Masters thesis of design mission impossible design manufacture of a solar car that appeals to the general public

87 Figure 120: Solar shuffler wiring Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp .... 104 Figure 145: ATN Solar Car Team & Shane Jacobson at Parliament house Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp ..

Mission Impossible:

Design & Manufacture of A Solar Car That Appeals To The General Public

A Project submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Design

Matthew Millar

Bachelor of Industrial Design (Honours) Honours 1 st Class, RMIT

School of Design College of Design and Social Context

RMIT University October 2020

Declaration

I certify that except where due acknowledgement has been made, this research is that of the author alone; the content of this research submission is the result of work which has been carried out since the official commencement date of the approved research program; any editorial work, paid or unpaid, carried out by a third party is acknowledged; and, ethics procedures and guidelines have been followed

In addition, I certify that this submission contains no material previously submitted for award of any qualification at any other university or institution, unless approved for a joint-award with another institution, and acknowledge that no part of this work will, in the future, be used in a submission in

my name, for any other qualification in any university or other tertiary institution without the prior approval of the University, and where applicable, any partner institution responsible for the joint- award of this degree

I acknowledge that copyright of any published works contained within this thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of those works

I give permission for the digital version of my research submission to be made available on the web, via the University’s digital research repository, unless permission has been granted by the University

to restrict access for a period of time

I acknowledge the support I have received for my research through the provision of an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship

Matthew Millar

12th October 2020

Mission Impossible: Design & Manufacture of A Solar Car That Appeals To The General Public

knowledge has allowed me to achieve what I have so far and has given me confidence in my future career

I also appreciate the time, effort and philosophy of Dr Liam Fennessy on the theoretic side of my research The improvement and clarity of my writing have been greatly enhanced by his input and patience I have also benefited vastly from Liam’s guidance throughout each milestone and the entirety of this degree Prof Simon Watkins has also been tremendous support behind the scenes as well as academically I’m extremely grateful for the scholarship Simon offered and organised for me

to commence my studies for this amazing experience, and the advice from both an academic and engineering perspective is greatly appreciated

I would like to express my gratitude to Andris Samson, for not only passing on his knowledge of solar cars but also being a pleasure to collaborate with during design, manufacture, driver training and throughout the event Without his input and fair compromise to better the team, the car would not have been ready for the challenge

I would like to thank the ATN & ATN Solar Car Team, for allowing me to be a part of their exciting project, and offering their knowledge and assistance I may require moving forward The opportunity

to design, build and drive a car across Australia was an amazing experience and is one I never

thought I would be able to participate in I thank my fellow students/team members/faculty I have received generous support and made great memories throughout the course and on our World Solar Challenge journey

To the RMIT staff, David Carletti, Paul Muskat, and all other technical staff Thank you for all their support and efforts to provide us with everything we needed and made it possible for us to build a car in such a short time frame I gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Michael Bodon, for helping

me grow into a management role, and learn from his experience in composites and other

manufacturing methods Michael was also a great asset to the team from a management

perspective, hands-on in the workshop, and providing external services to assist us with completing

Table of Contents

Declaration ii

Mission Impossible: iii

Acknowledgements iv

List of Figures xi

List of Tables xiv

Acronyms xiv

Abstract 1

Chapter 1: Solar Car Design & Aesthetics 2

Introduction 3

Chapter Introduction 5

Research Approach 5

Solar Electric vehicles 5

Competition - Design/Engineering 6

Sustainability 6

Vehicle Styling 6

Action Research 8

World Solar Challenge 10

Cruiser Class 10

11

Event 11

Car design aesthetics 14

Car Design Characteristics and Strategies 16

Aerodynamics 24

Composites 26

Solar Car Analysis - Aesthetics concerned by proportionate elements 27

WSC Cruiser Class Judging Criteria 35

37

Exterior Aesthetic 48

Interior Design 51

Concept Sketches 51

Colour & Trim 52

CAD Modelling 53

Steering Wheel 54

Interior Validation and Re-designing from the Inside-Out 57

Ingress & Egress 57

Seating position 59

Doors & Windows 60

Dash and Console 60

Steering and pedals 61

Simulation 61

Dynamic Test Rig 63

Chapter 3: Design in the process of fabricating a Solar Car 64

Chapter Introduction 65

Engagement with Industry production and fabricators 65

Tool Making 65

Vehicle Manufacturing – Chassis & Exterior 67

Bulkheads & Wheel Wells 67

Lower Chassis 68

69

Upper Chassis & Doors 69

71

Windows 71

Headlights 71

Vehicle Manufacturing – Interior 72

Dash, Centre Console, Door trims 72

Steering Wheel 72

Seats 73

Vehicle Assembly & Integration stage 1 – Body & Structure 73

Trimming & Dry Fitting 73

Upper & lower chassis bonding 74

Exterior finishing Stage 1 77

Vehicle Assembly & Integration Stage 2 – Mechanical 78

Suspension, steering, brakes & wheels 78

Seats & Safety Harnesses 80

Door Hinging & Latching 80

Vehicle Assembly & Integration Stage 3 – Interior & Finishing 81

Dashboard, Centre console, door trims & Seats 81

Vehicle Assembly & Integration stage 4 – Lighting & Windows 83

Lights 83

Windscreen & side windows 83

Vehicle Assembly & Integration stage 5 – Electrical 84

Vehicle Assembly & Integration Stage 6 – Finalising on the road & at the track 85

