the firm must strictly adhere to them to meet quality goals However, Palmer (1998) raises a critical question: whose requirements and which specifications should be prioritized in the quality process?

Juran (1988) defines quality as "fitness for use," emphasizing three core processes: quality planning, quality improvement, and quality control His market-driven, customer-focused approach highlights the importance of customer utility and satisfaction in determining quality This perspective aligns with Crosby (1979) and the concept of customer-perceived quality, which asserts that quality is ultimately in the eye of the customer O’Neill and Palmer (2004) support this view, stating that quality can only be defined by customers and exists when organizations deliver goods or services that meet customer specifications and needs.

Garvin (1983) assessed quality by analyzing internal failures occurring before product shipment and external failures after installation He identified five major categories of quality: transcendent-based, product-based, user-based, manufacturing-based, and value-based Among these, product-based and manufacturing-based represent objective quality, while user-based relates to perceived quality Ideally, quality management should bridge the gap between external customer perceptions and internal conformance, aligning perceived quality with internal quality standards (Gummesson, 1993).

In defining quality service, there are additional characteristics to be accounted for

Garvin (1988) identifies eight dimensions of quality, each contributing to a set of requirements All dimensions should ideally be accounted for and planned for in the service process; regardless of how an organisation derives its definition of quality in service, the concept must incorporate as many of the dimensions as possible The dimensions are function (the primary required performance of the service), features

According to Garvin (1988), product quality encompasses several key dimensions: expected performance, conformance to set requirements, reliability over time, serviceability in case of issues, aesthetics related to sensory experience, and overall perceptions that shape the reputation of quality These elements collectively determine the overall quality and customer satisfaction with a product or service.

Service – Definitions and Characteristics

Service has traditionally been difficult to define, in part because of its diversity

(Lovelock, Patterson & Wirtz 2011) For example, consumer services include airlines, banking and finance, insurance, health, and telecommunications; business services include accountancy, architecture, engineering, legal services, and management consulting The service marketing literature offers various definitions of service Services are behavioural rather than physical entities; they have been described as deeds, performances or effort (Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry 1988;

Rathmell 1966) and activities or processes (Gronroos 1990) According to Kothari

Service, as defined by various experts, refers to activities offered to customers that are produced and consumed simultaneously, emphasizing its intangible nature Gronroos (1990) describes service as a series of activities that often involve interaction between customers, service employees, physical resources, or systems, providing solutions to customer problems Kotler (1991) highlights that services are acts or performances offered by one party to another, characterized by their intangibility and potential lack of ownership transfer, with production possibly linked or not linked to physical products These definitions collectively underscore key service characteristics such as intangibility, inseparability (simultaneous production and consumption), and inconsistency.

(heterogeneity), inventory (perishability), and inability to own (ownership) (Kaper,

Helsdingen & Gabbott 2006), all of which have important implications for the delivery of high-quality service (Hill 1995) and all of which must be acknowledged for a full understanding of the term

Parasuraman (1986) notes that the characteristics of service differentiate services from goods The five characteristics are:

1 Intangibility One of the unique characteristics that distinguish services from goods this is the primary source from which the other characteristics of service emerge (Hoffman & Bateson 1997) Services are intangible because they are performances rather than objects (Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry 1985); they are an activity or an experience and not a thing (Kasper, Helsdingen & Gabbott 2006)

2 Inseparability (the condition of simultaneous production and consumption) This refers to (1) the service provider’s physical connection to the service being provided;

(2) the customer’s involvement in the service production process; and (3) the involvement of other customers in the service production process (Hoffman &

Bateson 1997) This personal contact in services has generated the terms interactive consumption and interaction process (Hoffman & Bateson 1997), which are inseparable (Carmen & Langeard 1980; Gronroos 1978; Regan 1963; Upah 1980)

Interaction takes place during the service encounter where both the customer and the employee take on particular roles and activities: thus, quality in service is not engineered at a manufacturing plant and then delivered intact to the consumer In fact, it is the perception of quality, and occurs during service delivery, usually as an interaction between the client and the contact person for the service firm (Lehtinen & Lehtinen 1982)

3 Inconsistency (the degree of heterogeneity) This reflects variations in consistency from one service transaction to the next (Hoffman & Bateson 1997), because performance can vary from producer to producer, from customer to customer, and from day to day Consistency of behaviour from service personnel is difficult to assure (Booms & Bitner 1981; Hoffman & Bateson 1997), perhaps because what the firm intends to deliver may be entirely different from what the consumer receives; and because of differences in service providers’ attitudes and behaviours.

4 Inventory (the degree of perishability) Services cannot be saved, their unused capacity cannot be reserved, and they cannot be inventoried (Hoffman & Bateson

According to Zeithaml (1981), most services cannot be counted, measured, inventoried, tested, or verified before sale to ensure quality This makes it challenging for firms to understand how customers perceive and evaluate the quality of their services.

5 Inability to own (the degree of ownership) Buying services does not always result in a transfer of title (Kasper, Helsdingen & Gabbott 2006) Service is a perishable activity that does not always lead to the possession of a material object, and that takes place in an interactive process aimed at creating customer satisfaction (Kasper, Helsdingen & Gabbot 2006)

Within service marketing theory, higher education is frequently cited as a key example of a service with limited tangible outputs (Fisk et al 2007; Stodnick &

Higher education is classified as a service product focused on mental development, knowledge, skills, and graduate outcomes rather than tangible objects like degree certificates (Rogers, 2008; Zeithaml, Bitner & Gremler, 2006) The primary value lies in the educational experience and the skills acquired, highlighting the intangible nature of the service encounter (Dann).

In some service encounters, customers receive tangible items such as airline tickets, travel codes, money, insurance policies, or reports However, the primary goal of these exchanges is not merely possession of a tangible object; instead, the core service usually involves the security and peace of mind provided—such as coverage in case of illness or fire—rather than the physical item itself.

Customers in Service Delivery

A key characteristic of service is that customers are actively involved in the production and delivery processes (Beilharz & Chapman, 1994) In this study, customers include individuals with a direct or indirect interest in the services provided by higher education institutions, with students being the primary customers in the context of higher education (Downey, Frase & Peters, 1994; Eagle & Brennan).

2007; Lawrence & Sharma 2002; Nealon 2005; Pitman 2000; Stodnick & Rogers

2008), parents, alumni, employers, professors and administrators (Pariseau &

Students are considered customers of higher education because they are directly impacted by the quality of service, both through their interactions during service delivery and the end results they experience (Pariseau & McDaniel, 1997) According to Harvey (2001), understanding students’ perspectives offers valuable insights from participants involved in the process, allows for direct evaluation of service delivery, and provides relevant quality ratings that assist prospective students in making informed decisions.

In supporting Harvey’s (2001) view, Rowley (2003) states that there are four reasons for collecting customers’ feedback:

1 to provide auditable evidence that students have had the opportunity to pass comment on their courses and that such information is considered when bringing about improvements;

2 to encourage student reflection on their learning;

3 to allow institutions to benchmark and to provide indicators that will contribute to the reputation of the university in the marketplace;

4 to provide students with an opportunity to express their level of satisfaction with their academic experience

2.3.2 The importance of students’ views

Student evaluations of faculty and instruction are vital for monitoring university quality, as their perspectives provide essential insights into the effectiveness of higher education (Hill, Lomas & MacGregor, 2003; Helms, Williams & Nixon, 2001) Adopting a customer-oriented approach to quality emphasizes understanding students’ needs, recognizing that service quality in education is subjective and best assessed through students’ perceptions (Owlia & Aspinwall, 1998) Research by Yeo (2008) highlights that viewing students as customers influences the learning environment and underscores the importance of delivering experiences that foster dialogue, inquiry, and reflection To enhance educational quality, instructors should balance student expectations with academic rigor, curricula must be regularly updated based on industry trends, and learning support should prioritize student-centered approaches over task-driven methods.

