Abbreviations AATCC American Association of Textile Chemists and Colourists AFAC Australasian Fire and Emergency Services Authorities Council AS/NZS Australian/New Zealand Standard CFA
Purpose of Study
Objectives of study
An Australian firefighting protective ensemble comprises three essential clothing layers: the base layer for thermal protection and comfort, the middle layer known as Station Wear which functions as the work uniform and offers protection during various firefighting tasks, and the outer-shell layer or Turnout Gear that provides primary fire-resistant shielding This layered approach ensures comprehensive safety for firefighters, safeguarding the upper and lower torso, neck, arms, and legs This article focuses on the Station Wear layer, highlighting its role as a durable work uniform used daily by career firefighters to protect against hazards encountered outside primary firefighting operations, and its importance as a secondary protective barrier when worn underneath Turnout Gear.
Wearing multilayered Personal Protective Clothing (PPC) for firefighting can cause internal heat build-up, increasing core body temperatures and risking firefighter health This issue is worsened in hot, humid climates, such as parts of Australia where summer temperatures often exceed 40°C for several consecutive days, further elevating the risk of heat-related illnesses (Pink, 2012; Trewin, 2004).
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Woven single-layer, heat-resistant fabrics for firefighting Station Wear are limited, often offering either thermal protection or comfort, but rarely both simultaneously Current Australian Standards only specify fire performance requirements for outer-shell turnout materials, leading to inconsistencies in fire protection across fire brigades Alarmingly, some volunteer fire brigades use Station Wear uniforms made from untreated natural and synthetic fabrics that are vulnerable to ignition and melting when exposed to high heat or flames.
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High-performance fibers such as meta-aramid, para-aramid, and PBI® are widely used in protective clothing due to their exceptional mechanical and chemical properties However, these fibers are sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) light exposure, which can degrade their durability over time With Australia's warming climate increasing both fire hazards and exposure to harsh environmental conditions, the service life of protective clothing is at greater risk of reduction due to UV radiation damage.
The Experimental Station Wear fabrics will be developed using natural, fire-resistant (FR) manmade cellulosics and high-performance heat-resistant synthetic fibers blended in various ratios to optimize safety, durability, and comfort These blends will be achieved through intimate fiber blending to create yarns and yarn blending (union blends) during fabric construction, ensuring superior protective and strength properties The fabrics will be woven into designs suitable for mid-layer Station Wear and rigorously tested for fire-resistance, mechanical strength, and moisture management Additionally, the most promising fabrics will undergo UV irradiation testing to evaluate the impact of material aging on their protective and mechanical performance, ensuring long-term reliability.
While it is recognised that knitted fabrics may have their place in firefighting PPC, especially for undergarments, from the point of view of fire performance, strength and presentation,
This study focuses on developing and testing functional woven Station Wear fabrics tailored for work wear applications, emphasizing improved flame protection, durability, and thermo-physiological comfort Among various woven fabric constructions, six types have been identified as most suitable for such applications Achieving enhancements in flame resistance, durability, and comfort often involves trade-offs, making it challenging to optimize all properties simultaneously in the fabric development process.
The six specific objectives of the present study are:
1 To design and produce functional samples of woven single-layer, fire-resistant fabrics made from natural, FR man-made cellulosics, and high-performance synthetic blended yarns
2 To determine the physiological consequences and health risks associated with wearing PPC in hot, humid environments in relation to metabolic heat production and physical work for firefighters trying to maintain the balance between protection and comfort, and its implication on the required Station Wear fabric properties
3 To gain insight into the relationship between a fabric's fire-resistance, strength and thermo-physiological comfort properties and the fibre/yarn composition, fabric construction and weight of woven fabrics designed for Station Wear
4 To determine the most appropriate test methods used to evaluate fabric performance from current AS/NZS Firefighting PPC and work wear Standards, and measure the fire-resistance, strength and thermo-physiological comfort properties of woven Station Wear fabrics accordingly
5 To identify areas of improvement by establishing the properties of current Station Wear fabrics used by Australian Fire Services
6 To gain insight into the relationship between UV exposure and material aging on fabric durability for environments with strong sunlight, in terms of flame-resistance and strength retention properties for secondary protective materials containing aramid fibres.
Research questions
To meet the research objectives, the following questions will be addressed:
1 What are the physiological consequences for firefighters wearing multilayered PPC in hot environments?
2 What are the required fibre and fabric properties for firefighting Station Wear, taking into consideration the necessary levels of protection, comfort and compatibility between protective clothing layers?
3 What fabric properties relate to maintaining thermo-physiological comfort for Station Wear?
4 What fabric constructions are best suited to the performance of Station Wear and the environments encountered?
5 Do current Firefighting PPC Standards AS/NZS 4824:2006 (Wildland firefighting) and AS/NZS 4967:2009 (Structural firefighting) and test methods, satisfactorily address fabric performance properties for Station Wear?
6 What effect does UV irradiation have on the mechanical (e.g tear resistance) and protective (e.g flame-resistance) performance properties of firefighting Station Wear fabrics?
7 Does the resulting fibre, yarns and fabric composition of Experimental Station Wear fabrics provide better performance when compared to the existing Commercially- obtained fabric?
