Nedobejkine 1981, Re- cent developments in Russian-French ma- chine translation at Grenoble, Linguis- tics 19, 199-271 Johnson R., King M.. and L.des Tombe 1985, EUROTRA~ A multilingual
Trang 1Petr Sgall and J a r m i l a P a n e v o v ~
F a c u l t y of M a t h e m a t i c s and Physics,
C h a r l e s U n i v e r s i t y
M a l o s t r a n s k 4 n.25, 118 O 0 Praha l, C z e c h o s l o v a k i a
A B S T R A C T
An adequate, complete, and e c o n o m i c a l
l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y is n e c e s s a r y for M T and
the q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r a c o n s i s t e n t use
of the o f t e n u n d u l y n e g l e c t e d d e p e n d e n c y
syntax, i n c l u d i n g a s y s t e m a t i c d e s c r i p t i o n
of topic and focus, c a n n o t serve as a re-
liable base for the g r a m m a r of an inter-
lingua, or of a set of i n t e r r e l a t e d inter-
face structures
i As S l o c u m ( 1 9 8 ~ ) c o n v i n c ~ l y shows, the
a t t i t u d e towards t r a n s l a t i o n in general,
and t h e r e f o r e also towards a u t o m a t i c t r a n s -
l a t i o n in the U.S.A n e v e r has b e e n b a s e d
on u r g e n t w i d e - s p r e a d needs of t r a n s l a t i n g
t e c h n i c a l texts, and m o s t l y has not b e e n
c o n n e c t e d w i t h b r o a d i n t e r e s t in t h e o r e t i -
cal background O u t s i d e the U.S.A., w i t h
the e x c e p t i o n of G E T A , Grenoble, the
r e s e a r c h had the c h a r a c t e r of s c a t t e r e d
p r o j e c t s c a r r i e d out by r e l a t i v e l y small
groups; o n l y in the r e c e n t years the E U R O T R A
project and, especially, the two J a p a n e s e
p r o j e c t s bring some hope as for the p o s s i -
b i l i t y of s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n c e n t r a t e d re-
search
The q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r l i n g u i s t i c s is able
to o f f e r a r e l i a b l e t h e o r e t i c a l basis for
MT c a n n o t be a n s w e r e d in a q u a l i f i e d w a y
w i t h o u t e x a m i n i n g such l i n g u i s t i c a l l y b a s e d
systems as G a r v i n ~ s ' f u l c r u m " a p p r o a c h {which
was a b o l i s h e d on e x t e r n a l grounds, a f t e r
the u n f o r t u n a t e A L P A C report~ or the sys- tems f o r m u l a t e d by K u l a g i n a and Apresyan
C e r t a i n f e a t u r e s of their frameworks, as well as of V a u q u o i s " (1975; V a u q u o i s and Boitet, 1985~ are more c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d to
c l a s s i c a l s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t i c s than is the case w i t h o t h e r M T systems A l s o in Prague, the r e s e a r c h g r o u p of M T and formal
l i n g u i s t i c s at C h a r l e s U n i v e r s i t y has de-
v o t e d m u c h e f f o r t (starting at the end of the 1950"s~ to i d e n t i f y the p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s
of c l a s s i c a l E u r o p e a n l i n g u i s t i c s and to
r e f o r m u l a t e t h e m in a m e t a l a n g u a g e that
w o u l d m a k e t h e m u s a b l e in the c o n t e x t of
C h o m s k y a n (and M o n t a g u e a n ~ m e t h o d o l o g y and
of a u t o m a t e d l a n g u a g e p r o c e s s i n g (now see Sgall et al., 1986~
2 The r e q u i r e m e n t s o n l i n @ u i s t i c t h e o r y
as a b a c k g r o u n d for M T can be s u m m a r i z e d as follows:
(a~ A d e q u a c y : The t h e o r y should u n d e r l i e
r e l a t i v e l y c o m p l e t e d e s c r i p t i o n s r e f l e c t i n g the s t r u c t u r e of language Since h u m a n s dif- fer f r o m c o m p u t e r s (in f r e e l y c o m b i n i n g fac- tual k n o w l e d g e and o t h e r m e n t a l c a p a c i t i e s
w i t h their k n o w l e d g e and use of language, and in b e i n g able to d e v e l o p their l a n g u a g e
w h i l e u s i n g itS, the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n
t h e o r y and its M T a p p l i c a t i o n c a n n o t be im- mediate The o p e n - e n d e d n e s s of language