Exterior Finishing Stage 2 89

90

Chapter 4: Validation of the Design 90

Chapter Introduction 91

Vehicle Validation – Performance 91

Static Scrutineering 91

First test drive 92

Gun Point Road testing 92

Dynamic Scrutineering 94

The Event – Darwin to Adelaide 95

Practicality Judging in Adelaide 99

The result 100

Showing the project publicly 101

Chapter 5: Reflections on What I Have Learned 106

Reflection 107

Discussion 108

Appendix 5: Concept 4 - Glider 123

Appendix 6: Concept 5 Iterations 123

Appendix 7: Solar car colour/liveries 128

128

Appendix 8: List of instruction for interior CAD redesign 130

Appendix 9: Detailed Test Rig Fabrication & Validation 132

Interior Validation phase 2 133

Electrical Layout 135

Finalising for Driving 136

Test Driving 136

Appendix 10: Introduction to Carbon Fibre Resin Infusion 139

Appendix 11: Build Team & Industry Experts 143

Appendix 12: Chassis Tool Making – Detailed build log 144

Wheel Wells 144

Lower Chassis Mould 145

Upper chassis0 146

Solar Array and Bulkheads 147

Appendix 13: Interior Tool Making – Detailed build log 147

Dash, Centre Console & Door Trims 147

Seats 148

Appendix 14: Chassis Fabrication – Detailed build log 149

Rear Bulkhead - The official first part 149

Wheel Wells – Mould Preparation, Lay-up & Infusion 149

Front Bulkhead – Mould Preparation, Lay-up & Infusion 151

Lower Body/Chassis Fabrication 152

Datum points 152

Lay-up strategy 152

Upper Doors 160

Upper chassis 162

Solar Array 165

Appendix 15: Interior Manufacturing – Detailed build log 166

Dash, Centre Console, Door trims 166

Steering Wheel 168

Front bulkhead & Wheel wells 171

Upper chassis dry fit 172

Appendix 17: Vehicle Assembly & Integration stage 2 – Mechanical 173

Appendix 18: Vehicle Assembly & Integration stage 3 – Interior & finishing 175

List of Figures

Figure 1: Priscilla qualifying lap iii

Figure 2: Solar cells v

Figure 3: Eindhoven Stella Vie 2

Figure 4: 1912 Baker solar-electric concept 5

Figure 5: Sketch proportions 7

Figure 6: Teardrop - Most aerodynamic/streamline shape 7

Figure 7: Action Research Cycle 9

Figure 8: Quiet Achiever - First solar car to cross Australia, West to East 10

Figure 9: Eindhoven Universities 2017 Cruiser class winning vehicle, Stella Vie 11

Figure 10: World Solar Challenge Event Map 11

Figure 11: ATN Stakeholder Map 13

Figure 12: Jaguar F-Type 15

Figure 13: EA Ford Fairmont Ghia with beltline trim 16

Figure 14: 2017 McLaren 720S 17

Figure 15: 2006 BMW 740i “Friendly face” (Left), 2019 Aston Martin DBS “Aggressive face” (Right) 18 Figure 16: 1995 Ferrari F50 19

Figure 17: 2012 FG Ford falcon XR6 “shoulder line” 19

Figure 18: 2014 Lamborghini Huracan 20

Figure 19: BMW wheel with Bridgestone Ecopia tyre (left) BWSC Bridgestone tyre (right) 21

Figure 20: Toyota Corolla - Blue & Orange 21

Figure 21: 2020 Ford Mustang Black Pack 22

Figure 22: 2018 Hyundai Veloster with black roof 22

Figure 23: 2019 Kia Picanto GT - with red accents 23

Figure 24: 1971 XY 351 Ford Falcon GT (with standard super Roo decals & Bonnet stripes) 23

Figure 25: Ford Ranger Projector lamp/LED Headlight 24

Figure 26: Mercedes S class silhouette comparison 25

Figure 27: Ferrari F40 (painted carbon fibre body) 26

Figure 28: 2019 Aston Martin DBS (Carbon fibre diffuser & panel) 26

Figure 29: IVE Engineering’s Sophie (2019 car, same car as 2017) Photo credit- Paul Muscat 27

Figure 30: Clenergy Team Arrow’s Arrow STF (Photo credit (left)– Simon Curlis) 28

Figure 31: UNSW Sunswift’s Violet (Photo credit – Simon Curlis) 29

Figure 32: Bochum Thyssenkrupp Blue cruiser 30

Figure 33: University of Minnesota’s EOS II 31

Figure 34: FAST’s Investigator MK III (Photo credit – Simon Curlis) 31

Figure 35: Prisum Solar car team’s Penumbra 32

Figure 36: National Kaohsiung university’s Apollo VIII (Photo credit – Simon Curlis) 32

Figure 37: Sunspec 5 (Photo credit – Simon Curlis) 33

Figure 38: Lodz Solar Team’s Eagle Two 33

Figure 39: Eindhoven Stella Vie 34

Figure 40: Bird of prey concept sketch 37

Figure 41: Solar sports Ute (2017 Honours project) 38

Figure 44: Concept 5 Tech drawing 40

Figure 45: Concept 5.6.4.2 Tech Drawing 41

Figure 46: Concept 5.8 41

Figure 47: Concept 5.8 CFD (Photo Credit Steve Ilic & Marko Radmanovic) 42

Figure 48: Concept 5.8.2 CFD (Photo Credit Steve Ilic & Marko Radmanovic) 42

Figure 49: Concept 6 43

Figure 50: ATN & Team Arrow Solar car ⅕ Scale Models in the wind tunnel 43

Figure 51: Original rear corner 44

Figure 52: Modified rear corner 44

Figure 53: Low/High beam projector lamp 45

Figure 54: Design progression form Headlight Concept 1 to Headlight Concept 2 46

Figure 55: Light emission cone 47

Figure 56: Headlight Concept 3 47

Figure 57: Concept 6 Renders (Road car) 48

Figure 58: Concept 6 Race Livery (top – GT Racing Blue) (Middle/Bottom Carbon Edition) 49

Figure 59: Concept 6 Proportions 50

Figure 60: Interior Concept Sketch 51

Figure 61: Door Trim Manufacturing Sketch 52

Figure 62: Interior Colour & Trim 52

Figure 63: Interior CAD concept 53

Figure 64: Tesla Model S interior 53

Figure 65: Driver viewing requirement 53

Figure 66: Door trim concept 54

Figure 67: Steering Wheel Concept 1 55

Figure 68: Final Steering Wheel CAD Render 56

Figure 69: Steering Wheel Exploded View 56

Figure 70: Interior Buck Ingress & Egress 58

Figure 71: Seat Back Position 59

Figure 72: Buck Door/Window 60

Figure 73: Interior Buck Steering Wheel, Dash & Centre Console 61

Figure 74: Completed Interior buck 62

Figure 75: Driving Simulation 62

Figure 76: Maiden test rig drive 63

Figure 77: Body filling 64

Figure 78: Upper chassis male plug (left) Upper chassis female mould (right) 66

Figure 79: Wheel well male plug (MDF) 66

Figure 80: Dashboard female mould (Polystyrene) 66

Figure 90: Before and after door removal from upper chassis 71

Figure 91: 3D printed headlight housing before & after the paint 71

Figure 92: Door trim (top left), Centre Console (top right) & Dash (bottom) 72

Figure 93: Steering wheel 72

Figure 94: Seatback trimming (left), Seat base (right) Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp 73