Limitations of study
The limitations of this research include:
The fabrics intended for Station Wear in this research are limited to the middle layer of a firefighter’s protective ensemble (i.e secondary PPC).
The study utilized commercially-obtained Master Control A (MCA) fabric, selected for its market availability and suitability for the intended end use Choosing a single commercially available fabric instead of multiple options enables better control over the volume of test data, facilitating direct and accurate comparisons between the Commercial MCA fabric and experimental fabrics during analysis.
Due to cost and availability challenges, creating intimately blended fibers was not feasible, as suppliers were reluctant to cooperate unless there was a commercial advantage Obtaining specialized yarns with specific criteria—such as particular fiber blends, yarn counts, and quantities—proved difficult for research purposes To meet the research requirements, the necessary yarns, including those with intimate blends, will be sourced from both local and international suppliers.
Due to third-party dependence, common warp yarn selection will be based on stock and loom availability within the weaving schedule Warp yarn selection will also
Selecting the appropriate yarn is essential to achieving the desired fabric properties, tailored to the preset machine specifications such as reed width, maximum end and pick densities, and the number of shafts available for weaving intricate designs Ensuring yarn suitability also involves considering lead times and cost efficiency to optimize production planning and overall fabric quality.
To respect third-party weavers' constraints, researchers should accept smaller woven sample sizes, acknowledging the limited scope for testing and retesting To enhance test accuracy, specimens will be consistently cut from the same location on each fabric roll, ensuring reliable and comparable results.
Testing is limited to single-layer woven fabrics, not garments, on a laboratory scale
Currently, there is no specific Australian Standard for firefighting station wear; therefore, the most appropriate test methods are selected from existing firefighting PPC standards These include AS/NZS 4824:2006, AS/NZS 4967:2009, and the Industrial Clothing Standard AS 2919 Utilizing these established standards ensures effective assessment of firefighting station wear to meet safety and performance requirements.
1987 to evaluate minimum fabric performance requirements
The outsourcing of ISO 17493-2000 Convective Heat Resistance (CHR) testing limited access to specified test pre-treatments as per AS/NZS 4824:2006, leading to increased testing costs due to the requirement of testing both before and after pretreatment procedures This dual testing effectively doubled expenses per fabric sample, while time constraints and cost factors prevented the selection of specific pre-treatments Additionally, due to smaller fabric lengths, retesting was not feasible, prompting modifications to test specimen sizes to ensure compliance with the standard.
Current standards do not specify quantitative tests to determine when firefighting PPC should be retired before visible damage—such as flames, holes, tears, or abrasions—compromises its structural integrity Instead, the evaluation of thermal aging effects on Station Wear fabrics containing aramid fibers relies on investigator discretion, with test methods and parameters tailored in accelerated UV degradation experiments These tests help assess whether the protective performance of the garments is affected by thermal exposure, ensuring safety without relying solely on visible wear indicators.
For the accelerated UV degradation experiment, outsourcing was essential to enable the simultaneous exposure of multiple fabric samples on exposure drums using a 500 W Mercury Tungsten Filament (MBTF) lamp Variations in laboratory procedures necessitated reducing the test sample lengths, which impacted the number of specimens available for irradiated Limited Flame Spread and Tear Resistance testing, ultimately influencing the experiment's scope and reliability.
The delimitations of this research include:
While Experimental Station Wear fabrics primarily emphasize performance over garment design and fit, they are intentionally designed and woven with the potential to be transformed into garments such as trousers or shirts Considering ergonomic factors, including the compatibility of protective clothing layers, is essential, as these aspects can influence both the fabric’s protective performance and wearer comfort.
Clothing comfort is influenced by physical, physiological, and psychological factors Among these, thermo-physiological wear comfort is particularly important, as it pertains to the transfer of metabolic heat and moisture through clothing materials This directly impacts thermal homeostasis, ensuring the wearer maintains a comfortable and healthy body temperature.
Initially, test methods that required seamed test specimens to replicate garment construction were considered; however, these were later omitted because they focused on evaluating overall garment performance rather than the intrinsic fabric properties, such as those outlined in ISO 15025:2000 Procedure B.
Due to potential limitations on fabric supply, access to testing equipment, and qualified personnel, only the highest-rated fabrics from Stage One Limited Flame Spread testing (ISO 15025:2000 Procedure A) will advance to Stage Two for more comprehensive evaluation.
To evaluate the thermal aging of Station Wear fabrics accurately and reproducibly, a 500 W MBTF artificial light source was used to simulate natural sunlight exposure, mimicking real-world weathering While this method provides consistent results, minor differences in spectral output between artificial and natural sunlight may influence the aging process Consequently, the findings from irradiated fabrics might not fully replicate actual service conditions, highlighting the importance of considering these variables in durability assessments.
Background Research
The need for a study into Station Wear
Based on prior research on firefighting turnout gear and firsthand experience with firefighting Personal Protective Clothing (PPC), concerns about the protection and comfort of firefighting station uniforms have been identified Firefighters highlighted issues with the fire-resistance, durability, and overall wear comfort of current uniforms, questioning their effectiveness in ensuring safety during operations Feedback from both male and female firefighters underscores the need for improved PPE that prioritizes both safety and comfort in demanding firefighting conditions.
Today, firefighters are responsible for responding to a broader range of emergency situations beyond fires, including various hostile environments with new risks These evolving work scenarios demand the selection of specialized protective clothing materials that can effectively withstand diverse hazards (Shaw, 2005)
Currently, Australia has limited options for single-layer, fire-resistant (FR) fabrics specifically designed for firefighting station wear that balances protection and comfort Most existing FR woven fabrics are intended for turnout gear and are unsuitable for everyday workwear.
The increased use of primary protective fibers such as Nomex® and Kevlar®—traditionally reserved for turnout gear—raises concerns when used in station wear due to UV degradation of these materials While significant research has focused on improving turnout performance and functionality, limited studies exist on how these fibers degrade over time with aging Considering the Australian climate's impact on firefighters' physiological response, particularly concerning heat and moisture management, further research into the long-term durability of protective clothing in this environment is essential.
Turnout gear is essential protective equipment worn over station wear during firefighting operations, offering critical protection for a limited duration Station wear should meet standards that prevent injury and avoid hindering firefighters when donning turnout gear Ensuring proper station wear allows firefighters to operate safely and effectively in emergency situations.
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This chapter will discuss the most relevant issues that must be considered for the development of future Station Wear fabrics.
Fire and the changing Australian climate
2.2.1 Australia and El Niủo Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
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The ENSO phenomenon in relation to bushfire outbreaks may be linked to such catastrophic bushfire events including Black Friday (13 January, 1939), Ash Wednesday (16 February,
1983) and Black Saturday (7 February, 2009), all of which shared similar fire weather conditions leading up to these events All three cases were preceded by extended periods of
The region experienced a severe drought during winter and spring, exacerbated by exceedingly high temperatures caused by hot northerly winds originating from the interior of the continent These climatic conditions significantly impacted local ecosystems and agricultural productivity (C Lucas, Bureau of Meteorology, Victoria, 2009, pers comm., 12 May).
Bushfires are a natural and frequent occurrence in Australia, influenced by both weather and climate factors While ENSO climatic events can contribute to increased fire risk, the likelihood and severity of bushfires are not solely restricted to these phenomena Instead, a combination of weather conditions and long-term climate patterns create optimal conditions for bushfires to ignite and spread across the region.
Rising global greenhouse gas concentrations and CO2 levels are projected to cause global surface temperatures to increase by 1.1°C to 6.4°C from 1990 to 2100 According to the IPCC's Third Assessment Report, simulated emission scenarios support Australia's CSIRO 2030 temperature projections, indicating that most regions in Australia will experience temperature rises of 0.4°C to 2.0°C by the end of the century.
With more extreme heat cycles and fewer cool extremes, the annual number of record hot (35°C) and very hot (40°C) days across Australia is continuing to rise, especially over the last
Over the past 20 years, Australian capital cities have experienced a noticeable increase in temperature trends According to Hughes and Steffen (2013), these cities are now recording warmer-than-average annual maximum temperatures, leading to longer and hotter heatwaves (Bureau of Meteorology, 2015; 2013; Steffen, 2015) This rising temperature trend highlights the ongoing impacts of climate change on urban environments in Australia.
Figure 2.1 Number of days that Australian mean temperatures have averaged in the warmest one percent of records (Bureau of Meteorology & CSIRO 2014, p 8)
Australia is experiencing rising mean temperatures, leading to drier inland climates and increasing fire risks (Hughes & Steffen, 2013) The annual cumulative Fire Danger Index (FDI), which indicates the occurrence and severity of daily fire weather, has significantly risen inland in Southeast Australia between 1973 and 2010 and is expected to continue increasing (Hughes & Steffen, 2013; Nicholls, 2008) As a result, the frequency and severity of wildfires are projected to escalate across southern and eastern Australia, driven by more fire weather days, decadal climate variability, and available fuels (Bureau of Meteorology & CSIRO, 2014; Bushfire CRC, 2008; Steffen, 2015; Trewin, 2004).
The Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) is conducting research on historical fire weather and extreme fire events to enhance understanding of fire regimes and the impact of atmospheric CO2 levels Their studies evaluate potential side effects of increased CO2, which may influence fire behavior and severity (Bushfire CRC, 2008; Pittock, 2003) If current climate change trends persist, the frequency and intensity of bushfire events are likely to escalate, leading to more severe and devastating fires in the future.
New challenges and threats are emerging for fire and emergency service workers, particularly in rural communities where reliance on volunteer firefighters is significant, according to Handmer et al (2013) Volunteer firefighters face higher risks of injury due to the lack of regulated protective clothing comparable to formal Station Wear, which is often not supplied or regulated for volunteers Additionally, because volunteer firefighters are less closely monitored and may have varying levels of training and fitness, they are more susceptible to health issues and may struggle to maintain work rates during emergencies.
2.2.2 Comparison between Australia's fire climate and other countries
Firefighters and emergency service workers face emerging threats from increased health hazards and evolving fire suppression methods Research indicates that southeastern Australia ranks among the top three most fire-prone regions globally (Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre, 2008; South Australian Country Fire Service, 2007), highlighting the urgent need for improved safety protocols and firefighting strategies.
