Ebook environmental management in practice (volume 3) part 1

d d d ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN PRACTICE VOLUME 3 Methods of environmental management, and especially the ‘tools’ of environmental management, are increasingly being relied upon world wide to delive[.]

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

IN PRACTICE: VOLUME 3

Methods of environmental management, and especially the ‘tools’ of environmental management, are increasingly being relied upon world-wide to deliver a degree of sustainability in all human activities A thorough understanding of the nature, capabilities and limitations of these ‘tools’, as well as the conditions under which they can be best applied, is essential for students, researchers and practitioners within the field

of environmental management

Environmental Management in Practice presents three comprehensive volumes containing the most

up-to-date research and practical applications in the field Spanning the four main aspects of environmental management: instruments, compartments, sectors and ecosystems, this three-volume work contains over sixty contributions from leading specialists in each field and offers the first major source of contemporary international research and application within environmental management in practice

Volume 1: Instruments for Environmental Management, focuses on the instruments and tools currently

available to the environmental manager A theoretical background to the instruments is given together with an overview of those instruments that are in common use today, with particular attention to the physical, economic, legislative and communication instruments

Volume 2: Compartments, Stressors and Sectors, deals with the problems that occur in the three ‘compartments’

of the environment—namely, air, water and soil The contributors also address the socio-economic sectors

of industry, traffic, energy, agriculture and tourism

Volume 3: Managing the Ecosystem, focuses on those ecosystems in which human intervention has been or

continues to be predominant, specifically within cities and rural areas

Packed with accessible and up-to-date information, these three volumes provide a comprehensive overview

of environmental management for those studying, researching and practising in the field

and Head of the Human Ecology Department at the Free University of Brussels Paul Compton is an environmental and demographic consultant Dimitri Devuyst is Co-ordinator of the programme of

Environmental Impact Assessment in the Department of Human Ecology, Free University of Brussels

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN PRACTICE:

VOLUME 3

Managing the Ecosystem

EDITED BY B.NATH, L.HENS, P.COMPTON AND D.DEVUYST

London and New York

First published 1999

by Routledge

11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002.

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge

29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

© 1999 B.Nath, L.Hens, P.Compton and D.Devuyst, selection and editorial matter; individual chapters, the contributors All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,

without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

Environmental management in practice/edited by B.Nath…[et al.].

p cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Contents: v 1 Instruments for environmental management

—v 2 Compartments, stressors and sectors—v 3 Managing

the ecosystem.

1 Environmental management I.Nath, Bhaskar.

GE300.E577 1999 97–52071 363.7–dc21 CIP ISBN 0-415-18791-5 (Print Edition) ISBN 0-203-01436-7 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-17302-3 (Glassbook Format)

Richard J.Huggett and Paul A.Compton

Julian D.Orford

Susan Gubbay

VI CONTENTS

David N.Wilcock

Paul P.Schot

Roy W.Tomlinson and Brian Whalley

CONTENTS VII

Laurie Robbins and Thomas A.Eddy

Restoration, management and recovery goals—a model for temperate North

Bernard J.Smith

Fernando Dias de Avila-Pires

Bruno Kawasange

VIII CONTENTS

Pham Hoang Hai and Nguyen Ngoc Khanh

Differences between rural environments in developed and developing countries 186

Dimitri Devuyst

Differences of environmental problems between developing countries and industrialised

Josef Buys

CONTENTS IX

Bostjan Anko

Philippe Lefèvre-Witier

0.1 The integration of ecological, economic and social needs in a decision-analysis model 5

1.2 The identification of coastal cells based on numerical modelling of breaking wave energy 12

1.4 A schematic view on how a natural coastline with simple cell structure has evolved into a

2.2 Examples of boundaries that may be used to mark the limits of ‘the coastal zone’ in CZM

3.2 Preferred locations for salmon spawning in an upland stream in relation to bed

3.4 The effects of organic waste on dissolved oxygen levels in a river downstream of an outfall 46

3.6 Mean daily streamflow from a floodplain area of fens and raised bogs in Northern Ireland,

3.9 (A) Summer and winter temperature profiles in a mid-latitude lake (B) Oxygen profiles in