Figure 95: Wheel spat separation 74

Figure 96: Upper and lower chassis dry fit 74

Figure 97: Upper and lower chassis bonding 75

Figure 98: Curing heat box 75

Figure 99: Door marking (left), Door cut out (right) ((Photo credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 76

Figure 100: Door bonding & Alignment (Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp 76

Figure 101: Body filling 77

Figure 102: Primer paint coat 78

Figure 103: Flat black paint coat 78

Figure 104: Complete front (left) and rear (right) suspension (Photo credit – Richie Hongladaromp (left) – Phillip Ngan (right) 79

Figure 105: Steering column positioning 79

Figure 106: Seat bonding 80

Figure 107: Door mechanisms & shaved door material 81

Figure 108: Solar array hinging (Photo Credit- Anna Lindqvist) 81

Figure 109: Completed dash (Photo credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 82

Figure 110: Interior installed 82

Figure 111: Headlight fitted to chassis 83

Figure 112: Tail lights fitted to the tail bulkhead 83

Figure 113: Windscreen dry fitting (Photo credit – Phillip Ngan) 84

Figure 114: Battery installation (Photo credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 84

Figure 115: Mud hut Hotel, Coober Pedy 85

Figure 116: Headlight bonding 85

Figure 117: Ventilation slot 86

Figure 118: Solar cell gap waterproofing 86

Figure 119: Working at the Men’s Shed, Darwin 87

Figure 120: Solar shuffler wiring (Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 87

Figure 121: Headline lens adhesion 88

Figure 122: Emergency stop switch 88

Figure 123: Race livery application (Photo credit – Richie Hongladaromp 89

Figure 124 Completed car pre-qualifying (Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 89

Figure 125: Priscilla test drive 90

Figure 126: Static scrutineering – (Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 91

Figure 127: First test drive (Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 92

Figure 128: Gunpoint Road testing (Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 93

Figure 129: Dynamic Scrutineering (Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 94

Figure 130: Qualifying lap (Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 95

Figure 131: Leaving Darwin for Adelaide (Photo Credit – Ollie Berst - EV2GO) 95

Figure 132: Driving on the Stuart Highway (Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 96

Figure 135: Diagnosing the problem (Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 98

Figure 136: Retiring the car back to the trailer (Photo Credit- Richie Hongladaromp) 98

Figure 137: Arriving in Adelaide (Photo credit – Margaret Brown) 99

Figure 138: BWSC Cruiser Class Practicality judging (Photo credit – Margaret Brown) 99

Figure 139: Bird of Prey render published in The Australian Newspaper (4th April 2018) 101

Figure 140: ATN Solar Car Team Public Unveiling (Photo Credit – Phillip Ngan) 102

Figure 141: Sponsor Event, Brumbies Display at Alice Springs 102

Figure 142: Channel 7 Darwin interview at the Darwin Waterfront Festival (Photo credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 103

Figure 143: ABC TV Interview at the Darwin Waterfront festival (Photo Credit Hongladaromp) 103

Figure 144: Road Safety campaign ATN/Kenworth (Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 104

Figure 145: ATN Solar Car Team & Shane Jacobson at Parliament house (Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 104

Figure 146: 2020 Melbourne Formula 1 Grand Prix 105

Figure 147: Priscilla in Adelaide 106

Figure 148: Eindhoven Stella Era interior (Photo Credit – Richie Hongladaromp) 109

List of Tables Table 1 ATN Solar Car Team………10

Table 2 2017 BWSC Cruiser Class Practicality Results……… …….33

Acronyms

BWSC Bridgestone World Solar Challenge

Cd Coefficient of drag

CdA Coefficient of Drag x Area

CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics

DFM Design For Manufacture

Abstract

The design of solar cars has historically been dominated by highly technical and performance-based criteria This has limited the general acceptance of solar cars as a viable mode of transport in both the public eye and the automotive industry

Form languages used in solar cars has tended to privilege engineering optimisation in order to maximise energy generation and transfer efficiencies Very particular forms are deployed in solar car design to minimise drag, frontal area and weight while allowing a large relatively flat top surface area for solar cells However, many of these methods of optimisation developed in the solar car context have not been translated into conventional vehicle design approaches for mass

manufactured vehicles This is because fossil fuelled engines, and electric hybrids produce a power

to weight ratio in excess of what’s required to drive the vehicle mass and occupants

This project involves the deep immersion of the design-researcher into a competitive Solar Car Team for the World Solar Challenge and demonstrates design research in action through the processes of: exterior and interior solar car design; iterative design in concert with engineering analysis; the full manufacture a working Solar vehicle; testing; and, ultimately driving the vehicle from Darwin to Adelaide

Chapter 1:

Introduction

The design of solar cars has historically been dominated by highly technical performance-based criteria This has limited the general acceptance of solar cars as a viable mode of transport in both the public eye and the automotive industry

Key to this limitation is that the form languages used in solar cars have tended to privilege

engineering optimisation in order to maximise energy generation and transfer efficiencies The methods deployed in solar car design produce very particular forms to minimise drag, downforce, frontal area and weight while allowing a large relatively flat surface area across the top for solar cells Many of these methods of optimisation developed in the solar car context have not translated into conventional vehicle design for mass-manufactured cars This is because fossil-fuelled engines and electric hybrids do not require efficient body forms as they produce power to weight ratio in excess of what’s required to drive the mass of the vehicle and occupants

This practice based research project involves the deep immersion of the design-researcher into a competitive Solar Car Team for the World Solar Car Challenge It uses a combination of participatory and product design methods to develop a vehicle aesthetic that will meet the rules and regulations

of the World Solar Challenge (WSC) event; accommodate the engineering principles of high energy efficiency in the design process, and create an acceptable vehicle form that aims to build acceptance

of solar cars as a viable transportation mode for the general population Some of the challenges posed by the WSC include having a large area of relatively flat surfaces to accommodate solar cells, and finding the right balance in vehicle form between aerodynamic performance and visually

pleasing aesthetic qualities This includes the development of design processes and skill sets that engage with engineering processes to develop symbiotic outcomes

The project had a series of practical activities to be undertaken by the researcher ranging from the design of the solar car to the engineering analysis, to producing a working vehicle, testing it and ultimately driving the vehicle from Darwin to Adelaide The first phase of the research involved the design and visualisation of new vehicle concepts that have been used within a broad discussion amongst stakeholders to establish a design direction for the project, before disseminating tasks to contributing team members The outcomes of project activities undertaken so far demonstrate an understanding of the constituent elements of the teams design intentions and foci and provoke engagement with all members to reach a collaborative result and design practice

The first chapter is an introduction to the ATN Solar Car Team, the World Solar Challenge and my role within this team prior to, and during the 2019 event The project explores the styling trends and analogies of past and present conventional vehicles, along with the design concerns of solar car design for the future To gain a better understanding of the field, an in-depth evaluation of solar car design was conducted on the 2017 world solar challenge entrants, with a breakdown of the event results Information obtained throughout this assessment, heavily contributed to the design

development process described in Chapter 2

With a two and a half year timeline from the start to finish of this project, over two years of that was

the team to meet performance and desirability criteria Interactions between team members to achieve our goal focused on aerodynamics, occupancy space, ergonomics and best accommodating rules and regulations in the context of the World Solar Challenge Also documented at this stage of the project is the validation methods of both exterior and interior design, with the use of computer fluid dynamic simulations, a wind tunnel and physical seating bucks and test rigs

The third chapter describes the process of exploring and determining methods of fabricating the Solar car designed This section documents the researcher’s engagement with both ATN team members and industry experts to effectively construct our solar car Accompanied by a detailed build log, the production of the car from inhouse and outsourced manufactured parts including integration and final vehicle assembly demonstrated how design practice translates to a physical form through the team’s production approach

With the car built, an event to compete in, and multiple media opportunities to show off the car, this fourth and final chapter provides an insight of what it’s like to be in the context of the World Solar Challenge At this stage of the project, further validation was established concerning public

engagement and overall vehicle performance This chapter documents the team’s efforts, competing against the best student teams from around the world, and putting the car through its paces in the Australian outback as well as being judged as a practical car

Research Approach

Solar Electric vehicles

Solar cars are often seen by the general public as “science experiments” and not a viable form of

vehicle, typically appearing odd and impractical compared to conventional cars on the market However, over the years experiments with solar-powered cars are becoming more successful with the World Solar Challenge (WSC) being a key place to showcase these developments In 1962 the first drivable solar-powered vehicle was created (Fig 4) by installing solar panels of the roof of a

1912 Baker electric car (Aftermarket News, 2015) This early concept propelled the curiosity and drive to have self-sustaining solar electric vehicles Solar power is now being integrated into modern electric vehicles, such as the Fisker Karma (Kacher, 2011), and will soon be available on Hybrid concepts like the Ford C-Max (Phillips, 2014) and Toyota Prius (Toyota, 2017)

Competition - Design/Engineering

Since the beginning of the WSC, the competition has focussed on who has the fastest and most efficient car and as such, the design of vehicles has been dominated by engineering and with very little attention to design-oriented notions of user practicality Despite now having a cruiser class, where styling and practicality count as much to the result as engineering, the car still needs to meet very strict efficiency targets just to complete the event Therefore, the design of these cars tends to

be dominated by an approach to vehicle form which is aerodynamically slippery and adherent to the laws of physics, solar cell area and placement, and rolling resistance These factors are where the inputs of engineering experts come into play, and appropriate trade-offs by both the designer and engineers must be made to ensure the vehicle meets the requirements of the event and is highly competitive

Sustainability

As the automotive industry progresses, the sustainability of both vehicles and production processes

is a critical factor to market survival Today there is a range of plug-in electric vehicles available from various car manufacturers to cut down on fossil fuel emissions (Go-green.ae, 2019)but

environmental concerns in this sector extends well beyond that, particularly when looking at the materials and processes used in production of a vehicle The financial and environmental costs of building a car, including the materials, quality and durability of the components, alongside the environmental impact attached to their use, are important considerations for all car manufacturers.Conventional car manufacturing methods produce large amounts of greenhouse gasses and de-emphasise sustainability through activities that span design, production and marketing (Go-

green.ae, 2019) However, the situation is gradually changing, as BMW for example, has been the most sustainable auto-manufacturer since 2005 as their I3 and I8 models are produced using 100% renewable energy In addition to this, the German car giant has also established their own carbon fibre manufacturing plant which is powered by a massive hydroelectric power plant known as the Grand Coulee Dam (Go-green.ae, 2019)

Vehicle Styling

Automotive styling is the process of developing the aesthetic of a vehicle in a creative manner This task is usually conducted by a large team of designers within either the design departments of automotive companies or specialised automotive styling consultancies Outside of marketability one

of the major challenges of automotive styling today is combining principles of aerodynamics,

aesthetics and ergonomics while meeting vehicle safety and design regulations(Newman, 2004) Designing a vehicle involves many steps before manufacture Once a vehicle engineering package

typically smaller with fewer components, and a battery takes the place of a fuel tank As there is no radiator, a coolant system and front grille are not needed While still requiring similar steps in design development to achieve form and proportion, without the same components to cater for there is more design freedom with electric vehicles, although they pose other constraints which need to be addressed in the design process

The method of establishing an appropriate aesthetic for the desired body design of a conventional vehicle, whether it’s EV or ICE, is using basic shapes to configure for the foundation of the sketch As shown in figure 5, this is typically a box arrangement and in the case of a sedan would use three boxes: one for the front, another for the rear, and the last box at the top The top section is

approximately half the height of the body to help determine the size of the glasshouse relative to the other two boxes The wheelbase is typically measured by using three circles of the tyre diameter positioned between the wheels (Kh, 2018)

The design process for a solar car is different as the styling of the outer body is dominated by the fundamentals of aerodynamics The wheelbase can be decided, perhaps arbitrarily, in the same way

as a conventional vehicle, yet the smaller highly efficient tyres required tend not to appear

proportionate To accommodate other aspects of the car, the length of the vehicle tends to appear greater than a conventional car (due to the smaller wheels) requiring design styling tricks to achieve

a vehicle form that is proportionate and attractive In proportioning the body of a solar car, the box method in some cases is not applicable as the form is often generated around a streamline

“teardrop” shape

Figure 5: Sketch proportions

Figure 6: Teardrop - Most aerodynamic/streamline shape

Action Research

Solar car concepts have been experimented with for decades, each produced using different

methods to achieve a viable form of sustainable transport My research approach, to achieve my goal of designing a practical solar car, can be seen as a highly practical form of action research According to Cal Swann (2002), Action Research as a methodology is useful “for any design project

where the outcome is undefined” The project draws on methods and practices from product design (Krishnan & Ulrich, 2001) (Ulrich & Eppinger 2011) and automotive design (Tovey, 1997) (Tovey,

Porter & Newman, 2003), but the context of research demanded its own logic: where collaboration, trial and error and troubleshooting on the fly influenced design decisions Through this the “implicit process becomes explicit, and members of the design team learn consciously from each project and thus become empowered through the process” (Swann, 2002, 58) Thus, action research can be an engagement between a group of stakeholders who are all trying to achieve a common goal, and to achieve these goals, a spiralled cycle of four stages are to be carried out; Planning, Acting,

Developing, and Reflecting These stages can be broken into nine steps for research (Mertler, 2008), and are repeated until the desired outcome is achieved, illustrated in figure 7

Beginning with Planning, the steps are as follows; 1 Identifying the topic: This step begins with

reflecting on a topic of intrigue to the team, with the desire to improve the field of interest

2 Gathering information: Researching the topic of interest from various sources and understanding its limitations 3 Reviewing related literature: Comparing collected information to assist with the topic investigation, and help make informed decisions moving forward 4 Developing a research plan: Establish research questions to help direct and guide the research to obtain new information

of practice, including observing, interviewing and working in parallel with industry experts

6 Analysing Data: Evaluating results with the team from the beginning to the end of the data

collection phase to maintain a clear direction

into the next phase of the project The important outcome from the development of an action plan

is the existence of a specific and tangible approach to trying out some new ideas as a means to solve the original problem

for validation and further development ideas 9 Reflecting on the process: Collaborate with

stakeholders to evaluate the effectiveness of the design process and methods undertaken

The World Solar Challenge is the largest endurance solar car competition in the world Designing and producing a vehicle that is competition ready, and could potentially complete the event, has proven

to be the biggest challenge for all entrants To understand what is required to create a vehicle

capable enough in all aspects to complete the challenge, I would need to be a part of such an event

to find out first hand Since the announcement of the Australian Technology Network (a collective of Australian technical universities) intention to enter the 2019 event, I felt compelled to participate,

learn and contribute, in a practical way, to the emerging field of highly efficient sustainable vehicles

alongside industry and academic experts, fellow students, and enthusiasts

Figure 7: Action Research Cycle

World Solar Challenge

The precursor to the WSC was in 1982 when solar vehicle pioneers Hans Tholstrup and Larry Perkins drove a home-built solar car (Fig 8) from Perth to Sydney With an average speed of 23km/h, the 4000km journey took them 20 days, and they were the first to achieve this amazing milestone (World Solar Challenge, 2017) Following this accomplishment, the WSC was established in 1987 and

is now held every two years in Australia Its first year saw 23 entries from 7 countries race down the Stuart Highway from Darwin to Adelaide with the vehicle “Sunraycer”, built by General Motors,

taking first place Over 30 years later, teams from around the world are preparing for the 2019 WSC event, all intending to push technological boundaries through the promise of sun-powered vehicles

Cruiser Class

The WSC is made up of the following categories; Challenger, Cruiser and Adventure class, each with their own specific rules and regulations to make the event fair for different styles of solar cars For the 2019 WSC, the Australian Technology Network (ATN) is competing in the Cruiser Class The Cruiser Class was created to promote sustainable, practical and desirable solar mobility, meaning the cars entered are specifically designed to receive acceptance in society and to change public views on highly energy-efficient vehicles as a plausible alternative The Cruiser Class was introduced to the WSC in 2015 and since has seen many unique, practical and efficient entries For example, in the

Figure 8: Quiet Achiever - First solar car to cross Australia, West to East

Event

The WSC 3000km event takes place mid-October (Spring), where the average temperature is

between 25 (low) and 34 (high) degrees Celsius in Darwin Teams set off from Darwin and are

required to drive their cars to Adelaide using only solar power, 5KW hours of pre-stored energy and kinetic energy recovered from the vehicle in use Teams must be self-sufficient and may only drive from 8 am until 5 pm Time either side of this is used for teams to undertake repairs and to configure their car to charge from the sun during dusk and dawn Before the 3000km journey, teams compete

in a qualifying process to determine the grid for the start of the event and to ensure all cars are ready There are three main stages in the event, and throughout these stages are nine compulsory

race-30 minutes of pit stops (Fig 10) These stops allow teams to set the car up for charging, and rotate drivers and passengers Once set up, the car cannot be touched during the stop otherwise the 30 minutes will start again Therefore, repairs cannot be done during the break, only during event time

Figure 9: Eindhoven Universities 2017 Cruiser class winning vehicle, Stella Vie

ATN Solar Car Team - Induction as a designer

The ATN Solar Car Team is an association combining five technology-oriented universities in

Australia including; RMIT (Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology), QUT (Queensland University of Technology), UTS (University of Technology Sydney), Uni SA (University of South Australia) and Curtin University (Perth) The ATN is known globally for focusing on industry collaboration, real-world research, and generating work-ready graduates The ATN’s intention for the WSC was to collaboratively develop a stylish, efficient and practical vehicle to win the cruiser class title For this

to be successful many people from various backgrounds of expertise are required to come together

to achieve the best outcome Table 1 below shows the key project team and stakeholders for the project

ATN Solar Car Team Key Members

RMIT University

• Mr Andris Samsons - Senior Engineer - Driver Assistance Technologies - Ford Asia Pacific – PhD Engineering Student

• Professor Simon Watkins - Professor, School of Engineering

• Mr David Carletti - School of Engineering

• Mr Simon Curlis - Lecturer, Industrial Design

• Mr Matthew Millar - Lead design, Build team Leader, Build Manager, Lead Driver - MDes Student

Curtin University

• Mr Alex Hughes - Low Voltage Electronics Lead

UTS

• Dr Paul Walker - Chancellor's Postdoctoral Research Fellow

• Ms Anna Lidfors Lindqvist - Team Leader – PhD Engineering Student

• Mr Michael Tran – Mechanical Lead

UniSA

• Associate Professor Peter Pudney - School of Information Technology and Mathematical Sciences

• Professor Peter Majewski - Research Professor Future Industries Institute

• Ms Erika Bellchamber – Strategy Lead – PhD student

• Mr Sarawit Hongladaromp (Richie) – Interior Design & Media – MDes student

Each ATN member has a key responsibility for a particular technical stream to realise the solar car project My role focussed on the exterior design and interior/ergonomic packaging of the vehicle, with assistance from fellow RMIT aerodynamic and structural engineering students and their

supervisors Beyond designing the vehicle, I had other roles throughout the event This included leading the build of the vehicle, being the lead driver, carrying out mechanical maintenance and checking the condition of the vehicle before and after driving For the research project the variety of these roles, over the full duration of the project allows validating the design and build quality of the car in ways that most vehicle designers never have For example, driving the car on the test track provided valuable information about vehicle handling, efficiency, suspension, steering systems and other factors that contribute to the car's stability, efficiency and the wellbeing of the occupants on the road

The other universities involved had different responsibilities during the project Uni SA was

responsible for the car configuration and performance, including the design of solar panels, battery capacity and overall mass and drag QUT led the high voltage electrical systems, solar connector, batteries and motors Curtin University developed the low voltage systems such as driver controls, lighting and instruments Finally, UTS developed mechanical systems including suspension, steering, brakes and vehicle mechanisms

Figure 11: ATN Stakeholder Map

Car design aesthetics

Automotive styling can be broadly described as the practice of designing the appearance and

functionality of a vehicle For exterior design, in particular, this includes the body form, wheels, window profiles Features such as mirrors, door handles, door profile and opening method, spoilers, air intake and exhaust tips are also taken into consideration to ensure the aesthetics of the car is visually attractive and to represent a particular style or class of vehicle Other design aspects

including ergonomics, lighting, materials and colour schemes are also relative to both exterior and interior design

Today, there are many reasons why people would go out of their way to buy specific cars With the high demand for aspects such as performance, safety, creature comforts and technical features, it is design that provides a significant element of the overall consumer appeal of a vehicle

An article by Stephen Elmer (2016), Explains the results of a J.D Power survey conducted in the USA,

to study the most important factors for new car buyers J.D Power has been analysing data across a dozen industries Including the automotive sector since 1968 worldwide to help brands improve their products and services for consumers In this study, from 26,500 participants who had registered new cars in April and May of 2015, 57% said exterior styling was the main purchasing factor This was followed by interior design in also with 57% of the votes After aesthetics, the next most important factor at 56% was reliability 2017 J.S Power surveys saw very similar results showing consumer attitudes remained heavily interested in vehicle aesthetics With J.D Power giving participants the ability to give multiple answers, this makes it hard to determine an accurate result However,

exterior and interior styling finished on top proving it’s what the market demands

The J.D Power data suggests that about one-third of respondents are significantly influence to purchase based on their perceptions of the cars exterior design While less than a fifth of

respondents are swayed by interior design, exterior colour proves a substantial factor when

purchasing a car as 40% of prospective buyers would walk away from a model if it’s not available in the colour they want

Before a car being released to the public, car companies go through a strategy of concept vehicle development which translates into a series of prototypical automotive forms They then slowly release iterative renders to gauge the public intrigue of the design When a prototype vehicle is built and tested, they follow up by leaking images of the car driving to further build anticipation and interest Once the car is under production and available in the showroom, advertising is ramped up and reviews on various formats are conducted about the car This process typically increases the demand in the car and aims to push the new design on the consumer market

cars are released to the public hoping to obtain more sales than the competition In 2017 Business Insider Australia compiled a list of the top 10 most beautiful cars, with cars from one end of the spectre to the other in consideration This list was dominated by prestige vehicles, with the most affordable being that of the Volvo S90 and the Alpha Romeo Giulia At the top of the list, however, is

an American supercar the 2017 Ford GT Automotive writer Benjamin Zhang (2017) describes the GT

by saying “Aesthetically, it’s a wonderfully executed balance between racing-dictated aerodynamics and eye-catching beauty” The article goes onto say that Ford managed to implement the flying buttress to be not only a functional but also a key design feature A flying buttress is when the vehicles C-pillar extends out from either the rear window or the body to improve aerodynamics In some cases, like the Ford GT, the C-pillar extends from the roof to the rear wheel guard which created a passage for air to travel through the body between the glasshouse and rear wheel The Ford GT’s subtle resemblance to the original GT40 means it has adopted a classic wide combative stance and aggressive face which gives the impression of an intimidatingly fast car

Another similar but separate Business Insider article, “The 10 most beautiful cars on sale today”

places the Jaguar F-Type (Fig 12) as the most beautiful car on sale in 2017 As reported by Benjamin Zhang (2017) Sir Ian Callum, legendary automotive designer and head of design at Jaguar, once said:

“a Jaguar design must possess beauty, simplicity, and a sense of visual prowess.” The F-Type sports a

lean muscular stance, feline contours and elegant features such as the bonnet and front guard vents, flush door handles and panoramic roof The combination of classic coupe styling and modern

streamline features, it’s no surprise the timeless Jag remains one of the most balanced and beautiful cars in the world

Figure 12: Jaguar F-Type

The aesthetic of a car, is however more than simply how it looks, as people can form emotional attachments to their cars based on an assemblage of characteristics These including feel, face, curvature and other visual and tactical features Many people believe their sense of style, personal values and personality are portrayed by the car they drive This means no matter what other

qualities a car has, its aesthetic traits are vital to its design and consumer market success This is the same with solar vehicles, although the design is challenged by many factors such as weight, form and performance One of the biggest obstacles to be taken into consideration is the position, quantity and flexibility of solar panels The necessary need to obtain energy from the sun and storing that energy in batteries limits the design freedom of solar-powered cars In this project, the

consideration of aesthetics is compromised by performance criteria and is bounded by the line character of the form and user feel, and not influenced by culture

Car Design Characteristics and Strategies

In the field of automotive exterior styling, there are design characteristics and strategies in place to ensure the design appeals to the consumer market Proportion is one of the most important aspects

of design for public acceptance but there are more strategic elements to grab attention and improve product desirability That’s where character becomes vital in car design, creating a visual link

between people and machine Implementing such feature as a face, shoulders and hips for example determines the overall character of the car, the softer these features the more placid the design, sharpening these features lean towards more aggressive styling The following section serves as a glossary to explain key terminologies used for car design and how they determine the cars aesthetic and character

Beltline

A beltline is a horizontal line separating the upper and lower sections of the car's body This line seems to be getting higher over time, and on modern cars, it sometimes replaces the shoulder line This 1989 EA Ford Fairmont Ghia (Fig 13) is a good example of a belt line wrapping around the entire car defined by a wide grey rubber strip In some cases, a strip like this is much thinner, and other examples show no additional trimming but a panel crease running around the body

Figure 13: EA Ford Fairmont Ghia with beltline trim

Cab Forward

When the drivers or occupancy cell is placed further forward than that of a standard position This causes the roofline to form closer to the front of the car shortening the bonnet In some cases, the

Character lines

Character lines are creases in the side of a car to give it visual interest and to catch light displaying more depth and detail the design As shown on this McLaren 720S below (Fig 14) complex surfacing that intersects in seams and pleats create a unique aesthetic, drawing attention to every square inch

of the body of the car These character lines give the illusion of motion while stationary, and allow various shades of colour when the light hits each differently angles surface