Unlike Australia and the USA where fire-prone environments are similar but vegetation differs, the United Kingdom predominantly experiences grass and woodland fires, whilst
Southeastern Australia experiences weather conditions similar to Mediterranean climates, with the 'urban heat island' effect amplifying rising temperatures due to expanding infrastructure in metropolitan areas Temperatures in Victoria are expected to increase more rapidly than the global average, with projections indicating a 5-40% rise in extreme fire weather days by 2020 (CSIRO, 2007; Victorian Climate Change Adaptation Program, 2008) This makes Victoria one of the world's top bushfire-prone regions, closely followed by California and the French Riviera Minimal winter and spring rainfall, combined with dry summers and drought conditions, lead to increased fuel growth and heightened fire risk due to volatile vegetation like eucalyptus, which facilitates more intense fires (Willis, 2004).
Heat waves in Australia cause more fatalities than any other natural disaster, significantly straining emergency and health services (Hughes & Steffen, 2013; Steffen, 2015) Vulnerabilities within Australia's emergency service sectors hinder their ability to effectively address health hazards and prevent heat-related deaths during extreme weather events (Handmer et al., 2013) As temperatures continue to rise, Australian Fire and Emergency Services must recognize that the incidence of heat-related illnesses and fatalities will increase, particularly affecting the growing and aging population (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005; Department of Climate Change).
2007, p 17; Department of Climate Change n.d.; ed Pittock 2003, p 14) It would appear that natural disasters become exaggerated by changes in climate and that the human element is almost always a certainty
Personal Protective Clothing (PPC), especially Turnout Gear, is essential for firefighter safety, designed with complex outer-shell materials to ensure durability and protection in harsh environments As the primary defense, Turnout Gear can hinder heat and moisture evacuation, which is exacerbated in hot climates and due to the gear's weight This restriction increases the risk of heat retention, cardiovascular strain, discomfort, and fatigue, potentially impacting worker productivity and safety.
& Nichols 2007; Kjellstrom, Lemke & Holmer 2009; Smith & McDonough 2009) Thus, adaptive measures to reduce the effects of firefighter heat stress must be tackled within the
Secondary protective clothing layers can be added without compromising the robustness or protective properties of the work uniform This can be achieved by utilizing lighter station wear fabric weights, ensuring enhanced safety while maintaining comfort and durability.
Firefighters, whether professional or volunteer, operating in similar climates face common challenges related to the protective and thermal performance of their Station Wear The interaction between firefighters and their protective clothing significantly impacts task efficiency, overall health, and wellbeing This research is particularly relevant for countries overseas, such as those in the Mediterranean and the west coast of the USA, where different fire regimes still necessitate effective firefighter protection.
Heat as a hazard to human health
2.3.1 Environmental stress and protective clothing
The increase in heat-related illness and fatalities across Australian cities during peak summer months is primarily linked to rising temperatures and frequent heat waves (Kjellstrom, Lemke & Holmer, 2009; Nicholls, 2008; Pittock, 2003, pp 143-145).
Elevated environmental temperatures increase the thermal stress faced by firefighters, exposing them to radiation, convection, and metabolic heat while wearing multilayered firefighting protective clothing (FPC) Research by Brotherhood (2008), Budd (2001a), and Laing and Sleivert (2002) indicates that firefighters can reduce heat stress by maintaining some level of thermal tolerance through heat acclimatization and exercise However, Taylor (2006) highlights the practical limitations of heat adaptation and pre-cooling methods for workers in encapsulating garments, noting that increased sweating, without effective evaporation, can lead to greater thermal discomfort.
As thermal risk levels rise, tolerance times tend to decrease, negatively impacting work performance based on the severity, duration, and intensity of heat stress Firefighters instinctively adapt their behavior—either consciously or subconsciously—to mitigate heat exposure However, physiological responses to heat are complex, influenced by factors such as workload, protective clothing, individual sweating patterns, metabolic rate, and overall physical fitness (Budd 2001b; Office of the).
Deputy Prime Minister 2004; Taylor 2006) In assessing risk for firefighters who perform in the heat, Kalyani and Jamshidi (2009) found both environmental and physiological heat stress to be important considerations
Thermoregulation in the human body becomes more challenging when working in hot, humid environments, especially for firefighters Primary sources of heat stress—such as physical exertion, excessive sweating, and physiological strain—are intensified when firefighters wear Personal Protective Clothing (PPC) and Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) These protective gear and equipment add significant loads, further impeding the body's ability to regulate temperature effectively.
Multilayered PPC can refer to the Turnout system, which comprises outer-shell material, moisture barrier, and thermal liner layers, providing essential protection from external hazards Additionally, it describes a multilayer clothing system consisting of base, middle, and outer layers designed to optimize comfort and safety (Black et al., 2005; Burov, 2006; Laing & Sleivert, 2002) In Australian firefighting, PPC is typically worn in multiple layers to enhance durability and protection against hazardous materials and extreme environments, resulting in a heavier overall ensemble.
Wearing insulating protective garments can increase energy expenditure and metabolic load due to their bulk and discomfort, while simultaneously reducing moisture permeability and range of motion (RoM) According to Bishop (2008) and Rossi (2003), elevated core temperatures caused by such apparel may impair cognitive and physical performance, leading to decreased productivity and a higher risk of accidents and fatigue Proper protective clothing design is essential to balance safety, comfort, and performance in demanding environments.
During firefighting operations, stored internal heat energy raises skin and core body temperatures, increasing cardiovascular strain and causing fluctuations in blood pressure and elevated heart rates, which heighten the risk of heat collapse or cardiac events (Aisbett & Nichols 2007; Carter et al 2007; Hughes & Steffen 2013; Li 2005; McLellan & Selkirk 2006) External heat sources can cause clothing temperatures to rise, vaporizing moisture from sweat and water spray and increasing the risk of scald or 'steam burn' injuries, which alter the protective clothing's heat capacity and thermal conductivity (Burov 2006; Lawson 1996; Lawson & Vettori 2002; Rossi 2005) Consequently, wearers experience significant cardiovascular and thermoregulatory stress, impairing heat dissipation and sweat evaporation, and hindering the cooling process (Hanson 1999; McLellan & Selkirk 2006; Selkirk, McLellan & Wong 2004).
Metabolic heat and heat stress are prominent hazards for firefighters wearing structural personal protective equipment (PPE) Balancing the protective benefits of PPE with its potential impact on physiological functioning remains a significant challenge Ensuring firefighter safety requires understanding how protective gear can both safeguard against hazards and contribute to heat-related stress, emphasizing the importance of optimizing protective measures to mitigate heat stress while maintaining effective protection.
Although heat and fire protection are paramount to a firefighter's protection, addressing these hazards means properties such as breathability and comfort may be less well satisfied (Horrocks 2005)
Implementing work and rest guidelines, such as mandated rest periods, crew rotation, and minimum staffing levels, is essential in firefighting to reduce the physical strain of wearing protective gear in hot conditions While Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) and protective clothing requirements are related, differences exist; for example, during extended wildland firefighting operations in summer heat, moisture barriers may be omitted from turnout gear to enhance heat dissipation, with minimal station wear worn underneath to allow the body's heat to escape efficiently.
In simulated field trials, Rossi (2003) discovered that temperatures rapidly increased between protective clothing layers during physical activity, with the greatest temperature fluctuations occurring between the undergarment and work wear layers due to thermal energy release and moisture absorption Similar results were observed in trials where firefighters wore breathable turnout jackets, highlighting the impact of clothing design on heat buildup and moisture management in protective gear.
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2.3.2 Thermoregulation of the human body
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The human body produces a certain amount of heat throughout every activity, ranging from
Firefighters' metabolic rate varies significantly, from approximately 65 W/m² at rest to over 1000 W/m² during intense activity, with short bursts of high-intensity firefighting generating more sweat and increasing thermal burden During work, firefighters typically produce around 300-500 W/m², contributing to a substantial heat load Residual heat is dissipated through respiration, dry heat transfer via radiation, convection, and conduction, and evaporative heat loss through the skin A guide based on ISO 8996 (2004) helps estimate metabolic rate and heat production during different firefighting activities, considering a standard man with a 1.8 m² body surface area.
Table 2.1 Examples of metabolic energy production associated with different types of work (Holmer 2005, p 381, Table 14.1)
100 Light manual work; hand and arm work; arm and leg work; driving vehicle in normal conditions; casual walking (speed up to 3.5 km/h)
165 Sustained hand and arm work; arm and leg work; arm and trunk work; walking at a speed of 3.5km/h to 5.5 km/h
230 Intense arm and trunk work; carrying heavy material; walking at a speed of 5.5 km/h to 7 km/h
290 Very intense activity at fast pace; intense shovelling or digging; climbing stairs, ramp or ladder; running or walking at a speed of >7 km/h Very, very high
400 Sustained rescue work; wildland firefighting
475 Structural firefighting and rescue work
600 Firefighting and rescue work; climbing stairs; carrying persons
There is a significant lack of data on the temperatures firefighters are exposed to during real operational conditions and the level of thermal stress they endure, making it difficult to accurately assess their thermal risks Currently, estimates are based on live fire training and simulations, which may not fully capture actual exposure Conducting further research on the thermal impact of protective clothing worn by operational firefighters in the Australian climate is essential to improve the thermal and protective performance of future station wear fabrics.
Firefighting Protective Clothing (FPC)
2.4.1 Short history of firefighting in Australia
Australian Fire Services are relatively young, having been established in each state during the late 19th and early 20th centuries Despite their relatively recent formation, many devastating fires occurred before organized fire services existed, highlighting the need for structured firefighting efforts Notably, the Country Fire Authority (CFA) was created in response to severe bushfires across Victoria between 1939 and 1944, marking a pivotal moment in Australia's fire management history.
Significant advancements in firefighting technology occurred in the first half of the 20th century, but progress in Firefighting Protective Clothing (FPC) was limited by the materials available at the time (Jaquet, 2006) The adoption of standards by the National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) in 1971 marked a major breakthrough, leading to substantial improvements in FPC’s design, structure, and appearance Modern FPC not only offers essential personal protection but also ensures quick identification of firefighters and maintains a professional image that boosts public confidence Innovations in textile materials, tailored for their technical and functional performance, were rapidly integrated into protective clothing for various fields such as firefighting, military, industrial, and aerospace, transforming FPC into sophisticated multilayered assemblies (Potluri & Needham, 2005) Consequently, technical textiles are crucial for safeguarding individuals working in dangerous environments, enabling their survival and effectiveness.