There is a growing demand for creating and delivering value to customers while effectively managing customer relationships However, the current body of knowledge on customer value remains fragmented, with various perspectives lacking a unified approach and limited empirical research (Wang, Lo & Yang, 2004) Few studies have explored how customers perceive and construct superior value, as well as how to develop reliable and valid measurement scales for this complex and vital concept (Sweeney & Soutar, 2001).

Understanding customer value from students’ perspectives is essential for management to effectively allocate resources and develop programs that meet students’ needs (Seymour, 1992; Shekarchizadeh, Rasli & Huam, 2011) This focus on student-centered value creation also helps higher education institutions strengthen their competitive advantage and position themselves favorably in the evolving educational landscape (Schmidt).

Understanding students as customers in higher education, as argued by Eagle and Brennan (2007), offers valuable insights for managers, policymakers, and academic staff Research on student satisfaction from a customer-oriented perspective can introduce new dimensions to educational planning, helping institutions enhance the overall student experience and improve service quality.

Student satisfaction surveys are essential tools for educational institutions to understand the complexities of the overall learning experience These surveys directly involve institutional leadership in addressing quality development issues, ultimately enhancing student satisfaction When student concerns are effectively addressed, it leads to increased retention rates, as satisfied students are less likely to drop out (DeShields & Kaynak, 2005; Wiers-Jenssen & Stensaker).

Customer Contact Personnel

Boundary-spanning employees play a crucial role in connecting the organization with external environments by interacting with non-members, such as customers and partners, which enhances information flow (Hoffman & Bateson, 1997) These roles involve engaging with both external stakeholders and internal teams, serving as vital links that facilitate strategic insights and organizational adaptability (Thompson, 1962) Customer contact personnel, as boundary spanners, become key connectors between the organization and its customers, providing valuable information on evolving customer needs and opportunities for product or service improvements (Aldrich & Herker, 1979; Bettencourt & Brown, 2003) This strategic positioning allows organizations to stay responsive and innovative in a competitive market.

Their direct contact with customers and the knowledge they have about the service production process make contact personnel an important source of information for the organisation

Front-line sales, operations, and service personnel play a crucial role in making quick and effective strategic decisions, as they serve as the external representatives of the organization and influence internal dynamics through their communications (Day, 1994; Bettencourt & Brown, 2003; Floyd & Wooldridge, 1992) Despite their importance, Malaysian educational development initiatives, such as the Austrade 2007 agenda, overlook the training of non-academic staff, raising concerns about the quality of service provided by front-line staff in Malaysian higher education institutions Therefore, assessing how well customer contact employees deliver quality service is essential, as it significantly impacts an organization’s competitive position, customer satisfaction, and its ability to attract and retain students.

Customer contact personnel are vital in shaping a service organization’s image and reputation, as they are typically the first point of contact during the service encounter Research by Schneider and Bowen (1984) shows that customers often judge the quality of a service based on the behavior of boundary-spanning employees Recognizing their crucial role in service delivery, many researchers emphasize the importance of customer contact personnel to organizational success and their impact on customer perceptions.

‘front-line’ staff in creating customer satisfaction Evidence presented in Galloway’s

(1998) and Sohail and Shaikah’s (2004) research indicates that front-line staff are the most influential factor in customers’ evaluation of service delivery Wiers-Jenssen,

Research by Stendaker and Grogaard (2002) highlights that the quality of service provided by administrative staff plays a crucial role in enhancing student satisfaction Banwet and Datta (2003) emphasize that all university employees should adhere to principles of quality customer service to ensure overall student satisfaction Nguyen (2010) underlines that the performance of contact personnel is vital for attracting customer groups and shaping the university’s corporate reputation Additionally, Nguyen and Leblanc (2002) demonstrate that customer contact staff have a significant impact on a university’s image and reputation, reinforcing the importance of frontline personnel in higher education branding.

Some individuals may find front-line service to be boring and repetitive, but others see the job as an opportunity to meet and interact with different groups of people

Individuals with strong interpersonal skills often pursue high-contact service roles, but careful selection processes are essential to ensure quality interactions during critical 'moments of truth' (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 2004) Effective recruitment and selection of frontline staff are vital Human Resource Management functions to maintain service excellence (Nankervis et al., 2011).

Effective interview techniques are essential for selecting the right candidates, with methods such as multiple interviews, on-the-job scenarios, and task tests proven to be highly useful (Kasper, Helsdingen & Gabbott, 2006) Additionally, abstract questioning, situational vignettes, and role-playing are frequently employed in assessing potential front-line staff to ensure they possess the necessary skills and qualities (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 2004) Implementing these diverse interview strategies enhances the accuracy and effectiveness of the hiring process.

1 Abstract Questioning – The questions asked in the abstract interview are open- ended, to allow insights regarding an applicant’s ability to relate the immediate service situation to information collected from past experience For example, ‘From your past work experience, what type of customer was most difficult for you to deal with and why?’; ‘What was the customer’s primary complaint or negative characteristic?’; ‘How did you handle the customer?’; ‘What would be the ideal way to deal with that type of customer?’

2 Situational Vignette – This requires the applicant to answer questions regarding a specific situation Their response to a situation may reveal information regarding applicants’ instincts, interpersonal capabilities, common sense, and judgment

3 Role Playing – This interviewing technique requires applicants to participate in a simulated situation and to react as if it were real This is often used in the final phrase of recruitment, and provides an excellent opportunity to observe a candidate’s strengths and weaknesses in a realistic customer encounter However, it does require careful scripting, and the ‘actors’ need to rehearse their roles before the interview

Effective training is essential for organizational success, as well-trained employees demonstrate better performance and deliver more reliable service (Stamatis, 1996) Continuous training beyond initial onboarding is crucial, including not only standard procedures but also advanced skills such as handling difficult customers, cross- and up-selling strategies, stress management, and performance enhancement (Kasper, Helsdingen, & Gabbott, 2006) Additionally, rotating experienced service personnel through various roles can provide comprehensive understanding of the service process, further improving their effectiveness and adaptability.

This is in line with Conger and Kanungos’ (1988) argument that training can help ensure that empowered employees’ decisions are in the best interests of the organisation

Organizations are increasingly prioritizing customer service to boost sales and expand market share For instance, Walgreen’s pharmacy staff now spend up to 45 minutes with each patient, up from just three to five minutes, enhancing personalized care In the retail finance industry, American Express is strengthening its programs to foster better customer relationships through expanded agent training Telecommunication giants like Comcast are training 24,000 call-center agents and dedicating over 70% of supervisors’ time to coaching, more than doubling previous efforts Proper training is essential, as poorly prepared front-line staff can harm customer experiences, damage the organization’s reputation, and threaten long-term sustainability Research by Chebat and Kollias emphasizes that customer contact personnel significantly shape customer perceptions of service quality, highlighting the importance of equipping frontline staff—such as student advisors—to assess and improve their service delivery effectively.

Disconfirmation of Expectations

Understanding customer expectations is essential for delivering superior service, as it shapes their perceptions and satisfaction levels While researchers have defined customer service expectations in various ways, there is still a lack of a comprehensive conceptual framework that links different types of expectations and explains how they interact to influence perceptions of service performance.

According to Anderson (1973), when assessing the impact of the gap between customer expectations and actual product performance on product evaluation and satisfaction, four key psychological theories should be considered These theories help explain how consumers process discrepancies and influence their overall perception of the product Incorporating insights from Woodruff and Jenkins (1987), understanding these psychological frameworks is essential for businesses aiming to manage customer satisfaction effectively By addressing the expectations-performance disparity through these theories, companies can enhance customer experiences and improve brand loyalty.