m a k e s it n e c e s s a r y to r e s t r i c t the c o m p l e t e - ness of the d e s c r i p t i o n to a r e a s o n a b l y
e s t i m a t e d core of language, l e a v i n g the
~ o s s i b l y not too large~ p e r i p h e r y inrthe
a p p l i c a t i o n to p o s t e d i t i n g , etc
Trang 2that t e s t a b i l i t y a l s o is limited: not e v e r y
c o u n t e r e x a m p l e d i s q u a l i f i e s a theory
(c) Economy: To be applicable, the theo-
ry c a n n o t be too complex It seems n e c e s s a r y
to d r a w a b o u n d a r y line b e t w e e n the s y s t e m
of l a n g u a g e o n the one side, and its use or
its semantic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o n the other,
a l t h o u g h in several r e s p e c t s it m a y be use-
ful for the a p p l i c a t i o n s not to f o l l o w this
b o u n d a r y q u i t e exactly
(d) M o d u l a r i t y : Since huge p r o g r a m s are
e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t to be h a n d l e d (debugged,
updated, etc.), p r i o r i t y w i l l be g i v e n to
such a t h e o r y that not o n l y a l l o w s for a
d i v i s i o n of l a b o u r b e t w e e n the d e s c r i p t i o n
of l i n g u i s t i c and c o m m u n i c a t i v e c o m p e t e n c e
- see (c), - but m a k e s also a c o o p e r a t i o n
b e t w e e n s p e c i a l i s t s in the d i f f e r e n t l a y e r s
of l a n g u a g e itself possible
T h e c o m p a r i s o n of d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s
to l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y as to p o i n t (a) is a
m a t t e r of the t h e o r y itself; let us o n l y
n o t e that m a n y t h e o r i e s s e e m not to be suf-
f i c i e n t l y a d e q u a t e in that t h e y do not
p r o p e r l y d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n the three di-
m e n s i o n s of the s e n t e n c e s t r u c t u r e (valency
or t h e t a roles, c o o r d i n a t i o n and a p p o s i t i o n ,
and also topic and focus, w h i c h o f t e n is
a l m o s t a l t o g e t h e r n e g l e c t e d I) and the m o r -
p h o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r i e s (tense, aspect, n u m -
ber, d e f i n i t e n e s s , and so on); the l a t t e r
o c c u p y no i m m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n s in the s t r u c -
ture of the s e n t e n c e w i t h its r e c u r s i v e
properties, and thus it is n o t a d e q u a t e to
d e n o t e e.g p r e p o s i t i o n s as if they p e r -
1
The r e l e v a n c e of the t o p i c - f o c u s ar-
t i c u l a t i o n for t r a n s l a t i o n and for o t h e r
aims of l a n g u a g e c o m p r e h e n s i o n c a n be i l l u s -
trated by the f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s : In the
h a l l w a y one smokes should be d i s t i n g u i s h e d
f r o m One smokes i n t h e h a l l w a y s i m i l a r l y as
F e w b o o k s are read b y m a n y m e n f r o m M a n y
m e n read few books
m i t t e d for u n l i m i t e d c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n , as verbs do
For p o i n t (b) it is i m p o r t a n t that the
t h e o r y uses o p e r a t i o n a l c r i t e r i a in d e l i m - iting its u n i t s and o p p o s i t i o n s , thus re-
p r e s e n t i n g a s u i t a b l e s t a r t i n g p o i n t for
i m p l e m e n t a b l e a p p l i c a t i o n systems
W i t h r e g a r d to (c), the r e l a t i v e g e n e r -
a l i t y of the f o r m u l a t i o n s u s e d b y the the-
o r y is r e l e v a n t ; thus e.g C h o m s k y ' s u n i -
v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e s are r e l a t i v e l y e c o n o m - ical On the o t h e r hand, the a b u n d a n c e of
n o d e s in the P - m a r k e r s (cf w h a t was just said on p o i n t (a)) b r i n g s a l o n g the ne-
c e s s i t y to use tree p r u n i n g and to i n t r o -
d u c e d e v i c e s m a k i n g it p o s s i b l e to find a n
o r i e n t a t i o n in the u n n e c e s s a r i l y large trees
As for (d), it seems p r e f e r a b l e to w o r k
w i t h two l e v e l s of s e n t e n c e s t r u c t u r e and
w i t h a s e p a r a t e level of m o r p h e m i c r e p r e -
s e n t a t i o n s in the theory, a l t h o u g h in the