Ordinarily, exposure conditions for firefighters may be classified as routine, hazardous and emergency defined by a range of air temperature and radiant fluxes (Hoschke 1981 cited in
Modern career firefighters have expanded their roles beyond traditional firefighting to include high-risk rescue operations, such as hazardous material handling, chemical, biological, and radiological incidents, and urban search and rescue They are also trained to respond to terrorist threats and industrial accidents, requiring specialized skills like Hazmat, CBR, HART, and USAR operations Additionally, driver training is prioritized to ensure rapid and safe arrival at emergency scenes, reflecting the evolving demands of emergency response today.
Australian fire brigades currently comprise highly trained teams providing 24-hour emergency response They operate on a rotating shift system that includes two 10-hour day shifts and two 14-hour night shifts, ensuring continuous fire cover and rapid deployment.
Table 2.3 Australian Fire and Land Management Agencies
Australian Fire Agencies Australian Land Management Agencies
Australasian Fire and Emergency Services
Authorities Council (AFAC) Country Fire Authority, Victoria (CFA)
Metropolitan Fire & Emergency Services Board,
Melbourne (MFB) Fire & Rescue NSW (FRNSW) New South Wales Rural Fire Service (NSWRFS)
ACT Fire & Rescue Queensland Fire and Emergency Services
(QFES) Rural Fire Service Queensland (RFSQ)
Tasmania Fire Service (TFS) South Australian Metropolitan Fire Service
(SAMFS) South Australian Country Fire Service (SACFS)
Northern Territory Fire and Rescue Service
(NTFRS) Bushfires NT Western Australia Department of Fire &
Emergency Services (DFES) New Zealand Fire Service (NZFS)
The New South Wales Department of Conservation and Environment, alongside the State Forests of New South Wales, plays a crucial role in managing forest resources and promoting sustainable forestry practices Forestry Tasmania focuses on conserving Tasmania's unique forests while supporting timber industries The Department of Sustainability and Environment Victoria emphasizes environmental protection and sustainable land management in Victoria In Western Australia, the Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM) is dedicated to preserving natural habitats and supporting biodiversity Scion, a New Zealand forest research organization, contributes to innovative forest management and research advancements Additionally, the South Australian Department of Environment and Heritage works to protect South Australia's natural landscapes and cultural heritage, ensuring the conservation of vital ecosystems across Australia.
Complete firefighting ensembles, known as Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), are essential for ensuring firefighter safety and include key items such as tunics or coats, over trousers, and station wear uniforms PPE also comprises interface components like flash hoods, helmets, boots, and gloves, along with specialized gear such as self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), wet weather clothing, cold and extreme-climate clothing, and bushfire jackets These comprehensive PPE sets provide protection against various hazards encountered during firefighting operations, emphasizing the importance of proper equipment for effective emergency response.
High visibility safety vests and additional safety equipment are essential for firefighter protection The type of PPE and protective materials used can vary depending on environmental conditions and specific tasks, differing from state to state Nonetheless, the primary goal of all PPE is to offer limited individual protection against thermal, physical, mechanical, and environmental hazards encountered during firefighting operations These safety measures are crucial for safeguarding firefighters, enabling them to perform their duties safely while minimizing health and safety risks.
Turnout Gear, comprising the firefighter's coat and over trousers, forms the core of protective equipment designed to ensure safety during firefighting operations It is often referred to as the firefighter's last line of defense, offering maximum protection against heat and flames while reducing exposure to water and other liquids to maintain skin microclimate temperature and humidity Additionally, Turnout Gear safeguards internal layers from mechanical hazards like rips, tears, and abrasions, all while allowing ease of movement necessary for various physical tasks.
Firefighter turnout coats are complex, multilayered garments designed for optimal protection and safety Typically, they consist of three to four layers: an outer shell, a moisture barrier, a thermal liner, and a face cloth attached to the thermal liner, which contacts the wearer's skin These layers serve multiple functions, including preventing liquid moisture penetration, providing thermal insulation against conductive and radiant heat, and acting as barriers to bloodborne pathogens The outer shell protects against physical hazards, while the moisture barrier and thermal liner enhance fire resistance and comfort for firefighters.
Table 2.4 provides an up-to-date list of fabrics, composites, and blends used in Australian Fire & Rescue Services’ Structural and Wildland PPE for turnout gear The materials employed in turnout gear vary between 200-350 g/m², depending on fiber composition, fabric construction methods, and layering To ensure safety and effectiveness, firefighters must receive proper training on the use, care, maintenance, and limitations of their PPE, considering the physiological stresses involved in firefighting operations.
Table 2.4 Australian Fire & Rescue Services current Structural and Wildland PPE Turnout items by fabric type and composition (R Shephard [Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authorities Council] 2016, pers comm 22 June)
Item of PPE Fabric/Composition
PBI Gold®, Nomex® 3D Gemini™ XTL PBI® Gold Nomex® 3DP Nomex® 3D PBI® Matrix Nomex III A®
Hainsworth® Titan Melba ENFORCER®, PBI Gold®
Kevlar®/Fibreglass Double Layer Nomex® Neck Flap Structural Gloves Nomex®/para-Aramid/Gore-Tex®
Water-proof Leather with Crosstech® insert Kermel® with Crosstech® membrane
Leather with fabric inserts Flash Hood 80% Lenzing FR®, 20% PBI Gold®
100% Proban® treated Cotton 70% meta-Aramid, 30% Nomex/FR Viscose 100% Proban® treated cotton drill Bushfire Pants
70% meta-Aramid, 30% Nomex/FR Viscose 100% Proban® treated Cotton 70% Kermel®, 30%Viscose
Firefighters are required to wear personal protective equipment (PPE) while performing physically and psychologically demanding tasks such as walking, running, crawling, stair climbing, hammering, lifting, pulling or pushing heavy loads, hose work, and equipment transport (Health and Fitness Working Group, 2006) For Australian firefighters operating under challenging thermal and environmental conditions, PPE usage increases energy expenditure, leading to greater physiological stress This heightened physical toll underscores the importance of optimizing PPE design and fitness strategies to support firefighters' health and performance in demanding environments.
2.4.3 Personal Protective Clothing (PPC) and the role of Station Wear
Expanding outward from the skin, the protective garments that comprise the textile part of a complete firefighting ensemble are composed of base, middle and outer clothing layers Each
The 33-layer fire-resistant system functions independently and dynamically to protect firefighters from thermal hazards, with designed spaces between layers promoting airflow for enhanced safety Depending on performance needs and required protection levels, layers can be added, removed, or reconfigured to suit different activities and environments faced by firefighters This adaptable layering system ensures optimal thermal protection and operational flexibility in various firefighting scenarios (Black et al.).
Career firefighters perform essential station activities including equipment and vehicle maintenance, operations support, fire investigation, hydrant and building inspections, and regular skills training They also participate in joint-emergency exercises with police and ambulance services, coordinate public evacuation drills, and actively promote community fire safety Although direct live fire exposure is rare in these environments, firefighters still face various hazards, necessitating proper protective measures regardless of ambient temperatures (McLellan & Selkirk, 2006).
Personal Protective Clothing (PPC) consists of garments designed to continuously safeguard firefighters’ torsos, necks, arms, and legs from harsh environmental hazards These protective items are specifically engineered to prevent injuries or fatalities during firefighting operations, excluding interface areas like the head, hands, and feet Proper PPC is essential for ensuring firefighter safety in dangerous environments, offering reliable protection against potentially deadly conditions (Ding, 2008).
PPC can be categorized into primary protective clothing, such as Turnout Gear, and secondary protective clothing, known as Station Wear or Duty Wear Station Wear is the daily work uniform worn by firefighters to protect against thermal hazards during non-emergency operations Made from single-layer fabrics, Station Wear balances functionality with uniform aesthetics, featuring items like trousers, cargo pants, shorts, long-sleeved or short-sleeved shirts, T-shirts, polo shirts, and ankle boots as comfortable alternatives to firefighting boots These garments can be mixed and matched and are typically worn underneath Turnout Gear when responding to calls, ensuring safety and practicality during routine duties.
Requirements for protection
Normal clothing offers essential protection from daily environmental and climatic conditions while emphasizing aesthetics for social acceptability However, in extreme environments involving thermal, mechanical, biological, radiation, or nuclear hazards, specialized protective gear becomes necessary to meet health and safety standards.
The weight of protective clothing significantly impacts a firefighter’s physiological response in hot and humid climates such as Australia Excessive fabric weight increases uniform bulk, which restricts thermo-physiological comfort, mobility, and dexterity, thereby elevating health risks and impairing job performance Selecting lightweight yet protective gear is essential to enhance firefighter safety and operational efficiency in challenging environmental conditions.
2005, Jeffries 1989; Laing & Sleivert 2002; Mukhopadhyay & Midha 2008; Shaw 2005)
This article emphasizes the importance of ergonomic and physiological considerations in Station Wear fabrics, focusing on protective clothing against environmental hazards The relationship between clothing size and fit significantly impacts comfort and performance, especially concerning heat stress, permeability, and body movement Proper fit influences energy consumption, while the weight of FPC and its assemblies affects heat transfer and ventilation, essential factors in designing effective protective clothing (Laing & Sleivert, 2002; Rossi, 2005).
Black et al (2005) highlight that modifications in uniform garment fit and design can negatively impact protective performance by altering key insulating properties, such as air gap thickness Garment features like collars and cuffs play a crucial role in trapping air pockets for insulation, while ventilation is influenced by garment fit and design Conversely, appropriate fit and construction can improve a garment's strength and comfort, demonstrating the importance of balancing functionality with wearability Proper design ensures both effective protection and wearer comfort, emphasizing the need for careful consideration in uniform development.
The effectiveness of protective clothing layers depends on materials, construction, design, and fit, whether used individually or together (Black et al., 2005; Horrocks, 2005) Although detailed garment design of Station Wear uniforms is outside the scope of this study, ergonomic factors are crucial in ensuring optimal protection and wearer comfort.