1 Cognitive dissonance (assimilation) theory – Any discrepancy between expectations and product performance will be minimised or assimilated by customers, who will adjust their perception of performance to be more consistent

(less dissonant) with their expectations

2 Contrast theory – The customer will magnify the difference between the product received and the product expected

3 Generalised negativity theory – Any discrepancy between expectation and reality results in a generalised negative state, causing the product to receive a more unfavourable rating than if it had coincided with expectations

4 Assimilation-contrast theory – There are zones or latitudes of acceptance and rejection in customer perceptions

According to Anderson (1973), the assimilation-contrast theory is more suitable for examining customer perceptions because it considers individuals' ranges of acceptance, rejection, and neutrality The theory emphasizes that promotional messages should set high expectations for the product without exceeding the customer's tolerance level, ensuring that the discrepancy between expectations and actual performance remains within their acceptable range This approach helps marketers effectively influence perceptions while maintaining customer satisfaction.

This is supported by Weaver and Brickman’s (1974) research, the expectancy disconfirmation process consists of the formation of expectations and the disconfirmation of those expectations through performance comparisons

Disconfirmation is an important variable with regard to the perceived quality of service; it is the mental process consumers use to compare what is expected with what is actually observed (Bearden & Teel 1983; Churchill & Suprenant 1982;

Customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction are primarily determined by the gap between customer expectations and perceived service performance (Oliver, 1980) Oliver (1977a) emphasizes the importance of measuring disconfirmation separately from expectations, as it has an independent and additive effect on satisfaction The disconfirmation of expectations paradigm suggests that customers compare their pre-consumption predictions with actual service performance, which influences their overall satisfaction (Bearden & Teel, 1983; Churchill).

The disconfirmation of expectations model indicates that customer satisfaction results from the comparison between perceived performance and the set standard When performance matches the standard, customers feel neutral, leading to confirmation (Cadotte, Woodruff & Jenkins, 1987) If perceived performance exceeds expectations, positive disconfirmation occurs, resulting in customer satisfaction Conversely, if performance falls short of expectations, negative disconfirmation leads to customer dissatisfaction (Spreng, Mackenzie & Olshavsky, 1996).

Research by Oliver (1980, 1981), Tse & Wilton (1988), and Yi (1990) indicates that customers develop pre-consumption expectations, observe and compare product attribute performance, and form satisfaction judgments based on disconfirmation perceptions, which directly impact overall satisfaction Woodruff, Cadotte, and Jenkins (1983) highlight that the expectations disconfirmation paradigm relies on experience-based norms, emphasizing the significant influence of prior experience on satisfaction Additionally, studies by Cadotte, Woodruff, & Jenkins (1982) and LaTour & Peat (1979) reveal that experience-based evaluations of comparison brands are stronger predictors of customer satisfaction.

According to Cadotte, Woodruff, and Jenkins (1987), experience-based norms play a more crucial role than expectations in shaping perceived performance standards and customer satisfaction These norms are grounded in actual performance, reflecting the level of service or product quality required to meet customers' needs and wants Customers tend to evaluate brands based on concrete experiences rather than abstract expectations, meaning that prior experience with real brands establishes realistic performance limits for what they expect from the focal brand.

According to Cadotte, Woodruff, and Jenkins (1987), confirmation or disconfirmation of expectations triggers emotional responses such as satisfaction or dissatisfaction Applying the disconfirmation of expectations paradigm to service quality assessment indicates that customers compare their initial expectations with their actual experience This comparison ultimately influences their overall perception of the service quality.

Perceived Quality of Service – Initial Development

Perceived quality is defined as the customer’s judgment of an entity’s overall excellence or superiority (Zeithaml, 1987) It is considered a form of attitude that results from comparing customer expectations with their perceptions of actual performance (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1988) Quality is also viewed as an overall evaluation of a product, closely related to the customer's enduring affective attitude toward the product, store, or service, including customer service interactions (Olshavsky, 1985; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1988) Understanding perceived quality is essential for businesses aiming to improve customer satisfaction and loyalty through consistent quality perceptions.

Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1985) emphasize that service quality is a holistic evaluation akin to an attitude, reflecting customers' overall perception of the service Perceived quality serves as a global value judgment, as noted by Holbrook and Corfman (1985), relating to the perceived superiority and excellence of the service provided.

Customer satisfaction is closely linked to service quality, as highlighted by Smith and Houston (1982), who assert that satisfaction depends on whether service experiences confirm or disconfirm customer expectations Their research is grounded in the disconfirmation paradigm, which suggests that satisfaction is influenced by the direction of the disconfirmation experience—whether the service exceeds, meets, or falls short of initial expectations (Churchill & Suprenaut, 1982).

Gronroos (1947) emphasized the importance of developing a model to understand how customers perceive service quality, stating that understanding customer evaluations enables service providers to effectively manage and influence perceptions Building on this, Gronroos (1982) introduced a model highlighting that customers assess service quality by comparing their expected service with their actual perceptions, which is essential for improving overall service quality.

Functional Quality: How Total Perceived

Basically, Gronroos (1983) argues that the quality of a service as perceived by customers has two dimensions:

 Technical quality, referring to the result of the service or the question of

‘what has been provided’; and

 Functional quality, referring to the way the service has been delivered and relating to the question of ‘how the service has been provided’

Gronroos (1988) identifies six criteria of perceived quality of service:

1 Professionalism and skills – The customers realise that the service providers have the knowledge and skills required to solve their problems in a professional way

2 Attitudes and behaviour – The customers feel that the service providers are concerned about them and interested in solving their problems in a friendly and spontaneous way (process-related criteria)

3 Accessibility and flexibility – The customers feel that it is easy to get access to the service and the service providers are prepared to adjust to meet the demands and wishes of the customers (process-related criteria)

4 Reliability and trustworthiness – the customers can rely on the service providers to keep their promises and perform with the best interest of the customers in mind

5 Recovery – The customers know that immediate action will be taken by the service providers if anything goes wrong (process-related criteria)

6 Reputation and credibility - The customers believe that the image of the service providers stands for good performance and accepted values (image-related criteria)

In 2000, Gronroos presented a seventh criterion of perceived quality of service:

7 Serviscape – The physical surrounding and other aspects of the environment support a positive experience (Gronroos 2000)

According to Gronroos (1988, 1990), the technical aspects of a service are easily copied, risking the loss of competitive advantage, whereas emphasizing functional quality can create a sustainable competitive edge by focusing on the personal aspects of the service encounter Saleh and Ryan (1991) highlight that high functional service quality can even compensate for technical issues experienced by consumers Gronroos (1988) emphasizes that while technical quality is necessary, it alone does not guarantee service excellence, and functional quality often plays a more vital role in delivering superior service However, Lagrosen (2001) warns that although Gronroos’ criteria provide valuable insights into service quality, assessing quality in specific contexts is crucial for a comprehensive understanding.

The Quality of Service – Further Development

Expanding on Gronroos’ research and development, Parasuraman, Zeithaml and

Berry (1985) refined the concept of the quality of service and developed a

This exploratory qualitative study utilized the SERVQUAL instrument to investigate the concept of service quality Focus group interviews with consumers and in-depth interviews with industry executives provided valuable insights into defining service quality The research focused on four service categories—retail banking, credit cards, securities brokerage, and product repair and maintenance—to represent a diverse cross-section of industries These categories were selected based on key dimensions used to categorize services, aligning with established frameworks by Lovelock (1980, 1983).

The study showed consistent patterns emerging from the four sets of executive interviews However, the most important insight obtained from analysing the executive responses was that

A set of key discrepancies or gaps exists regarding executive perceptions of service quality and the tasks associated with service delivery to consumers

These gaps can be major hurdles in attempting to deliver a service which consumers would perceive as being of high quality (Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry 1985, p 44)

As a result of their preliminary research, Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1988) identified five discrepancies or gaps associated with the delivery of a service, shown below in Figure 2.2:

 Gap 1 –between customer expectations and management perceptions of those (customer) expectations;

 Gap 2 –between management perceptions of customer expectations and the firm’s specifications of quality of service

 Gap 3 –between the specifications of quality of service and actual service delivery

 Gap 4 –between actual service delivery and external communications about the service

 Gap 5 –between expected service and perceived service

Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1988) developed a service quality model highlighting that customer perceptions of service quality are influenced by four distinct organizational gaps These gaps, particularly on the side of the marketer or service provider, can hinder the delivery of high-quality services Specifically, Gap 5—the discrepancy between customer expectations and perceptions—is directly affected by the size and direction of the underlying gaps related to service delivery, emphasizing the importance of closing these gaps to enhance overall service quality.

(Zeithaml, Berry & Parasuraman 1988) This gap analysis approach to measuring the quality of service became the foundation of Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry’s

(1988) later research into quality of service

Teas (1993) highlights that when the difference between perceptions and expectations (P - E) results in a gap, it mirrors the disconfirmation paradigm, suggesting that gap analysis can be an effective tool for assessing a company's performance Parasuraman emphasizes the importance of understanding these gaps to improve service quality and customer satisfaction Leveraging gap analysis allows businesses to identify areas needing improvement, ultimately enhancing overall performance and customer experience.

Zeithaml and Berry (1988) state that if the customer’s expectations are met, the quality of service is perceived to lead to satisfaction; if the customer’s expectations are not met, the customer is dissatisfied When the customer’s expectations are exceeded (thereby delighting the customer), the quality of service is perceived to be more than satisfactory (Hill 1995) Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry’s (1985) exploratory study reveals that the key to ensuring a good quality of service is by meeting or exceeding what customers expect This is what is identified by Gap 5: the discrepancy between expected service and perceived service

Figure 2.2 Quality of Service Model

Service Delivery (Including pre- and post- contacts)

Translation of Perceptions into Service Quality Specs

Management Perceptions of Consumer Expectations

Factors Influencing Custom ers’ Expectations of Services

As shown in Figure 2.2, Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1985) focus on three primary areas: personal needs, word of mouth communication, and past experiences The first factor, personal needs, is defined as those states or conditions essential to the physical or psychological well-being of the customer (Zeithaml & Bitner 2002) and is determined by individual characteristics and circumstances (Zeithaml,

Parasuraman & Berry 1990) Personal needs are based on Maslow’s Hierarchy of

Needs theory classifies human needs into higher-order and lower-order categories, including self-actualization and esteem as higher-order needs, while social, safety, and physiological needs are considered lower-order According to this theory, lower-order needs must be fulfilled first, such as physiological needs before safety needs, and safety needs before social needs, before higher-level motivations like self-actualization can emerge This hierarchical approach emphasizes that some needs take precedence over others to effectively motivate human behavior (Wood, 2005).

Word of mouth communication is a crucial factor that involves personal and non-personal statements made by third parties, shaping customer expectations of a service It is especially significant for services that are challenging to evaluate prior to purchase or firsthand experience, as it can greatly influence both predicted and desired service perceptions (Zeithaml & Bitner).

2002): what customers hear from other customers, for example, about medical and dental service providers can influence their decision to patronise them (Zeithaml,

According to Parasuraman and Berry (1990), word of mouth communication significantly influences consumers' decision-making Cuthbert (1996) found that students consider word of mouth a crucial factor when choosing an educational institution Similarly, Murray (1991) emphasizes that word of mouth is the most powerful source of information customers rely on to form expectations, highlighting its importance in shaping consumer perceptions and decisions.

The third factor, past experience, refers to the customer’s previous exposure to service, which is relevant to shaping predictions and desires (Cadotte, Woodruff &

Past brand experience significantly influences consumer decisions, encompassing previous interactions with the brand, the typical performance of a favorite brand, and experiences with the last purchased or top-selling brand Additionally, consumers often rely on their perception of the average performance of a group of similar brands when making choices (Cadotte, Woodruff & Jenkins, 1987) This accumulated experience shapes brand loyalty and purchasing behavior, highlighting the importance of consistent brand performance in fostering customer trust.

2.9 Instruments to Measure the Quality of Service

The SERVQUAL instrument has been proven through extensive research to be highly effective in measuring service quality within higher education It serves as a valuable tool for identifying areas of improvement, transforming shortcomings into strengths, and ensuring continuous enhancement of educational services Utilizing SERVQUAL can lead to better student satisfaction and enhanced institutional reputation, making it essential for quality assurance in higher education.

(Andell, Heffernan & Megicks 2008; Harris 2002; Wolverton 1995; Yang 2008)

SERVQUAL is a comprehensive tool consisting of 44 items designed to assess service quality by measuring both customer expectations and perceptions It includes 22 items measuring customers' expectations of service providers in the relevant industry and 22 corresponding items capturing their perceptions of a specific firm's service performance Each service quality dimension is represented by paired statements: the first set evaluates general expectations within the service category, while the second set assesses actual perceptions of the targeted firm (Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry, 1988) This structure enables a detailed comparison between what customers expect and their actual experiences, guiding firms to improve service quality effectively.

A seven-point Likert scale from strongly agree (7) to strongly disagree (1) is used to assess expectations and perceptions Comparing responses reveals that if expectation scores are higher than perception scores, the result is negative, indicating areas needing improvement Conversely, when perception scores exceed expectations, the result is positive, highlighting strengths A positive score signifies an area of strength that can serve as a competitive advantage for the service provider.

The initial research involved focus group interviews with customers and in-depth interviews with executives to develop a conceptual model of service quality The original SERVQUAL instrument was designed to capture the criteria customers use to evaluate service quality, consisting of 10 key dimensions: tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, competence, access, courtesy, communication, credibility, security, and understanding (Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry, 1985) These dimensions form the foundational framework for the SERVQUAL measurement tool.

Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1988) conducted an extensive analysis of the 10 service quality dimensions through factor analysis, revealing some overlap among them Their subsequent investigation suggested that certain dimensions shared common elements, indicating the need for further refinement in measuring service quality to ensure clearer distinctions.

The dimensions of competence, access, courtesy, communication, credibility, security, and understanding collectively create the assurance and empathy aspects of service quality According to Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1988), the SERVQUAL model encompasses five distinct dimensions that effectively cover all ten original facets of service quality This comprehensive approach highlights how SERVQUAL captures the essential elements necessary to assess and improve overall customer satisfaction and trust.

The final five dimensions of the quality of service are:

1 Tangibles – physical facilities, equipment, and appearance of personnel;

2 Reliability – ability to perform the promised service dependably and accurately;

3 3 Responsiveness – willingness to help customers and provide prompt service;

4 Assurance – knowledge and courtesy of employees and their ability to inspire trust and confidence;

5 Empathy – caring, individualised attention the firm provides its customers

Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1988) demonstrated that the modified SERVQUAL model exhibits high reliability when applied to retail banking, credit cards, securities brokerage, and product repair services, with total-scale reliability close to 0.9 Their study found that ‘reliability’ is the most critical dimension affecting customers' overall perception of service quality across these industries, followed by ‘assurance’, which holds particular importance in banking Conversely, ‘responsiveness’ and ‘empathy’ were identified as the least influential dimensions in shaping customer perceptions Notably, ‘tangibles’ were more significant in banking services compared to other sectors, highlighting industry-specific priorities in service quality.

The modified SERVQUAL instrument ensures strong content validity by thoroughly defining the construct and its domain, guaranteeing comprehensive coverage Additionally, it confirms that the scale items accurately represent the entire scope of the construct's domain, enhancing the instrument's overall validity and reliability in measuring service quality.

Convergent validity of SERVQUAL was established by comparing its scores with customers' overall quality ratings of the service, demonstrating strong support for its validity The research across four service companies further reinforces SERVQUAL's effectiveness, supported by additional studies such as Pitt, Oostuizen, and Morris (1992), which confirm its reliability, content validity, and convergent validity.

Although SERVQUAL is widely used, many researchers believe that performance-only measures may provide a more accurate assessment of service quality Bolton and Drew (1991), along with Cronin and Taylor, argue that focusing solely on actual service performance offers a potentially improved way to evaluate the service quality construct.