a p p l i c a t i o n s this p a t t e r n m a y be s i m p l i f i e d (we are then a w a r e w h a t w e have left out e.g in our parser, and are a b l e to r e s t o r e
a m i s s i n g subpart, if this p r o v e s to be
n e c e s s a r y , e.g w h e n the s y s t e m is to be
g e n e r a l i z e d to h a n d l e n e w k i n d s of texts)
A s y s t e m a t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n into c o m p a r - ing d i f f e r e n t l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r i e s f r o m these v i e w p o i n t s has r e s u l t e d in our p r e -
f e r e n c e for d e p e n d e n c y grammar, b a s e d o n
v a l e n c y or t h e t a roles (see Sgall et al.,
1986, for a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n ) A d e p e n d -
e n c y b a s e d l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n is ade-
q u a t e in the q u o t e d r e s p e c t [e.g the m o r -
p h o l o g i c a l v a l u e s are d e n o t e d h e r e by p a r t s
of c o m p l e x n o d e labels); the t h e o r y is ful-
ly t e s t a b l e and uses o p e r a t i o n a l criteria,
a n d it e n s u r e s b o t h e c o n o m y [no n o n - t e r m i - nal symbols are p r e s e n t in the r e p r e s e n t a -
t i o n s a l t h o u g h as man N as n e c e s s a r y can be
u s e d d u r i n g the d e r i v a t i o n procedure) and
m o d u l a r i t y (the u n d e r l y i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
c o n t a i n all the s e m a n t i c a l l y r e l e v a n t in-
Trang 3formation, since a l s o the t o p i c - f o c u s a r -
t i c u l a t i o n is d e n o t e d here)
B l o o m f i e l d ' s °exocentric ° c o n s t r u c t i o n s
are o f t e n m i s t a k e n l y u n d e r s t o o d as an ob-
stacle for d e p e n d e n c y syntax; however, as~
R o b i n s o n (1970):showed, t h e y c a n be h a n v
d l e d w i t h o u t serious d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h i n
d e p e n d e n c y trees Let us add that, if con-
s t r u c t i o n s are a n a l y z e d in the terms of
w o r d c l a s s e s (parts of speech), r a t h e r t h a n
in t h o s e of i n d i v i d u a l words, t h a n the d i s -
t r i b u t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s c l e a r l y s h o w that
e.g your sister is a n o u n g r o u p (since
e.g M o t h e r or s y n t a x o c c u r w i t h o u t a d e t e r -
miner), to hit the ball is a v e r b g r o u p
(due to to r e a d , ) , and a l s o a s e n t e n c e
has a v e r b as its governor, since in I_~t
r a i n s no s u b j e c t (Actor/Bearer) is p r e s e n t
at the level of m e a n i n g (or in the u n d e r -
l y i n g s t r u c t u r e )
A formal t r e a t m e n t c o m b i n i n g d e p e n d e n c y
s y n t a x w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n of c o o r d i n a t i o n
and a p p o s i t i o n , a l l o w i n g for an i n d e f i n i t e
n u m b e r of s i s t e r nodes, w a s p r e s e n t e d b y
P l ~ t e k et al (1984)
As one of the r e f e r r r e s o f o u r p a p e r s has
d u l y recalled, the n u m b e r of p u b l i c a t i o n s
c o n c e r n i n g d e p e n d e n c y g r a m m a r is m u c h
s m a l l e r t h a n t h a t on c o n s t i t u e n t s t r u c t u r e s ,
but the p o p u l a r i t y of the m o d e l is n o t d i -
r e c t l y r e l e v a n t for its e v a l u a t i o n T h e r e -
fore it seems h i g h l y u s e f u l to n o t i c e the
a d v a n t a g e s of the less k n o w n model, a m o r e
i n t e n s i v e u s e of w h i c h m i g h t be of i m p o r -
tance for the f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t of the
field
3 A n i n t e r l i n @ u a for M T c a n w e l l be b a s e d
on such a theory S i n c e t h e 1 9 6 0 " s - see
e g M e l ° ~ u k (1962), V a u q u o i s (1962), Sgall
(1963) - the r e s e a r c h in this d i r e c t i o n has
b e e n c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l i n v e s t i g a -
tions It has b e e n c l e a r that the f o r m u l a -
tion of an i n t e r l i n g u a is a p r a c t i c a l task,
for the u n d e r l y i n g u n i t s d i f f e r f r o m o n e