Figure 14: 2017 McLaren 720S

Face

While many products are designed in a way that evokes anthropometric traits, cars take this in a particular direction through the provision of a face that ties together key functions at the front of the car The symmetrical design of the front grilles and headlights can give the appearance of a happy, approachable face, or alternatively, of aggressive or intimidating expression However, a range of other facial expressions is often created in the design of a car, either purposefully or

unwittingly, to arrive at a face that can look sad, surprised, angry or even bored According to a study by the Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences (Eveleth, 2012), the front end of a car triggers the fusiform face area of the brain, which is what recognises facial features This effect is

important for product design as this “face” information is stored in the brain and people are prone

to remember faces more than many other things Thus, having a recognisable face designed for the car plays a role in attracting the interest of potential buyers Cars with more aggressive facial

features resembling a more powerful aesthetic, such as angled or slanted headlight (eyes) and larger wider air intakes (mouths) are more attractive to buyers according to a study by Live Science (Hsu, 2008)

It’s also important for car design to preserve visual cohesion overtime to maintain consumer

recognition of the brand BMW is a great example of this approach, with its “kidney” like grill

resembling nostrils between the headlights being in use for decades Pictured below is the 2006 BMW 740i (Fig 15 left), one of the marque's flagship luxury models, which appears to have a

somewhat of a friendly face Aston Martin is also a very good example of facial brand recognition, with the iconic grill featured from as early as the DB1 from the 1950’s it has been successively refined ever since The 2019 Aston Martin DBS is a performance car, with a large air intake and inward slanting headlights resulting in a more aggressive, intimidating face (Fig 15 right)

Figure 15 : 2006 BMW 740i “Friendly face” (Left), 2019 Aston Martin DBS “Aggressive face” (Right)

Flying Buttress

Derived from the supporting beam used in the architecture of buildings such as churches, the flying buttress is also structural feature used in car design Originally deployed to aid aerodynamics it is also now implemented as a styling feature The 2017 Ford GT is one of the most recent examples of the flying buttress being used in car design for both performance (aero) and aesthetic reasons A flying buttress is when the vehicles C-pillar extends out from either the rear window or the body to improve aerodynamics In some cases, like the Ford GT, the C-pillar extends from the roof to the rear wheel guard which created a passage for air to travel through the body between the glasshouse and rear wheel

Glass/Greenhouse

The glasshouse or greenhouse as it is sometimes referred to relates to the upper half of a vehicle's cabin that houses the windscreen, side and rear windows The shape, and size of these windows are important to the overall graphic of the car, if the glasshouse is larger than the height of the below body, it throws out proportion and looks top-heavy Whereas a shorter window and roof height creates a more streamline, sporty aesthetic

Shoulders & shoulder line

Shoulders and the shoulder line denote the transition surface that marries the top surfaces (bonnet

& boot) and the side surfaces of a car Typically, the shoulder line runs from the front guard through

to the rear guard panel The shoulder steps out from the base of the green/glasshouse or side window baseline until meeting the side surfaces of the doors, creating a shoulder line at the point Shoulders are featured on many cars, but are especially common and defined on sports and

supercars The Ferrari F50 (Fig 16) is a great example of this as the shoulder is quite pronounced, the glasshouse appears to be approximately 6 inches inboard of the shoulder line

Figure 16: 1995 Ferrari F50

Another example of a more subtle shoulder line is on the 2012 FG Ford Falcon (Fig 17), as this shoulder line begins toward the top rear of the front wheel arch, and runs along the top of the doors, over the rear wheel arch and blends in around the back of the boot lid above the taillights The shoulder on this car is much shallower than that of the Ferrari F50, only having a few degrees slant from the bottom of the glasshouse

Figure 17 : 2012 FG Ford falcon XR6 “shoulder line”

Silhouette

The outline of the vehicles profile from the front to the rear is often referred to as the silhouette but

is also known as the A-line The silhouette defines the design direction of the car by illustrating the profile flow From coupe’s to sedan and even 4x4’s these vehicle styles are instantly recognisable

Tumblehome

Tumblehome is when the glasshouse angles in towards the roof beginning from the bottom of the side window glass, the more side glass angle, more tumblehome there is This feature creates a more dynamic aesthetic and is common with sports and supercars The Ferrari F430 is a good

example of this

Wedge

The shape of the car as seen in the side profile is known as the wedge Wedges may be positive, negative or neutral If the front is lower than the rear, then it is wedge-positive If the rear is lower it

is wedge-negative If the car appears level from front to rear, then it is wedge neutral This

Lamborghini Hurricane (Fig.18) is a perfect example of a positive wedge, with its aggressively angled low front end which continues to the top of the windscreen

Figure 18: 2014 Lamborghini Huracan

Wheels size

Currently larger wheels and smaller tyre profiles constitute one of the main styling trends in car design However, there are advantages and disadvantages of the growing wheel size movement, and aesthetics is one of the states (Parker, 2017) Standard wheel sizes have increased from 14 or 15 inches to 17 or 18 with optional 19, 20-inch wheels at additional cost, with some manufacturers offering up to 22-inch options for SUV Commonly today manufacturers also offer larger wheels for different trim levels on their model ranges increasing the luxury or sporty appeal of the model Parker (2017) writes that larger wheels provide driving benefits such as increased grip and stability

as well as improved braking capacity Larger wheels create a more aggressive and visually arresting stance, a reason perhaps as to why concept cars often have exceptionally large wheels However, with style comes compromise, as larger wheels and smaller tyre profiles create a less comfortable

developed the award-winning Ecopia EP500 tyre which delivers low rolling resistance It has a large diameter suited for 19-inch wheels at 155mmwide for the front tyres and 175 for the rear The advantage of these tyres is to offer high efficiency while sustaining modern car aesthetics

Figure 19: BMW wheel with Bridgestone Ecopia tyre (left) BWSC Bridgestone tyre (right)