Criticisms of SERVQUAL

Despite the extensive use and numerous citations of SERVQUAL in service-related literature, researchers in the field have offered three major criticisms of the instrument

A study by Cronin and Taylor (1992) criticizes the SERVQUAL instrument, highlighting its conceptual, methodological, analytical, and practical limitations They argue that measuring customer perceptions alone is sufficient for assessing service quality, rendering the evaluation of expectations unnecessary Moreover, they assert that a performance-only approach provides a more effective measure of service quality compared to gap model methods Brady, Cronin, and Brand (2002) replicated and extended these findings, supporting the shift toward perception-based assessments in service quality research.

Cronin and Taylor’s (1992) research, confirm the superiority of performance-only measures over SERVQUAL when measuring quality of service Cronin and Taylor

(1992) and Teas (1993) also question the specification of the quality of service as the gap between customers’ expectations and perceptions, and the appropriateness of

SERVQUAL as a two-part instrument for measuring quality of service

2.10.2 Use of difference scores, reliability and validity

Brown, Churchill, and Peter (1993) criticize the use of difference scores, such as expectations minus perceptions, as a standalone measure of service quality, highlighting potential issues with reliability and validity Their study involving undergraduate business students revealed that high positive correlations between component scores can artificially inflate the reliability of difference scores, potentially misleading researchers to believe they possess discriminant validity They also identified variance restriction problems when component scores, particularly expectations, are consistently higher than perceptions, which poses challenges for statistical analyses requiring equal variances Their findings suggest caution when using difference scores like Gap 5 of SERVQUAL for measuring service quality, emphasizing the importance of reliable and valid measurement methods.

Research by O’Neil and Palmer (2001, 2004) highlights three key psychometric issues with using difference scores: reliability, discriminant validity, and variance restriction Additionally, Carman (1990) and Brown, Churchill, and Peter (1993) question the distinction between expectation and perception scores, suggesting instead that these differences should be measured directly in a combined format for more accurate analysis.

Carman (1990) emphasizes the importance of customizing the SERVQUAL model to specific service contexts to ensure accurate measurement of service quality He advocates for further replication and testing of SERVQUAL dimensions and measures before accepting it as a universal tool for evaluating service quality across various retail and service environments This suggests that tailored approaches are essential for reliable service quality assessments.

Research by Carman (1990) highlights the need to adapt the SERVQUAL scale to different service industries, as it was initially designed for specific contexts Brown, Churchill, and Peter (1993) questioned the consistency of the five SERVQUAL dimensions across various service settings, raising concerns about the instrument’s universal applicability Overall, these studies suggest that while the SERVQUAL model is valuable, modifications may be necessary to ensure its effectiveness in diverse service environments.

SERVQUAL measure and the theory underlying it.

Responses to Criticisms

The criticisms listed above have been addressed by a number of researchers

Cronin and Taylor (1992) argued that measuring customers’ perceptions of service quality is sufficient and that assessing expectations is unnecessary However, Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1994a) countered this view, emphasizing that comparing customer expectations with perceptions provides a more accurate assessment of service quality Relying solely on perception ratings may lead to sub-optimal resource allocation for service improvements, highlighting the importance of measuring both expectations and perceptions for effective quality management.

Further, Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1994b) contend that previous research

(Berry, Zeithamal & Parasuraman 1985; Bolton & Drew 1991; Parasuraman,

Zeithaml & Berry 1985, 1988; Zeithaml, Parasuraman & Berry 1990) has provided strong support for defining the quality of service as the discrepancy between customers’ expectations and their perceptions Several researchers (Gronroos 1982;

Lehtinen & Lehtinen 1982; Saser, Olsen & Wyckoff 1978) working even before

Cronin and Taylor (1992), as well as later researchers (Bolton & Drew 1991;

Zeithaml, Berry & Parasuraman 1993) support the disconfirmation of expectations conceptualisation of the quality of service In an empirical study, Bolton and Drew

Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1991, p 383) conclude that their research aligns with previous studies on service quality, emphasizing that a critical factor influencing overall service quality is the gap between customer expectations and perceptions This highlights the importance of closing the difference between what customers anticipate and their actual experience to enhance service delivery Their findings underscore that managing this gap is essential for improving perceived service quality and customer satisfaction in various service industries.

(1994b) and Bolton and Drew (1991) disagree with the claims of Cronin and Taylor

(1992) that a performance-based measure is superior to the SERVQUAL measure

Instead, Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1988) and Parasuraman, Berry and

Zeithaml (1991) argue that the standard five-dimensional structure serves as a meaningful framework for tracking a firm’s quality of service over time, and for comparing it against the performance of competitors

More researchers have emphasised that the use of a gap model is more practical than a perception-only model for examining specific service deficiencies (Angur,

Curry and Sinclair (2002) highlight the usefulness and relevance of the SERVQUAL methodology, a gap model, for identifying customer priorities and measuring service performance in public-sector physiotherapy services Supporting this, Nataraajan and Jaheera (1999) emphasize the importance of understanding service quality through such frameworks, while Carrillat, Jaramillo, and Mulki (2007) provide further insights into the effectiveness of these methods in assessing service delivery.

SERVQUAL is a valid predictor of overall quality of service: the gap model appears to have better diagnostic capabilities than perception-only measures (Kilbourne et al

2.11.2 Use of difference scores, reliability and validity

Parasuraman, Berry, and Zeithaml (1993) highlight that Brown, Churchill, and Peter’s (1993) critique primarily focuses on the use of a difference-score (expectations minus perceptions) to measure service quality through SERVQUAL, raising three psychometric concerns They note a moderate correlation between SERVQUAL’s expectation and perception scales, with Brown, Churchill, and Peter reporting very strong reliabilities of 0.94 for expectations and 0.96 for perceptions, consistent with multiple studies by Parasuraman, Berry, and Zeithaml demonstrating high reliability for the SERVQUAL measure (ranging from 0.87 to 0.96).

0.92) Nunnally (1978) notes that Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of more than 0.70 are considered acceptable Second, in addressing Brown, Churchill and Peter’s

Parasuraman, Berry, and Zeithaml (1993) critique difference-score measures, highlighting that discriminant validity may be inflated when reliability is low However, they argue that the reliability of the SERVQUAL instrument has been consistently high, with scores ranging from 0.87 to 0.92 in Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1988), and reaching 0.94 in Brown, Churchill, and Peter (1993) Therefore, reliability issues are unlikely to impact studies using the difference-score formulation of SERVQUAL.

Brown, Churchill, and Peter (1993) highlight that the high mean and low standard deviation in the expectations component of SERVQUAL, compared to perceptions, may restrict the variance of difference-scores at higher levels Parasuraman, Berry, and Zeithaml (1993) counter that the impact of this issue depends on how these difference-scores are utilized in the analysis.

The problem is mainly an issue when these scores are used in multivariate analyses, but is not relevant when the scores are used for diagnostic applications, which are the dominant commercial use of the instrument (Parasuraman, Berry & Zeithaml 1991)

Researchers have developed specific quality of service scales to assess e-service quality, recognizing that customer interactions with websites differ from those with service employees Parasuraman and Grewal (2000) highlight that the importance and definition of the five SERVQUAL dimensions vary in online contexts Furthermore, Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Malhotra (2005) emphasize that measuring e-service quality necessitates developing specialized scales beyond simply adapting offline models They introduce the E-S-QUAL scale, comprising 22 items across four dimensions, to more accurately evaluate online service quality.

To measure quality in e-services, key factors such as efficiency, system availability, fulfillment, and privacy are essential Cristobal, Flavian, and Guinaliu (2007) developed a comprehensive scale comprising 17 items across four critical dimensions: web design, customer service, order management, and assurance This measurement model provides a holistic approach to evaluating and improving the overall quality of online services.

Research indicates that SERVQUAL is extensively utilized across diverse industries, such as retail banking, credit card services, repair and maintenance, and long-distance telephone services, with its validity consistently confirmed.