ture of i n t e r l i n g u a is b a s e d r a t h e r on the
s t r u c t u r a l s i m i l a r i t i e s (formal u n i v e r s a l s )
of l a n g u a g e s t h a n on an a s s u m e d i d e n t i t y
of their u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e s , or t h e i r
p a t t e r n i n g s of m e a n i n g
A s for the k n o w n d i f f i c u l t i e s c o n c e r n i n g e.g the f o r m u l a t i o n of f a i l - s o f t r u l e s or the p r e s e n c e of s u r f a c e c l u e s (see Slocum, 1985,5; V a u q u o i s and Boitet, 1985), it a p -
p e a r s t h a t for a m u l t i l i n g u a l s y s t e m of M T these d i s a d v a n t a g e s have to be c o m p a r e d
w i t h t h o s e p r e s e n t in the large n u m b e r of
b i n a r y s y s t e m s w h i c h are o t h e r w i s e n e c e s s - ary T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the use of an
i n t e r l i n g u a and of a s m a l l e r n u m b e r of
" i n t e r f a c e s " (one for e a c h l a n g u a g e ) a p p e a r s not to be crucial If, for a s y s t e m i n c l u d - ing ~ l a n g u a g e s , m a m o n g t h e m d i s p l a y a
c e r t a i n o p p o s i t i o n (that of dual v e r s u s
p l u r a l number, or of g e n d e r w i t h p e r s o n a l
p r o n o u n s , etc.), then the d e g r e e of impor-
t a n c e of t h i s o p p o s i t i o n for the s y s t e m
d e p e n d & on the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n n and m
a n d on the i m p o r t a n c e of the l a n g u a g e s d i s -
p l a y i n g the o p p o s i t i o n E x t r e m e l y m a r g i n a l
o p p o s i t i o n s w i l l p r o b a b l y be i g n o r e d in a
s y s t e m u s i n g i n t e r f a c e s as w e l l as in one
w i t h an i n t e r l i n g u a In this case, a t r a n s -
l a t i o n b e t w e e n two l a n g u a g e s e x h i b i t i n g the
m a r g i n a l o p p o s i t i o n w i l l be faced w i t h a
s i m i l a r p r o b l e m as a t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m a
" p r o t o t y p i c a l " l a n g u a g e into a "marginal" one (e.g the use of d u a l n u m b e r w i l l be
d e t e r m i n e d - p e r h a p s o n l y for some c a s e s -
by c o n t e x t u a l clues, r a t h e r t h a n by the
p r e s e n c e of d u a l in the input text)
If the r e l a t i v e w e i g h t of such s u r p l u s
d i f f i c u l t i e s (and r e s u l t i n g m i s t a k e s ) is
c o n s i d e r a b l e , t h e n it m a y be u s e f u l to for-
m u l a t e i n t e r f a c e s , p e r h a p s not a l w a y s in a
o n e - t o - o n e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e to the p r o c e s s e d
l a n g u a g e s , but r e l a t i n g to c e r t a i n g r o u p s
of them C e r t a i n " d i a l e c t a l " d i f f e r e n c e s in the i n t e r l i n g u a w o u l d t h e n be useful, e a c h
Trang 4with a g r o u p of the p r o c e s s e d languages
This m a y c o n c e r n the d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n
l a n g u a g e s h a v i n g and not h a v i n g articles,
v e r b a l aspects, v a r i o u s moods, and so on
The s u b s t i t u t i o n of a s i n g l e i n t e r l i n g u a by
a set of c l o s e l y r e l a t e d i n t e r f a c e s t r u c -
tures <see V a u q u o M and Boitet, 1985,32; as
for its a p p l i c a t i o n in the E U R O T R A project,
J o h n s o n e t a l , 1985,164) p e r h a p s is a l s o
i m p o r t a n t w i t h r e g a r d to h a n d l i n g the se-
m a n t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the l e x i c a l
u n i t s of the l a n g u a g e s c o n c e r n e d
T h i s s c h e m a t i c a l v i e w can be s y s t e m a t -
i c a l l y e l a b o r a t e d o n l y o n the b a s i s of ex-
p e r i e n c e w i t h m u l t i l i n g u a l M T systems
4 A not q u i t e n e g l i g i b l e e x p e r i e n c e w i t h
M T systems b a s e d (at least to a g r e a t part~
on d e p e n d e n c y s y n t a x has b e e n g a i n e d a l -
ready T h e G r e n o b l e g r o u p has u s e d a g r a p h
g r a m m a r b a s e d o n this a p p r o a c h w i t h i n a sys-
tem that is m u l t i l i n g u a l , t h o u g h c e n t r e d