Colours

Colours are one of the biggest selling points for car buyers Susannah Guthrie (2020) Caradvice.com journalist writes that 38% of cars sold over the last 10 years have been in the colour white, based on United States-based coatings company Axalta's most recent Global Automotive Colour Popularity Report Despite this, less common colours have been on the rise on the lead up to 2020 Blue has been a top 5 colour over the last 20 years and still continues to be up there as the colour of choice outside excluding whites, greys and blacks Both Pantone and Axalta have named a shade of blue as their 2020 automotive colour of the year Furthermore, Axalta reports in North America and Europe, 10% of cars are blue, which shows how popular these shades are Bold bright colours are also

increasing in popularity in modern times "The younger profile of hatch showed a higher skew away from the silver towards brighter colours like red and blue, reflecting the desire for more 'fun' colours",

a Toyota spokesperson reports of Corolla sales in 2019 (Guthrie, 2020) writes This report also suggests consumers are moving away from whites and silvers and moving towards energetic and vibrant colours such as reds with bright yellows, oranges and blues In relation to solar cars,

something as simple as a modern radiant colour could increase public interest and desirability of energy-efficient vehicles, especially the younger generation, who are the future of the car market

Black has always been fashionable especially in the automotive world Since 2009 black has been the highest selling colour 5 of those years in the UK and was the colour of 20.2% of cars in 2018 Over the past 15 years or so, black has become a colour of choice for wheels, accents, roofs, decals and trims Many cars manufactured today have black editions of models featuring black wheels, grill’s and window trims, replacing the standard polished or chrome trims, the 2019 Mustang (Fig 21) is a good example of this Once common practice with vinyl or paint, two-tone roofs are coming back into fashion, and whether the roof is painted black or white, or has a large panoramic sunroof, it provides a classic two-tone aesthetic The likes of Mini, Range Rover and Hyundai (Fig 22) are just a few manufacturers introducing models with black roofs, some with just the top surface, and other have black A, B, and C pillars creating blacked-out glass house two-tone visual As for panoramic glass roofs which have been increasing in popularity for at least the past decade, Skoda, Audi and Kia are also just a small number of examples of this current trend The interesting point of these

examples is that they vary from affordable cars such as Kia’s all the way up to high-end European luxury vehicles like that of Audi and Mercedes Again, these roofs perform two functions, visibility through the roof, and a modern and exotic two-tone roof aesthetic

Figure 21: 2020 Ford Mustang Black Pack

Accents & Decals

Many car manufacturers are introducing more accents and decals, particularly to their sport models The most common accent of colour is red, representing performance seen on many sports models such as the VW Golf GTI, which sports a red pinstripe along with the front grill More affordable cars such as Honda and Kia (Fig 23) have also introduced the use of red accents to enhance the

performance aesthetic of their low-performance vehicles to appeal to the younger generation But recently other colours are being used to enhance the vehicle aesthetically Front lips, rear diffusers, side skirts, mirrors backings and spoilers are all features which are being seen more regularly and

adopting different colours Jeffrey Liu, Colour Materials Design Manager at Ford says "we're seeing more of those reflective accents and bright pops of colours like Fluro orange or a bright yellow” (Guthrie, 2020)

Figure 23: 2019 Kia Picanto GT - with red accents

Silvers and blacks are also very common today with various cars using the black to break up the body colour and silver body skirts, and some bright coloured cars only have black skirts, which provides a more subtle graphic effect than having multiple colours dividing each other Over the years

particular car models are defined by their decals such as Ford Falcon GT’s (Fig 24), Dodge Vipers, and Shelby Cobra However, recently manufacturers have made decals available on a growing number of cars that aren’t necessarily iconic sports cars Some decals represent a special edition of a particular model, some are designed to make the car appear sportier than it really is, but some cars don’t look complete without them These Decals help target a particular market and add personality

to a car's design which may be lacking complex surfaces and character lines

Lighting

In 2006, Audi redefined the style of automotive lighting being the first to include LED headlights on a production vehicle (White, 2006) Designed by Walter De Silva, then Head of Design at Volkswagen (Babu, 2016) the strip-style LED's highlight the profile of the headlamps, and created a fashion statement for the brand Ten years later it seems almost every manufacturer has incorporated LED running lights into their styling One example of this is the Toyota Corolla that now has LED lights in both the headlights and tail-lights – a styling trend that can be seen on cars all over the world in every class Projector lamps are also increasing in popularity and becoming a desirable feature for modern cars They were first used in the 1980s on luxurious vehicles, and have since entered a more standard car market The lamp itself acts like a magnifying glass creating more light and increasing vision at night

Figure 25: Ford Ranger Projector lamp/LED Headlight

class from 2000 beside one from 2020 (Fig 26) This approach is taken with many areas of the car, even the mirrors have become more streamline, and all of this also contributes to the improvement

of aeroacoustics, the amount of wind noise created by the car Despite the S-Class being a stylish luxury model, the streamline form created by adopting the fundamentals of aerodynamics starts to lean towards a sports saloon aesthetic The S-Class achieved the lowest wind noise levels of any car

on the market thanks to its aerodynamic design approach, taking the crown from the Incredibly luxurious and expensive Maybach

Mercedes implemented the same fundamentals to their other models including the A-Class hatch, Class coupe, SL convertible with all boasting drag coefficients between 0.24 and 0.27 The CLA which

E-is a 4 door sedan with the streamline A-line of a coupe, boasts the lowest drag of any Mercedes with

a Cd as low as 0.22, and a wind-resistant area of 0.49 square meters resulting in a world record for vehicles in this class (MediaDaimler.com 2013) When a successful and desirable car manufacturer like Mercedes design cars with a heavy focus on aerodynamics it shows what efficiencies can be achieved, and how strategies in vehicle form design are adapting to the future

Figure 26: Mercedes S class silhouette comparison

Composites

Composites are formed by encasing high-performance fibres such as carbon, Kevlar or glass in polymer resins to form a matrix material This results in a material that can be much lighter and stronger than metals of the same shape Carbon fibre is up to 5 times lighter than steel and matches,

or exceeds, its stiffness and strength properties as reported by the University of Utah (2012) Using lightweight materials such as carbon fibre increases vehicle economy, as the motor don’t need to work as hard in propelling less mass Steel and aluminium are more common in conventional

automotive manufacturing and a preferred choice due to their comparatively low material and manufacturing cost Composites are time-consuming and expensive but a popular choice for high-performance car manufacturers and solar cars Another advantage of composites is their particular visual appearance as an engineered textile, and many cars today have unpainted carbon fibre decorative details and panels The aesthetic of these woven fabrics have come to represent notions

of performance, quality and strength, and enhance the racing aesthetic of a car Shown below are some examples of carbon fibre application, one being the Ferrari F40 which has an entire carbon fibre body (Painted) (Fig 27), and the new Aston Martin DBS (Fig 28) with exposed carbon fibre components such as splitters, spoiler, diffusers and other panels

Figure 27: Ferrari F40 (painted carbon fibre body)