Zeithaml & Berry (1988) and Parasuraman, Berry & Zeithaml (1991) highlight the importance of service quality across various industries, including hospitals, CPA firms, physicians, dental school patient clinics, business school placement centers, tyre stores, acute care hospitals, public recreation programs, and real estate brokerages Additionally, international airline companies emphasize the critical role of delivering high-quality services to maintain customer satisfaction and competitive advantage in their sectors.

(Robledo 2001); tourism and hospitality management in Croatia (Markovic &

Gospodarstvo 2006) and UK (Wang, Vela & Tyler 2008), and even in public transportation in India (Randheer, AL-Motawa & Vijay 2011).

The Relationship between Quality of Service, Customer Satisfaction, and

Several studies have examined the association between the quality of service, customer satisfaction, and behavioural intention Parasuraman, Berry and Zeithaml

(1991) and Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1988) find a positive and significant relationship between customers’ perceptions of the quality of service and their willingness to recommend the company Zeithaml, Berry and Parasuraman (1996), who examined the behavioural consequences of the quality of service involving business customers of a computer manufacturer, and end customers of a retail chain, automobile insurance and life insurance, found strong evidence that behavioural intentions were influenced by quality of service Olorunniwo, Hsu and Udo (2006) similarly reported a significant effect of quality of service on behavioural intention

High service quality and customer satisfaction are crucial factors influencing consumers' purchase intentions in service environments Research by Taylor and Baker (1994) demonstrates that the positive impact of service quality on purchase intentions is amplified when customer satisfaction is high Their findings indicate that the strongest purchase intentions occur when both perceptions of service quality and satisfaction levels are elevated Additionally, customer satisfaction acts as a moderating factor, strengthening the relationship between service quality and consumers' intent to purchase.

Liljander and Strandfik (1993) found that in restaurant settings, service performance is a stronger predictor of customer satisfaction than both perceived and actual disconfirmation measures Their research highlights that evaluating service quality provides more accurate insights into customer satisfaction and future intentions than relying solely on disconfirmation assessments This suggests that focusing on high service performance can more effectively enhance customer satisfaction and loyalty in the hospitality industry.

Satisfaction is found to have a positive correlation with intentions to re-buy The quality of service, measured as inferred disconfirmation (SERVQUAL score) is also connected to intentions, although perceived performance alone has a higher correlation with intentions Overall, satisfaction is a better predictor of intentions to re-buy than is quality of service

According to Oh (2000), implementing incentives like discounts and complimentary appetizers enhances customers’ perception that the restaurant is committed to improving their overall experience These measures help restaurant operators monitor perceived quality, value, and satisfaction, allowing them to identify and address potential issues proactively Furthermore, research indicates that perceived quality, value, and satisfaction are strong predictors of customers’ willingness to return and recommend the restaurant to others, contributing to long-term success.

Customer satisfaction and perceptions of the quality of service affect customer intentions to behave in other positive ways: for example by praising a firm, preferring one company over others, increasing the volume of purchases, or agreeing to pay a premium price (Zeithaml & Bitner 2002) Boulding et al (1993) find that strong links between the quality of service and behaviour intentions are of strategic importance in the school setting, leading to such outcomes as planning to contribute money to the class pledge on graduation, or planning to recommend the school to employers as a place from which to recruit.

The Quality of Service in Higher Education

Delivering high-quality service is a key goal for higher education institutions (Russell, 2005) As part of the service industry, these institutions should adopt proven techniques from other sectors to effectively measure service quality and student satisfaction (Sahney, Banwet &) Implementing such methods can enhance overall educational experiences and strengthen institutional reputation.

Higher education is increasingly recognized as a service industry focused on satisfying the needs and expectations of students, who are considered customers To achieve operational efficiency, educational institutions must actively compete for both funding and student enrollment, emphasizing the importance of customer-centric strategies in the sector.

Higher education is classified as a service industry, characterized by five key features: intangibility, inseparability, heterogeneity, perishability, and lack of ownership, as noted by Kaper, Helsdingen, and Gabbott (2006) Additionally, students actively participate in the educational process, influencing overall service delivery, as highlighted by Shank, Walker, and Hayes (1995) As the sector evolves, colleges and universities must recognize the critical role of service quality to meet increasing expectations and remain competitive in a dynamic environment.

According to Joseph (1998), to compete effectively in the marketplace, educational institutions must differentiate themselves from competitors He emphasizes that one effective way to achieve this is by offering high-quality services, which can help institutions stand out and attract students.

Shetty (1987) concurs that improved quality can improve the firm’s competitive position; service is a feature that may differentiate many universities

The majority of service research has been conducted outside the educational field, In the original design of the SERVQUAL instrument, Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry

(1988) collected sample data from five service companies; although education was not one of them, they concluded that SERVQUAL could be adapted or supplemented to fit the characteristics or specific research needs of any particular organisation

Since then, research has been undertaken to verify the use of SERVQUAL to measure the quality of service in a higher education environment In Boulding et al.’s

In their 1993 study, Boulding et al examined students' expectations and perceptions related to educational service delivery using a 36-item survey, which was modified to distinguish between what students expect will happen versus what should happen during educational experiences They assessed students’ behavioral intentions by asking how likely students would be to recommend their school or donate money in the future The findings revealed that higher perceptions of a university’s overall service quality increase students' likelihood to recommend the institution or make donations Additionally, the study showed that elevating students’ expectations of future service quality, compared to what they believe the university will deliver, enhances their perceptions of service quality once they experience the actual service, emphasizing the importance of managing expectations in educational marketing and service delivery.

Chen (1993), who applied a modified SERVQUAL instrument to Minnesota

The Extension Service (MES) was well received by both MES clientele and employees, highlighting its effectiveness in serving the community Additionally, a study by Ruby (1996) utilized the SERVQUAL model to evaluate student satisfaction across various departments, including Academic Records, emphasizing the importance of service quality in educational institutions.

Research indicates that female students tend to expect and perceive higher quality support services in admissions, career services, and financial aid compared to male students A moderate correlation exists between student satisfaction with these support services and their overall commitment to their college or university The study confirms that the SERVQUAL model is effectively adaptable for evaluating the quality of educational support services, highlighting its relevance in higher education contexts.

Schwantz (1996) employed a modified SERVQUAL model to compare the service quality expectations and perceptions of traditional (aged 24 and under) and non-traditional (older) students at Texas Tech University The study found no significant differences in expectations or perceptions between these groups regarding support staff and teaching faculty However, a significant difference was observed in perceptions, with staff consistently rated lower than faculty across all measured areas (p < 0.001).

DiDomenico and Joseph (1996) conducted a study at a Midwestern university based on Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry’s (1985) original framework, focusing on ten key service quality dimensions: responsiveness, reliability, tangibles, communication, competence, access, credibility, courtesy, understanding and knowing the customer, and security Using gap analysis, they asked students to evaluate and compare services across various departments, including dining facilities, career services, campus life, and health services Their findings highlighted specific areas where service quality could be improved to better meet student expectations and enhance overall satisfaction.

‘tangibility’ was the only dimension where the quality of service surpassed students’ expectations All the other variables scored in the negative zone The lowest score was for ‘reliability’, followed by ‘responsiveness’ and ‘competence’ The researchers concluded that outstanding quality of service, as perceived by the customer, could give any organisation a competitive advantage In order to acquire and maintain this advantage, universities must determine where they stand in the eyes of the students

As tuition costs continue to rise, students are becoming more critical of the value they receive for their investment Universities must enhance the quality of their services to meet these increasing expectations and attract prospective students Implementing rigorous, effective measures to assess and improve service quality is essential for higher education institutions to remain competitive and ensure student satisfaction.