arotmd F r e n c h (see V a u q u o i s , 1975; B o i t e t
and N e d o b e j k i n e , 1981; V a u q u o i s and Boitet,
1985,28f); a l t h o u g h in this s y s t e m the d e -
p e n d e n c y r e l a t i o n s are u s e d a l o n g w i t h a
kind of p h r a s e structure, the i m p o r t a n c e
of c o m p l e x node labels and of the s y n t a c t i c
r e l a t i o n s (valency) has a l w a y s b e e n f u l l y
r e c o g n i z e d A l s o N a g a o e t a l (1985,esp.98)
p o i n t out that d e p e n d e n c y tree s t r u c t u r e s
are used in their p r o j e c t (which c e r t a i n l y
b e l o n g s to those w i t h the b e s t t r a d i t i o n s
and results); in the E u r o t r a s y s t e m the d e -
p e n d e n c y r e l a t i o n s and the n o t i o n of "gov
(ernor)" p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e (see e.g
J o h n s o n e t a l , 1985) In Prague, e s p e c i a l l y
the E n g l i s h - t o - C z e c h t r a n s l a t i o n project,
the m a i n a u t h o r of w h i c h is K i r s c h n e r (1982;
1984), is b a s e d on a d e p e n d e n c y d e s c r i p t i o n
5 The p e r s p e c t i v e s of M T s e e m to be c o n -
n e c t e d w i t h two m a j o r c o n d i t i o n s , in a d d i -
tion to the c h o i c e of an a p p r o p r i a t e u n d e r -
lying l i n g u i s t i c theory, w h i c h w e d i s c u s s e d
above:
m a n y l e x i c a l a m b i g u i t i e s and a l s o for the
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of g r a m m a t i c a l l y o b l i g a t o r y
v a l u e s of the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e not p r e s e n t
in the input text, a MT s y s t e m has to in-
c l u d e not o n l y a p u r e l y l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p - tion It has to be found out to w h a t d e - gree the p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s of M T can be
a c h i e v e d b y systems " m o d e l l i n g the w o r l d "
b y such e l e m e n t a r y m e a n s as sets of seman- tic features W h e r e m e a n s of this kind
w i l l be found to be i n s u f f i c i e n t , it is
p r o b a b l e that n e i t h e r d a t a b a s e s of the
c o m m o n types w i l l do It is t h e n n e c e s s a r y
to look for s u i t a b l e k i n d s of k n o w l e d g e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n systems
(b) T h e m a i n p e r s p e c t i v e a p p e a r s to be
c o n n e c t e d w i t h the h o p e that a w i d e r p r a c - tical a p p l i c a t i o n of M T will lead to a n e w situation, in w h i c h the c o n s t r u c t i o n of M T systems w i l l no l o n g e r be a m a t t e r of small r e s e a r c h g r o u p s s c a t t e r e d and m o r e
or less i s o l a t e d i n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s ,
b u t there w i l l e m e r g e l a r g e - s c a l e and w e l l -
- c o o r d i n a t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t s b a s e d
o n the b e s t r e s u l t s a c h i e v e d and v e r i f i e d
by w i d e s p r e a d p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n U n d e r such n e w c i r c u m s t a n c e s it w i l l be p o s s i b l e not o n l y to c o m p i l e g r a m m a t i c a l l y w e l l
f o u n d e d d a t a o n tens o f t h o u s a n d s of lexi- cal u n i t s f r o m d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s , but
a l s o to c o n n e c t t r a n s l a t i o n s y s t e m s in an
e f f e c t i v e w a y w i t h b r o a d l y b a s e d nets of
k n o w l e d g e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n E f f e c t i v e w a y s
of h u m a n - m a c h i n e i n t e r a c t i o n can t h e n be found, and the f o r m u l a t i o n of a p p r o p r i a t e
i n t e r m e d i a t e l a n g u a g ~ w i l l m e e t good con- ditions P o s t - e d i t i n g w i l l c e r t a i n l y re~
m a i n n e c e s s a r y , the m a i n c o n d i t i o n b e i n g
t h a t it s h o u l d n o t be m u c h m o r e d i f f i c u l t than it is w i t h h u m a n t r a n s l a t i o n s of
t e c h n i c a l texts (although o t h e r k i n d s of
m i s t a k e s w i l l p r e v a i l )
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