36 the clothing's protective performance (e.g thermally-induced garment shrinkage) must be considered in designing an effective secondary protective material
Textiles can be engineered to meet specific safety needs, but no single fabric can provide protection against all hazards According to Rossi (2005), firefighter PPE presents a significant contradiction between protection and comfort The required level of protection varies across different fire jurisdictions, complicating the selection of appropriate Station Wear materials in the absence of standardized Australian performance criteria As a result, developing functional and comfortable secondary protective textiles that work seamlessly together during active firefighting remains a complex technical challenge.
2.5.2 Design considerations of Station Wear uniforms
Firefighting Station Wear uniforms are evolving from traditional tailored garments to high-performance, fire-resistant (FR) workwear, such as cargo trousers and knitted polo shirts, emphasizing improved functionality These modern uniforms are designed to complement turnout gear and other PPE, enhancing safety during emergency responses While the risk of flame exposure for Station Wear is generally considered low to medium, the focus remains on providing durable and protective clothing suitable for various operational needs.
2005) However in situations not requiring Turnout Gear, Station Wear must perform as secondary protective work wear to prevent firefighters from further injury during firefighting or other operations
The physical properties of protective fabrics are essential in influencing the overall performance of protective clothing, as the garment itself offers protection rather than the textile material alone (Holmes, 2000) When selecting textiles for protective clothing, it is important to adhere to four key principles that ensure effective and reliable protection (McCullough, 2005; Shaw, 2005).
Assess hazard type and severity (e.g fire, thermal (extreme heat or cold), biological and physical) based on developed scenarios and requirements of the working environment (e.g air temperature, humidity);
Identify relevant Standards, specifications or guidelines to establish if performance requirements are well defined, not defined, or have no requirements;
Screen materials based on protection performance (e.g flame, thermal, mechanical, chemical and biological protective performance), and
Select materials based on their major factors (e.g job performance, comfort, durability, product costs, use, care and maintenance and cultural factors)
To ensure high user acceptance, fire authorities must meet both physical and psychological performance standards of protective clothing systems When designing, manufacturing, and testing experimental station wear fabrics, key considerations for raw material selection and fabric design include durability, comfort, thermal protection, and psychological assurance to enhance wearer confidence and safety.
For professions with high risks of garment ignition and burning, selecting flame-resistant (FR) protective materials is essential to ensure enhanced safety Station Wear fabrics should resist ignition or self-extinguish when the ignition source is removed while maintaining heat-flow properties These fabrics must remain intact without developing holes, shrinking, melting, or sticking to the skin upon exposure to intense heat or flames Although initially more costly, fabrics containing inherent FR yarns offer superior long-term protection by preserving their protective qualities through multiple washes.
Station Wear fabrics are designed for long-lasting performance, offering exceptional strength, durability, and ease of maintenance to withstand extended wear during rest and intense physical activity Their robust construction ensures durability and prolonged service life, even under demanding conditions Additionally, these fabrics maintain their strength after exposure to thermal or UV degradation, making them ideal for environments with strong sunlight This resilience preserves the protective properties of the materials, ensuring reliable performance in various outdoor and high-stress settings.
Increasing fire frequency and rising temperatures across Australia emphasize the importance of protective clothing with enhanced heat and moisture transfer capabilities to support human thermoregulation, thereby reducing activity-related hyperthermia and firefighter fatigue Additionally, comfort perceptions are closely linked to the moisture management and quick-drying properties of fabrics worn next to the skin, ensuring optimal thermo-physiological comfort in demanding environments.
Lighter Station Wear fabrics are designed to enhance firefighter performance and safety in warmer environments by reducing clothing bulk These advanced materials improve the compatibility between protective clothing layers, offering increased mobility and comfort By minimizing weight, they help ensure firefighters can move more freely, reducing fatigue while maintaining essential protection during demanding situations.
Aesthetic elements: Together with sensorial comfort, appearance in terms of colour variation, garment design and fit are deciding factors in user acceptance to fulfill social and personal expectations
A strong link exists between a fabric's protective performance and human performance to ensure maximum safety and comfort for the wearer Burn injuries sustained while wearing fire protective clothing (FPC) are primarily caused by thermal exposure, including incident heat flux intensity and its fluctuations during exposure, as well as physiological heat regulation functions like insulation, sweating, and evaporative cooling Moreover, the effectiveness of the protective ensemble impacts heat transfer, with fire-resistant (FR) materials reducing garment shrinkage caused by heat, which helps maintain air layers and prevents increased heat transfer to the skin during intense heat exposure—ultimately enhancing firefighter safety and performance (Holmes 2000; Horrocks 2005; Purser 2001; Scott 2000; Song 2005, 2007).
Thermally-protective textiles typically have high area densities exceeding 250 g/m², which often results in reduced breathability when used as standalone garments due to their primary function of heat and flame protection Maintaining a balance between heat production and dissipation is challenging, especially in hotter environments where heat stress is common Light-weight Station Wear fabrics with excellent moisture management properties help regulate the body's thermo-physiological response by reducing core temperatures and excessive sweating during strenuous physical activities The benefits of minimizing clothing weight extend beyond warm climates, provided the materials offer sufficient insulation for cold environments Additionally, Station Wear can be designed with appropriate fabric weights to provide seasonal coverage, ensuring versatile safety and comfort across different temperatures.