Comm and Mathaisel (2000) investigated employee satisfaction at a private tertiary institution by analyzing the gap between employee expectations and perceptions using the SERVQUAL model across ten dimensions, revealing significant discrepancies that indicated perceptions fell short of expectations The most notable gap was related to salary, with employees perceiving their pay as less adequate than its perceived importance Similarly, Lampley (2001) applied gap analysis to understand the service expectations and experiences of doctoral students at Tennessee’s state-supported universities, finding that notable gaps between expectations and actual experiences highlight areas for improving postgraduate student satisfaction.

Hampton's (1993) hypothesis suggests that increasing gap scores lead to decreased overall customer satisfaction Continual service quality improvements can boost student satisfaction and loyalty, resulting in higher retention rates Enhanced student retention and positive word-of-mouth marketing can reduce costs associated with attracting new students, ultimately benefiting the institution's overall success.

Culture and the Quality of Service

Customers are satisfied with services when their expectations are met or exceeded In order to ensure such an outcome, service managers need to be cognisant of the parts of the service delivery experience that are open to cultural influences (Espinoza

1999) Service encounters are first and foremost (i.e., highest position) social encounters; so rules and expectations related to service encounters will vary considerably across cultures (Malhotra et al 2005) Given differences in culture and environment, consumers in different countries may have different perceptions of what quality of service consists of For example, Ueltschy et al (2007) suggest that in high-performance service encounters, German respondents express significantly higher satisfaction and consider the service better than do Japanese respondents, while Witkowski and Wolfinbarger (2002) report that German respondents express lower perceived service outcomes and lower service expectations than their US counterparts Laroche et al (2004) find that, compared with their Canadian and US counterparts, Japanese customers are more conservative in designating service as superior Service managers need to be sensitive to variations in personal values, attitudes and behaviours that customers in different cultures will bring to a service encounter

A number of researchers have considered the differences between national cultures

Two of the most widely known are Hofstede (1980, 1984, 1991, 2001) and

Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998), who have studied staff in multinational companies, collected large databases and classified nationalities in idealised, typical,

Hofstede’s concept of culture emphasizes that each individual is shaped by learned patterns of thinking, feeling, and potential behavior accumulated over a lifetime He defines culture as a “collective programming of the mind” that differentiates groups of people from one another This includes shared systems of values that influence how members of a culture perceive and respond to the world.

In 1980, Hofstede conducted comprehensive surveys at IBM, a leading multinational corporation, collecting over 117,000 responses from 72 countries across 20 languages between 1967 and 1973 His analysis highlighted significant national differences in employee values, which were consistent across diverse international populations and could be reliably identified using only an English version of the questionnaire.

Hofstede’s (1980, 1984, 1991, 2001) research on cultural dimensions has been instrumental in classifying and understanding national cultures He identifies four statistically independent cultural dimensions that explain differences in employee responses across countries His work ranks 50 countries and three regions based on these dimensions, providing valuable insights into cultural variation and its impact on organizational behavior.

1 Power Distance – Power distance is the extent to which less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally In high power distance countries, status and titles are very important in terms of organisational structure, but also lie at the core of social relationships and social formalities Employees must always be the ones to greet their boss, regardless of age, seniority or experience (Demers 1998) Societies high in power distance are more autocratic and accept differences in power and wealth more readily than societies low in power distance (Bang et al 2005) Low power distance societies value equality, so class distinctions are less tolerated and democratic participation is encouraged

2 Individualism and Collectivism – Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself, and his or her immediate family Collectivism, on the other hand, pertains to societies in which people from birth are integrated into strong, cohesive groups which, throughout their lifetime, protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty

3 Masculinity and Femininity – Masculinity refers to a society emphasising on competitiveness, assertiveness, achievement, ambition, and high earnings In masculine cultures, gender roles are differentiated very clearly (Bang et al 2005)

Femininity, on the other hand, refers to a society that puts emphasis on nurturing, helping others, putting relationships with people before money, not showing off, and minding the quality of life

4 Uncertainty Avoidance – This refers to the extent to which people are threatened by uncertain, unknown, or unstructured situations Countries with a high uncertainty avoidance ranking have regulations and controls to reduce the amount of uncertainty since the citizens have a low tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty (Bang et al

Lifetime employment is a phenomenon predominantly observed in cultures with high uncertainty avoidance, where societal values emphasize job security and stability (Demers, 1998) In contrast, societies low on uncertainty avoidance tend to focus on meeting basic needs, exhibit tolerance towards diverse behaviors, and generally feel more secure, resulting in different employment practices and workplace dynamics.

In 1988, Bond conceived the Chinese Value Survey (CVS) project: recognising that the results of surveys designed by Westerners are biased by their designers’ cultural heritage, he asked his Chinese colleagues to compose a questionnaire with a deliberate Chinese mental bias This led to the creation of a 40-item questionnaire, which was subsequently translated into English; it was administered to 23 Asian and non-Asian countries The results showed that three CVS dimensions significantly correlated with three of the IBM dimensions (power distance, individualism/collectivism, and masculinity/femininity), but no counterpart of uncertainty avoidance was found in the Chinese survey However, a new dimension was found: Bond named it ‘Confucian dynamism’ to show that it deals with choices according to Confucian ideas, and adopted it as a fifth dimension Confucian dynamism’s positive pole reflects a dynamic, future-oriented mentality, and its negative pole a more static, tradition-oriented mentality Hofstede (2001) named the positive pole ‘long-term orientation’ and the negative pole ‘short-term orientation’

In addition to the four original cultural dimensions developed by Hofstede (1980,

1984), a fifth cultural dimension is included:

5 Long-term versus short-term orientation – Long-term orientation stands for the fostering of virtues, in particular perseverance and thrift, that are oriented towards future rewards Short-term orientation, on the other hand, stands for the fostering of virtues related to the past and present, in particular respect for tradition, preservation of ‘face’, and fulfilling social obligations

Despite the popularity of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, the internal validity of the dimensions and the method of constructing the scales have both come under criticism (Tsikriktsis 2002) Hofstede’s categories are not necessarily exhaustive, because the original survey was not designed to identify dimensions of national culture and hence may not have contained all necessary questions (Schwartz 1994) Voronov and

Singer (2002) have expressed concern over whether the dimensions are representative of national cultural values or are the results of transient influences

Jacob (2005, p 517) highlights inconsistencies in distinguishing long-term and short-term orientations, questioning how Confucian values are represented within these constructs He argues that some components, such as ‘ordering of relationships by status’ and ‘respect for tradition,’ could reflect either long-term or short-term orientations depending on context and logic, since ‘respect for tradition’ can promote stability, continuity, and prosperity over time Additionally, a study by Keough, Zibardo, and Boyds (1999) offers an alternative interpretation of future, present, and past orientations that diverges from Hofstede’s view, emphasizing the complexity of cultural time perspectives.

Past-oriented individuals and cultures emphasize evaluating plans based on societal customs and traditions, fostering a respect for tradition (Jacob, 2005) Cultures with a high past orientation tend to correct current behaviors to ensure future benefits, ultimately promoting material prosperity (Keough, Zibardo, & Boyds, 1999) This perspective contrasts with Hofstede’s view that long-term orientation, rooted in Confucian Dynamism, embodies a dynamic, future-focused mentality, highlighting cultural differences in time orientation approaches.

Student Gender and the Quality of Service

According to Hofstede (1991), the masculine dimension of culture emphasizes traditional masculine values such as competitiveness, assertiveness, achievement, ambition, and high earnings In these masculine cultures, gender roles are clearly defined and distinct Countries like Japan, Italy, Germany, the Philippines, and Australia exemplify masculine cultural traits (Hofstede, 2001) Conversely, the feminine dimension of culture prioritizes values such as nurturing, concern for relationships, and valuing quality of life, highlighting the diverse ways cultures interpret gender roles and social priorities.

1991) Examples include Spain, South Korea, Thailand, Denmark and Sweden

Hofstede (2001) highlights the masculine/feminine dimension as a key cultural factor because it uniquely reflects gender differences within national cultures According to Hofstede (1980), both males and females exhibit levels of masculinity or femininity that are strongly influenced by their cultural context, making this dimension particularly significant in understanding gender roles across different societies.