3.10 Changing phosphorus concentrations in sediment cores from Lough Neagh, Northern

5.3 Influence of altitude on precipitation—a cross profile from central Wales to East Anglia 89

5.5 Reclamation of moorland and hill margins on the south side of the Mourne Mountains,

5.6 Total number of pin contacts of vascular plants in four strata of grazed and protected

FIGURES XI

5.7 Percentage cover of dominant bog species in 1987 on peat areas machine-cut between

5.8 Plan of research design for the UNESCO-MAB project in the Kathmandu-Kakani area,

5.9 Methodological flow diagram for the production of an environmental impact assessment

from geomorphological components through geomorphological impact assessment 104

7.3 Rainfall trends in the West African Sahel showing departures from the long-term mean 137

8.2 Schematic representation of a forest structure, floristic distribution and vertical

9.1 The potential short-term and long-term biotic effects of isolation and forest conversion

activities inside and outside Kilimanjaro National Park and Forest Reserve on resident large

11.1 A qualitative input-output model showing the energy and material flows involved in the

13.1 Schematic presentation of plant biomass pulsating in primeval forest and in a

13.2 Schematic presentation of plant biomass pulsating in the field and in the pasture 237

2.4 Examples of coastal policy guiding action (from the draft Thames Estuary Management

5.1 Effects of extrusion cutting on vegetation cover and species composition of a lowland

5.2 Susceptibility of species to trampling in an upland heath in the Cairngorms 101 6.1 A preliminary synopsis of dominant features and the relative strength of processes in

6.2 Changes in animal production systems in savanna and arid areas in relation to association

6.4 Identifying unifying scientific hypotheses for improved management in savanna areas 119

7.2 Areas in different continents that experience at least moderate desertification 132 7.3 Rates of accelerated soil erosion under natural vegetation, fallow and different crop types

9.1 Potential environmental effects of tourism in protected areas in East Africa 175

11.3 Amount of household waste produced and recycled in different European cities,

14.1 Characteristics of marginal populations for food, lodging and education, Mexico 262

5.1 Maintaining rural populations and problems of overgrazing in north-west Ireland 95

6.2 Restoring mesquite savanna in western Texas, USA through brush and cacti management 123

9.1 Science and environmental education as tools for good management: the Galapagos Islands,

11.1 Application of the healthy cities concept in Toronto, Canada and the City of Toronto

13.1 Ecosystem management principles applicable also in landscape planning and

13.2 Objectives of management of national parks and protected landscapes/seascapes 245

13.4 Comparison of purpose and naturalness for farm woodlands (applicable to both

XIV BOXES

Slovenia He is co-chairman of the IUFRO Working Party on Landscape Ecology and a member of the IUCN Commission on Environmental Education and Communication

of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences He has been a professor in the Department of Tropical Medicine in the Oswaldo Cruz Institute in Rio de Janeiro since 1993 Professor Avila-Pires is a past Fellow of the John Simon Guggenheim Foundation and has served as Co-Associate Director of the US National Committee for the International Biological Program He is a member of several professional associations including the American Society of Mammalogists and the Association for Tropical Biology

in the history of art and archaeology and has spent the bulk of his professional career in South America where he has been involved in different excavation projects of pre-Columbian cultures

of Belfast, Northern Ireland, is an environmental and demographic consultant His academic interests lie

at the interface between the natural and social sciences

as well as a master’s degree in human ecology and a bachelor’s degree in botany from the same university His main interests are in the field of environmental impact assessment Currently he is Postdoctoral fellow

of the Fund for Scientific Research—Flanders in the Department of Human Ecology at the Free University

of Brussels

graduate studies were in plant ecology, entomology and wildlife biology Currently he is an associate professor in the Division of Biological Sciences at Emporia State University, Kansas

is a Fellow of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors She was a senior conservation officer with the Marine Conservation Society and is currently a self-employed consultant in the field of coastal management She has acted as a specialist adviser to the House of Commons Environment Select Committee on coastal zone management and protection

Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam His research focuses on the ecological approach to landscapes

XVI CONTRIBUTORS

and the environmental aspects of country planning In this work special emphasis is given to rural areas Dr Hai is a specialist in environmental impact assessment of dams

Currently, he is a senior lecturer in geography at the University of Manchester

diploma in wildlife management from the College of African Wildlife Management, Mweka, Moshi, Tanzania and a B.Sc in zoology and wildlife ecology from the University of Dar Es Salaam He holds a master’s degree in human ecology from the Free University of Brussels