1991) finds that differences between males and females are greater in more masculine countries

The service literature has generally overlooked the potentially important independent variable of students’ gender Empirical evidence suggests that men and women differ in their information processing styles (Maheswaran & Meyers-Levy 1990; Meyers-

Levy & Maheswaran 1991): women engage in more detailed elaboration of information, whereas men tend to have a more general processing style Women

(being more scrutinising processors) tend to overweigh negative information, whereas men appear to give more salience to positive information Iacobucci and

Ostrom (1993) report that women may be more sensitive to the relational aspects of a service interaction than their male counterparts

Service organizations prioritize research on how male and female customers respond to service encounters, as these interactions significantly influence customers’ overall perception of service quality (Dale, 2003) Customers often base their opinions on personal interactions, resulting in feelings ranging from dissatisfaction to delight, or somewhere in between To provide high-quality services to students, universities must effectively manage every aspect of the student experience, especially those involving personal interactions with student advisors at customer service centers.

According to Banwet and Datta (2003), services are delivered by people, and moments of truth can significantly impact a university's image To achieve total student satisfaction, all staff—whether front-line, administrative, or management—must adhere to principles of quality customer service A survey of 310 male Saudi Arabian students at King Fahd University found that contact personnel were the most influential in students' evaluation of service quality (Sohail & Shaikh, 2004) Similarly, Galloway (1998) discovered that front-line staff in a UK university’s faculty administration directly affect students' perceptions of the institution's overall quality These findings highlight the vital role of front-line staff in shaping students’ service experiences and perception of university quality.

Despite the growing interest in service in higher education, little research has been conducted to examine students’ gender on perceptions of the quality of service Most organisational studies have been conducted in male-dominated occupations with little consideration of potential gender-based differences (Thomas & Ganster 1995) Some studies have found that the gender of the customer (or rater) may affect employee performance ratings; female raters generally give higher performance ratings than their male counterparts (Henderson 1984) Huber (1989) also finds this to be true where the performance of the employee is low and the customer is not satisfied

Research by Mattila (1999) indicates that gender does not significantly influence service encounter evaluations in hotel and restaurant settings, suggesting gender neutrality in customer experiences Similarly, Leong and Sohail (2006) found that gender is not a perceived factor affecting career influences among private academic staff in Malaysia, highlighting its minimal impact on professional perceptions Additionally, a study in the food and beverage industry revealed no significant gender-based differences in perceptions of service quality, reinforcing the notion that gender does not play a crucial role in evaluating service experiences.

Research by Sun & Qu (2011) and Hanzaee and Dehkordi (2012) indicates that gender is not a significant factor influencing the relationship between individual cultural values and service quality However, Snipes, Thomson, and Oswald (2006) found that gender biases do exist in customer evaluations of service performance, with male customers generally rating fairness higher than female customers This study aims to address this research gap by exploring how customers’ gender impacts perceptions of service quality specifically within higher education service encounters.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

Base on the literature review, the major research question in this study is:

What discrepancies can be discerned between students’ expectations and their perceptions in regard to the quality of service of university student advisors in

Hypotheses relevant to the major research question are offered as follows:

(1.) There are significant differences between first- and third-year students’ expectations in regard to the quality of service of university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Ho1: There is no significant difference in expectations of the quality of service between first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Ha1: There is significant difference in expectations of the quality of service between first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

(2.) There are significant differences between first- and third-year students’ perceptions in regard to the quality of service of university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Ho2: There is no significant difference in perceptions of the quality of service between first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Ha2: There is significant difference in perceptions of the quality of service between first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

(3.) There is a discrepancy/gap (Perceptions - Expectations) between first- and third-year students in regard to the quality of service of university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Ho3: There is no significant difference in discrepancy/gap regarding the quality of service between first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Ha3: There is significant difference in students’ discrepancy/gap regarding the quality of service between first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Minor research question one in the study is:

Do individual cultural tendencies have a significant impact on students’ expectations and perceptions, and on the discrepancy regarding the quality of services provided by university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and

The following research hypotheses of minor research question one are offered:

(4) Individual cultural tendencies of first- and third-year students have a significant impact on expectations of the quality of service provided by university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H4a: Power distance, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the expectations of service quality among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H4b: Individualism, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the expectations of service quality among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H4c: Masculinity, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the expectations of service quality among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H4d: Uncertainty avoidance, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the expectations of service quality among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H4e: Long-term orientation, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the expectations of service quality among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

(5) Individual cultural tendencies of first- and third-year students have a significant impact on their perceptions of the quality of service provided by student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H5a: Power distance, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the perceptions of service quality among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H5b: Individualism, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the perceptions of service quality among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H5c: Masculinity, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the perceptions of service quality among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H5d: Uncertainty, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the perceptions of service quality among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H5e: Long-term orientation, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the perceptions of service quality among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Individual cultural tendencies of first- and third-year students significantly influence the perceived quality of service provided by university student advisors across Australia and Malaysia These cultural differences impact students’ expectations and satisfaction levels, highlighting the importance of understanding diverse cultural backgrounds to improve advisory services Addressing these cultural nuances can enhance student-advisor interactions and lead to a more effective support system in higher education institutions.

H6a: Power, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the discrepancy/gap regarding the quality of service among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H6b: Individualism, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the discrepancy/gap regarding the quality of service among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H6c: Masculinity, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the discrepancy/gap regarding the quality of service among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H6d: Uncertainty avoidance, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the discrepancy/gap regarding the quality of service among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

H6e: Long-term orientation, a cultural dimension, has a significant impact on the discrepancy/gap regarding the quality of service among first- and third-year students in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Minor research question two in the study is:

Does students’ gender affect their service ratings of the quality of service provided by university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and

The following research hypotheses of minor research question two are offered:

(7) There are significant differences between male and female students’ expectations of the quality of service provided by university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Ho7: There is no significant difference between male and female students’ expectations of the quality of service in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Ha7: There is significant difference between male and female students’ expectations of the quality of service provided by university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

(8) There are significant differences between male and female students’ perceptions of the quality of service provided by university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Ho8: There is no significant difference between male and female students’ perceptions of the quality of service provided by university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Ha8: There is significant difference between male and female students’ perceptions of the quality of service provided by university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

(9) There are significant differences in the discrepancy/gap regarding male and female students’ perceptions of the quality of service provided by university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Ho9: There is no significant difference between male and female students’ discrepancy/gap of the quality of service provided by university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Ha9: There is significant difference between male and female students’ discrepancy/gap of the quality of service provided by university student advisors in Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore.

Summary

The empirical study of service quality is rooted in the ‘disconfirmation of expectations’ paradigm, which suggests that individuals compare their expectations with their actual experiences Much research has focused on defining what constitutes quality service for customers and developing strategies to meet their satisfaction It is essential to evaluate students’ expectations and perceptions of service quality, as customer satisfaction plays a crucial role in enhancing service quality Assessing both expectations and perceptions is key to accurately measuring satisfaction and guiding improvements.

In today’s competitive environment, delivering a high-quality service is considered an essential strategy for survival, let alone success (Shank, Walker & Hayes 1995)

Effective marketing of educational services requires a deep understanding of how students evaluate these services after experiencing them Recognizing students as customers enables educational administrators to identify their needs and preferences, ultimately enhancing customer satisfaction This customer-centric approach helps educational institutions tailor their services to meet student expectations, leading to improved loyalty and positive word-of-mouth By focusing on student evaluations and satisfaction levels, schools can develop more targeted marketing strategies that resonate with prospective and current students alike.

Understanding customer expectations is the most critical step in delivering quality service, according to Anderson (1987) and Zeithaml, Parasuraman, and Berry (1990) This study focuses on the Service Quality Model – Gap 5, developed by Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1985), to analyze students' expectations and perceptions of service quality within the higher education sector.

Research Methodology

Analysis of Research Findings

Interpretation and Discussion…

Conclusion