Assessment at the Institute of Geography in the National Centre for Natural Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam He is a close collaborator of Dr Pham Hoang Hai, with whom he shares interest in landscape ecology, urban and country planning and environmental effects of dams Dr Khanh also specialises

in impacts of tourism and industrial developments

He has turned to anthropological genetics As such he directed interdisciplinary research projects in Algeria, Nepal, Mali, Niger, France and Mexico In 1966 he joined the French National Centre for Scientific Research where he is currently research director At the University of Toulouse he manages the International Certificate in Human Ecology

the Queen’s University of Belfast For over twenty-five years he has been conducting research on coastal geomorphology and sedimentology and is a noted author on the subject of beach and coast development Recently he has been examining the response of coastal morphology both to sea level change and to increased storminess related to climatic change

National Science Foundation post-doctoral fellowship at Missouri Botanical Garden, where she is currently a research associate She has held positions at Allegheny College, Pennsylvania, at Texas Tech University and is presently an associate professor in the Division of Biological Sciences at Emporia State University, Kansas

His interests lie in the relationship between hydrology and wetland ecosystems, and the impact of human activities He has worked in the field of integrated water management and eco-hydrology in the Netherlands and has acted as a consultant on water resources management for the Ministry of Water in Burkina Faso

Dr Schot is an independent consultant for the Dutch Commission on Environmental Impact Assessment

Prior to joining Queen’s University he was a soil surveyor in the Cote D’Ivoire and lecturer in geography at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria Professor Smith specialises in environmental issues and tropical geomorphology Since 1990 he has led an interdisciplinary study of erosion hazard and landscape change

in south-eastern Brazil

1974 Since 1970 he has been a lecturer and senior lecturer in geography at the Queen’s University of Belfast His research interest lies in upland land cover, conservation and remote sensing

CONTRIBUTORS XVII

aspects of mountain geomorphology and glaciology with current field work in Norway, Iceland and the Alps Other current research is the analysis and simulation of building stone weathering

University of Liverpool He was Fulbright-Hays scholar and visiting lecturer in geography at the Western Washington State University He has been a university teacher in Northern Ireland since 1964 and was appointed Professor of Environmental Studies at the University of Ulster in 1987 He is also a member of the Northern Ireland Council for Nature Conservation and the Countryside

Environmental management draws its knowledge

base from across the spectrum of disciplines—the

natural, social and medical sciences, the humanities

and engineering It aims to maintain a harmonious

relationship between the environment and human

society, and in its approach to this adopts a holistic,

interdisciplinary stance Since value judgements are

an integral part of environmental management, it is

as much an art as a science in its methodology and

application

The growth of interest in environmental

management is relatively recent It reflects a widely

held perception of accelerating environmental

deterioration caused by the pressure of human

activities, as evidenced by worsening problems of

pollution and the destruction of natural landscapes

and habitats These concerns can be traced back to

the 1960s, when the interconnectedness of nature

was vividly demonstrated by the way in which

seemingly benign activities such as the chemical

control of pests could, by diffusing through the food

chain, produce adverse environmental effects in

regions ostensibly untouched by man’s activities

As our knowledge of the global environment has

grown, other worrying effects have come to light

The emission of greenhouse gases is linked to global

warming and climate change Although we do not

fully understand the probable effects of this, it may

well result in greater temperate aridity and so

jeopardise the world grain supply, with potentially

disastrous consequences Moreover, resultant

changes in sea level could submerge major coastal

sites of population

There is also the well-established connection

between CFC emissions, the depletion of upper

atmosphere ozone, and increased ultra-violet radiation at the planet’s surface This has negative implications not only for human health but also for the well-being of other species Likewise, the destruction of the tropical rain forest is seen as a grave threat to biodiversity and the world’s gene pool The fact that these hazards are the subject of internationally agreed measures of amelioration (albeit implemented with variable commitment by individual countries) testifies to the potential gravity

of global warming, ozone depletion and loss of biodiversity

These global issues also raise concerns at the level

of ecosystems The effects of modern agricultural practices on environmental quality are a case in point Pesticide and fer tiliser residues pollute the groundwater; animal and plant habitats are destroyed

as hedgerows are removed and wetlands drained in the interest of intensive cultivation; soil structure is broken down, creating problems of soil erosion Now, in addition, intensive rearing of plants and animals is even causing concern for the safety and wholesomeness of the food produced Populations are no longer willing to accept assurances from experts that genetically engineered crops are safe, or that it is right to feed natural herbivores, such as cattle, protein supplements derived from the rendered remains of other animals

Of course it is not only agriculture that is problematic Urban living and its associated activities can be just as destructive of the environment; not least, the creation of built environments where residential, commercial and industrial areas and communications infrastructures either obliterate or radically change pre-existing landscapes and

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS