Kimmo K o s k e n n i e m i
D e p a r t m e n t of G e n e r a l L i n g u i s t i c s
U n i v e r i s t y of H e l s i n k i
H a l l i t u s k a t u 11-13, H e l s i n k i 10, F i n l a n d
A B S T R A C T
A l a n g u a g e i n d e p e n d e n t m o d e l f o r
r e c o g n i t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n of w o r d f o r m s
is p r e s e n t e d T h i s " t w o - l e v e l m o d e l " is
b a s e d on a n e w w a y of d e s c r i b i n g m o r p h o -
logical alternations All rules d e s c r i b i n g
the m o r p h o p h o n o l o g i c a l v a r i a t i o n s are par-
a l l e l and r e l a t i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t of e a c h
other I n d i v i d u a l rules are i m p l e m e n t e d as
f i n i t e s t a t e a u t o m a t a , as in an e a r l i e r
m o d e l d u e to M a r t i n K a y a n d R o n K a p l a n
The t w o - l e v e l m o d e l has been i m p l e m e n t e d
as an o p e r a t i o n a l c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s in
s e v e r a l p l a c e s A n u m b e r of o p e r a t i o n a l
t w o - l e v e l d e s c r i p t i o n s have been w r i t t e n
or are in p r o g r e s s ( F i n n i s h , E n g l i s h ,
J a p a n e s e , R u m a n i a n , F r e n c h , S w e d i s h , O l d
C h u r c h S l a v o n i c , G r e e k , L a p p i s h , A r a b i c ,
Icelandic) The model is b i d i r e c t i o n a l and
it is c a p a b l e of b o t h a n a l y z i n g and s y n -
thesizing word-forms
I G e n e r a t i v e p h o n o l o g y
The f o r m a l i s m of g e n e r a t i v e p h o n o l o g y
has b e e n w i d e l y u s e d s i n c e its i n t r o d u c -
t i o n in the 1960's T h e m o r p h o l o g y of a n y
language may be d e s c r i b e d w i t h the f o r m a l -
i s m by c o n s t r u c t i n g a set of r e w r i t i n g
rules The rules start from an u n d e r l y i n g
l e x i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , and t r a n s f o r m it
step by step until the surface r e p r e s e n t a -
tion is reached
The g e n e r a t i v e f o r m a l i s m is unidirec-
t i o n a l and it has p r o v e n to be c o m p u t a -
t i o n a l l y d i f f i c u l t , and t h e r e f o r e it has
found little use in p r a c t i c a l m o r p h o l o g i -
cal programs
2 T h e m o d e l of K a y a n d K a p l a n
M a r t i n Kay and Ron Kaplan from Xerox
P A R C n o t i c e d that e a c h of the g e n e r a t i v e
r e w r i t i n g r u l e s can be r e p r e s e n t e d by a
f i n i t e s t a t e a u t o m a t o n (or t r a n s d u c e r )
(Kay 1982) S u c h an a u t o m a t o n w o u l d c o m -
pare two successive levels of the genera-
tive f r a m e w o r k : the l e v e l i m m e d i a t e l y
T h e w o r k d e s c r i b e d in this p a p e r is a p a r t
of the p r o j e c t 593 sponsored by the A c a d e -
my of Finland
b e f o r e a p p l i c a t i o n of the rule, and the
l e v e l a f t e r a p p l i c a t i o n of the rule T h e
w h o l e m o r p h o l o g i c a l g r a m m a r w o u l d then be
a c a s c a d e of such levels and automata:
l e x i c a l
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
IFSA II
t
after ist rule
t
after 2nd rule
!
t
after (n-1)st rule
surface
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
A c a s c a d e of a u t o m a t a is n o t o p e r a -
t i o n a l as such, b u t K a y and K a p l a n n o t e d
t h a t the a u t o m a t a c o u l d be m e r g e d i n t o a
s i n g l e , l a r g e r a u t o m a t o n by u s i n g the
t e c h n i q u e s of a u t o m a t a t h e o r y T h e l a r g e
a u t o m a t o n w o u l d be f u n c t i o n a l l y identical
to the c a s c a d e , a l t h o u g h s i n g l e r u l e s could no more be identified w i t h i n it The
m e r g e d a u t o m a t o n w o u l d be both o p e r a t i o n -
al, e f f i c i e n t and b i d i r e c t i o n a l G i v e n a
l e x i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , it w o u l d p r o d u c e the surface form, and, vice versa, g i v e n a surface form it w o u l d guide lexical search and locate the a p p r o p r i a t e e n d i n g s in the lexicon
In p r i n c i p l e , t h e a p p r o a c h s e e m s ideal But there is one vital problem: the size of the m e r g e d automaton D e s c r i p t i o n s
of l a n g u a g e s w i t h c o m p l e x m o r p h o l o g y , such
as F i n n i s h , s e e m to r e s u l t in v e r y l a r g e
m e r g e d a u t o m a t a A l t h o u g h t h e r e are no
c o n c l u s i v e n u m e r i c a l e s t i m a t e s yet, it
s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t the s i z e m a y g r o w
p r o h i b i t i v e l y large
3 The t w o - l e v e l a p p r o a c h
M y a p p r o a c h is c o m p u t a t i o n a l l y close
to that of Kay and Kaplan, but it is based
on a d i f f e r e n t m o r p h o l o g i c a l t h e o r y In-
Trang 2l i n e s of c o n c r e t e or n a t u r a l m o r p h o l o g y
(e.g L i n e l l , J a c k e n d o f f , Zager, D r e s s l e r ,
W u r z e l ) U s i n g t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e o r i e n t a -
t i o n I a r r i v e at a t h e o r y , w h e r e t h e r e is
no n e e d for m e r g i n g the a u t o m a t a in o r d e r
to r e a c h an o p e r a t i o n a l system
T h e t w o - l e v e l m o d e l r e j e c t s a b s t r a c t
l e x i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , i.e t h e r e n e e d
n o t a l w a y s be a s i n g l e i n v a r i a n t u n d e r -
l y i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n S o m e v a r i a t i o n s are
c o n s i d e r e d s u p p l e t i o n - l i k e a n d a r e n o t
d e s c r i b e d w i t h rules T h e role of r u l e s is
r e s t r i c t e d to o n e - s e g m e n t v a r i a t i o n s ,
w h i c h a r e f a i r l y n a t u r a l A l t e r n a t i o n s
w h i c h a f f e c t m o r e t h a n o n e s e g m e n t , or
w h e r e t h e a l t e r n a t i n g s e g m e n t s a r e u n r e -
lated, are c o n s i d e r e d s u p p l e t i o n - l i k e and
h a n d l e d by the l e x i c o n system
4 T w o - l e v e l r u l e s
T h e r e are o n l y t w o r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s in
the t w o - l e v e l model: the l e x i c a l r e p r e s e n -
t a t i o n and the s u r f a c e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n N o
i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a g e s "exist", e v e n in p r i n -
c i p l e T o d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s , w e t a k e a n
e x a m p l e f r o m F i n n i s h m o r p h o l o g y T h e n o u n
l a s i 'glass' r e p r e s e n t s the p r o d u c t i v e and
m o s t c o m m o n t y p e of n o u n s e n d i n g in i T h e
l e x i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e p a r t i t i v e
p l u r a l f o r m c o n s i s t s of the s t e m l a s i , the
p l u r a l m o r p h e m e I, and the p a r t i t i v e e n d -
ing A In the t w o - l e v e l f r a m e w o r k we w r i t e
t h e l e x i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n l a s i I A a b o v e
the s u r f a c e f o r m laseja:
L e x i c a l
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n : 1 a s i I A
S u r f a c e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n : 1 a s e j a
T h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n e x h i b i t s t h r e e m o r p h o -
p h o n o l o g i c a l v a r i a t i o n s :
a) S t e m f i n a l i is r e a l i z e d as e in
f r o n t of t y p i c a l p l u r a l f o r m s , i.e w h e n I
f o l l o w s o n t h e l e x i c a l l e v e l , s c h e m a t i -
b) T h e p l u r a l I i t s e l f is r e a l i z e d a s j
if it o c c u r s b e t w e e n v o w e l s o n t h e s u r -
face, s c h e m a t i c a l l y :
V V
c) T h e p a r t i t i v e e n d i n g , l i k e o t h e r e n d -
ings, a g r e e s w i t h the s t e m w i t h r e s p e c t to
v o w e l h a r m o n y A n a r c h i p h o n e m e A is u s e d
i n s t e a d of t w o d i s t i n c t p a r t i t i v e endings
It is r e a l i z e d as ~ or a a c c o r d i n g to t h e
h a r m o n i c v a l u e of the stem, s c h e m a t i c a l l y :
s p e c i f y h o w l e x i c a l a n d s u r f a c e r e p r e s e n -
t a t i o n s m a y c o r r e s p o n d to e a c h other For
e a c h l e x i c a l s e g m e n t o n e m u s t d e f i n e t h e
v a r i o u s p o s s i b l e s u r f a c e r e a l i z a t i o n s T h e rule c o m p o n e n t s h o u l d s t a t e the n e c e s s a r y and s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n s for e a c h a l t e r - native A r u l e f o r m a l i s m has b e e n d e s i g n e d for e x p r e s s i n g s u c h s t a t e m e n t s
A t y p i c a l t w o - l e v e l rule s t a t e s that
a l e x i c a l s e g m e n t m a y be r e a l i z e d in a
c e r t a i n w a y if a n d o n l y i f a c o n t e x t c o n -
d i t i o n is m e t T h e a l t e r n a t i o n (i) in t h e
a b o v e e x a m p l e c a n be e x p r e s s e d as t h e
f o l l o w i n g t w o - l e v e l rule:
T h i s r u l e s t a t e s t h a t a l e x i c a l i m a y be
r e a l i z e d a s a n e o n l y i f it is f o l l o w e d b y
a p l u r a l I, a n d if w e h a v e a l e x i c a l i in
s u c h a n e n v i r o n m e n t , it m u s t be r e a l i z e d
a s e (and as n o t h i n g e l s e ) B o t h s t a t e -
m e n t s a r e needed: the f o r m e r to e x l u d e i-e
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s o c c u r r i n g e l s e w h e r e , a n d
t h e l a t t e r to p r e v e n t t h e d e f a u l t i - i
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e in this context
R u l e (i') r e f e r r e d t o a l e x i c a l s e g -
m e n t I, a n d it d i d n o t m a t t e r w h a t w a s t h e
s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g to it ( t h u s t h e p a i r I - = ) T h e f o l l o w i n g r u l e
g o v e r n s the r e a l i z a t i o n of I:
< ° > v - - - v
T h i s rule r e q u i r e s t h a t the p l u r a l I m u s t
be b e t w e e n v o w e l s on the surface B e c a u s e
c e r t a i n s t e m f i n a l v o w e l s are r e a l i z e d as
z e r o in f r o n t of p l u r a l I, t h e g e n e r a t i v e
p h o n o l o g y o r d e r s t h e r u l e f o r p l u r a l I to
be a p p l i e d a f t e r the r u l e s for s t e m f i n a l
v o w e l s In t h e t w o - l e v e l f r a m e w o r k t h e r e
is n o s u c h o r d e r i n g T h e r u l e s o n l y s t a t e
a s t a t i c c o r r e s p o n d e n c e r e l a t i o n , and t h e y are n o n d i r e c t i o n a l and p a r a l l e l
5 R u l e s as a u t o m a t a
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g w e c o n s t r u c t a n
a u t o m a t o n w h i c h p e r f o r m s t h e c h e c k i n g
n e e d e d f o r t h e i - e a l t e r n a t i o n d i s c u s s e d
a b o v e I n s t e a d of s i n g l e c h a r a c t e r s , t h e
a u t o m a t o n a c c e p t s c h a r a c t e r p a i r s T h i s
a u t o m a t o n (and t h e a u t o m a t a f o r o t h e r rules) m u s t a c c e p t the f o l l o w i n g s e q u e n c e
of pairs:
i-I, a-a, s-s, i-e, I-j, A - a
T h e t a s k of the r u l e - a u t o m a t o n is to
p e r m i t t h e p a i r i - e if a n d o n l y if t h e
p l u r a l I f o l l o w s T h e f o l l o w i n g a u t o m a t o n
w i t h t h r e e s t a t e s (I, 2, 3) p e r f o r m s this:
Trang 3(i")
S t a t e 1 is t h e i n i t i a l s t a t e of t h e a u t o m -
aton If t h e a u t o m a t o n r e c e i v e s p a i r s
w i t h o u t l e x i c a l i it w i l l r e m a i n in s t a t e
1 ( t h e s y m b o l = - = d e n o t e s " a n y o t h e r
pair") R e c e i v i n g a p a i r i - e c a u s e s a
t r a n s i t i o n to s t a t e 3 S t a t e s 1 a n d 2 a r e
f i n a l s t a t e s (denoted by d o u b l e circles),
i.e if the a u t o m a t o n is in one of t h e m at
t h e e n d of t h e i n p u t , t h e a u t o m a t o n a c -
c e p t s t h e i n p u t S t a t e 3 is, h o w e v e r , a
n o n f i n a l s t a t e , a n d t h e a u t o m a t o n s h o u l d
l e a v e it b e f o r e t h e i n p u t e n d s (or e l s e
t h e i n p u t is r e j e c t e d ) If t h e n e x t c h a r -
a c t e r p a i r h a s p l u r a l I a s i t s l e x i c a l
c h a r a c t e r ( w h i c h is d e n o t e d b Y I-=), t h e
a u t o m a t o n r e t u r n s to s t a t e 1 A n y o t h e r
p a i r w i l l c a u s e t h e i n p u t to be r e j e c t e d
b e c a u s e there is no a p p r o p r i a t e t r a n s i t i o n
arc T h i s p a r t of t h e a u t o m a t o n a c c o m -
p l i s h e s t h e " o n l y if" p a r t of t h e c o r r e -
s p o n d e n c e : the pair i-e is a l l o w e d o n l y if
it is f o l l o w e d by the p l u r a l I
T h e s t a t e 2 is n e e d e d f o r t h e "if"
part If a l e x i c a l i is f o l l o w e d by p l u r a l
I, w e m u s t h a v e t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i-e
Thus, if we e n c o u n t e r a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of
l e x i c a l i o t h e r than i-e (i-=) it m u s t not
be f o l l o w e d by the p l u r a l I A n y t h i n g e l s e
(=-=) w i l l r e t u r n t h e a u t o m a t o n to s t a t e
i
E a c h rule of a t w o - l e v e l d e s c r i p t i o n
m o d e l c o r r e s p o n d s to a f i n i t e s t a t e a u t o m -
a t o n as in the m o d e l of K a y and Kaplan In
t h e t w o - l e v e l m o d e l t h e r u l e s or t h e a u -
t o m a t a o p e r a t e , h o w e v e r , in p a r a l l e l i n -
s t e a d of b e i n g c a s c a d e d :
L e x i c a l
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
T h e r u l e - a u t o m a t a c o m p a r e the t w o r e p r e -
s e n t a t i o n s , a n d a c o n f i g u r a t i o n m u s t be
a c c e p t e d b y e a c h of t h e m in o r d e r to be
valid
T h e t w o - l e v e l m o d e l (and the p r o g r a m )
o p e r a t e s in b o t h d i r e c t i o n s : t h e s a m e
d e s c r i p t i o n is u t i l i z e d as s u c h for p r o -
d u c i n g s u r f a c e w o r d - f o r m s f r o m l e x i c a l
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , and for a n a l y z i n g s u r f a c e
forms
As it s t a n d s now, t w o - l e v e l p r o g r a m s
r e a d t h e r u l e s as t a b u l a r a u t o m a t a , e.g
the a u t o m a t o n (i") is c o d e d as:
= e = =
T h i s e n t r y f o r m a t is, in f a c t , m o r e p r a c -
t i c a l t h a n the s t a t e t r a n s i t i o n d i a g r a m s
T h e t a b u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n r e m a i n s m o r e
r e a d a b l e e v e n w h e n t h e r e are half a d o z e n
s t a t e s or m o r e It h a s a l s o p r o v e n to be
q u i t e f e a s i b l e e v e n for t h o s e w h o are lin-
g u i s t s r a t h e r t h a n c o m p u t e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s
A l t h o u g h it is f e a s i b l e t o w r i t e
m o r p h o l o g i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n s d i r e c t l y as
a u t o m a t a , this is far f r o m ideal T h e t w o -
l e v e l rule f o r m a l i s m is a m u c h m o r e r e a d -
a b l e w a y of d o c u m e n t i n g t w o - l e v e l d e s c r i p - tions, e v e n if h a n d c o m p i l e d a u t o m a t a are
u s e d in the a c t u a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n A c o m -
p i l e r w h i c h w o u l d a c c e p t r u l e s d i r e c t l y in
s o m e t w o - l e v e l r u l e f o r m a l i s m w o u l d be of
g r e a t value T h e c o m p i l e r c o u l d a u t o m a t i -
c a l l y t r a n s f o r m t h e r u l e s i n t o f i n i t e
s t a t e a u t o m a t a , a n d t h u s f a c i l i t a t e t h e
c r e a t i o n of n e w d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d f u r t h e r
d e v e l o p m e n t of e x i s t i n g ones
5 T w o - l e v e l l e x i c o n s y s t e m
S i n g l e t w o - l e v e l r u l e s a r e at l e a s t
as p o w e r f u l as s i n g l e r u l e s of g e n e r a t i v e
p h o n o l o g y T h e t w o - l e v e l rule c o m p o n e n t as
a w h o l e (at l e a s t in p r a c t i c a l d e s c r i p -
t i o n s ) a p p e a r s to be l e s s p o w e r f u l , b e -
c a u s e of the lack of e x t r i n s i c rule o r d e r - ing
V a r i a t i o n s a f f e c t i n g l o n g e r s e q u e n c e s
of p h o n e m e s , or w h e r e the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the a l t e r n a t i v e s is p h o n o l o g i c a l l y o t h e r -
w i s e n o n n a t u r a l , a r e d e s c r i b e d b y g i v i n g
d i s t i n c t l e x i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s G e n e r a l -
i z a t i o n s are not l o s t s i n c e i n s o f a r as the
v a r i a t i o n p e r t a i n s to m a n y l e x e m e s , t h e
a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e g i v e n as a m i n i l e x i c o n
r e f e r r e d to by all e n t r i e s p o s s e s s i n g the
s a m e a l t e r n a t i o n
T h e a l t e r n a t i o n in w o r d s of the fol-
l o w i n g t y p e s are d e s c r i b e d u s i n g the m i n i -
l e x i c o n m e t h o d :
h e v o n e n - h e v o s e n 'horse'
v a p a u s - v a p a u t e n a
T h e l e x i c a l e n t r i e s of s u c h w o r d s g i v e s
o n l y t h e n o n v a r y i n g p a r t of t h e s t e m a n d
r e f e r s to a c o m m o n a l t e r n a t i o n p a t t e r n
n e n / S or s - t - k s / S :
h e v o n e n / S " H o r s e S";
v a p a u s - t - k s / S " F r e e d o m S";
T h e m i n i l e x i c o n s for the a l t e r n a t i o n p a t -
Trang 4terns list the a l t e r n a t i v e lexical repre-
s e n t a t i o n s and a s s o c i a t e t h e m w i t h the
a p p r o p r i a t e sets of endings:
L E X I C O N nen/S
L E X I C O N s-t-ks/S
nen S 0 "" ;
sE S123 " "
s $0 "" ;
TE S13 "";
ksE $2 ""
6 C u r r e n t status
The t w o - l e v e l p r o g r a m has been imple-
m e n t e d f i r s t in P A S C A L l a n g u a g e and is
r u n n i n g at l e a s t on the B u r r o u g h s B 7 8 0 0 ,
DEC-20, and large IBM systems The p r o g r a m
is f u l l y o p e r a t i o n a l and r e a s o n a b l y f a s t
(about 0.05 C P U s e c o n d s per w o r d a l t h o u g h
h a r d l y a n y e f f o r t has b e e n s p e n t to o p t i -
m i z e the e x e c u t i o n speed) It c o u l d be
u s e d run on 128 kB m i c r o - c o m p u t e r e s as
well Lauri K a r t t u n e n and his students at
the U n i v e r s i t y of T e x a s h a v e i m p l e m e n t e d
the m o d e l in I N T E R L I S P ( K a r t t u n e n 1983,
G a j e k & al 1983, K h a n & al 1983) T h e
e x e c u t i o n s p e e d of t h e i r v e r s i o n is c o m -
parable to that of the PASCAL version The
t w o - l e v e l model has also been r e w r i t t e n in
Z e t a l i s p (Ken C h u r c h at Bell) and in N I L
(Hank B r o m l e y in Helsinki and Ume~)
The m o d e l has been tested by w r i t i n g
a c o m p r e h e n s i v e d e s c r i p t i o n of F i n n i s h
m o r p h o l o g y c o v e r i n g all t y p e s of n o m i n a l
and verbal inflection including c o m p o u n d -
ing (Koskenniemi, 1983a,b) K a r t t u n e n and
his students have m a d e t w o - l e v e l d e s c r i p -
t i o n s of J a p a n e s e , R u m a n i a n , E n g l i s h and
F r e n c h (see a r t i c l e s in T L F 22) At the
U n i v e r s i t y of Helsinki, two c o m p r e h e n s i v e
d e s c r i p t i o n s h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e d : one of
S w e d i s h by O l l i B l ~ b e r g (1984) and one of
O l d C h u r c h S l a v o n i c by J o u k o L i n d s t e d t
(forthcoming) Further work is in p r o g r e s s
in H e l s i n k i for m a k i n g d e s c r i p t i o n s for
A r a b i c ( J a a k k o H ~ m e e n - A n t t i l a ) and for
M o d e r n Greek (Martti Nyman) The s y s t e m is
a l s o u s e d the U n i v e r s i t y of O u l u , w h e r e a
d e s c r i p t i o n for L a p p i s h is in p r o g r e s s
(Pekka S a m m a l l a h t i ) , in U p p s a l a , w h e r e a
more c o m p r e h e n s i v e F r e n c h d e s c r i p t i o n is
in p r o g r e s s (Anette Ostling), and in Goth-
enburg
The t w o - l e v e l m o d e l could be part of
a n y n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m
E s p e c i a l l y the a b i l i t y both to analyze and
to g e n e r a t e is u s e f u l S y s t e m s d e a l i n g
w i t h m a n y l a n g u a g e s , s u c h as m a c h i n e
t r a n s l a t i o n s y s t e m s , c o u l d b e n e f i t f r o m
the u n i f o r m l a n g u a g e - i n d e p e n d e n t f o r m a l -
ism The a c c u r a c y of i n f o r m a t i o n retrieval
s y s t e m s can be e n h a n c e d by using the two-
level m o d e l for d i s c a r d i n g hits w h i c h are
not t r u e i n f l e c t e d f o r m s of the s e a r c h
key T h e a l g o r i t h m c o u l d be a l s o u s e d for
d e t e c t i n g spelling errors
M y s i n c e r e t h a n k s are d u e to m y in- structor, p r o f e s s o r Fred Karlsson, and to
M a r t i n Kay, Ron Kaplan and Lauri K a r t t u n e n for fruitful ideas and for a c q u a i n t i n g me with their research
R E F E R E N C E S
Alam, Y., 1983 A T w o - L e v e l M o r p h o l o g i c a l
A n a l y s i s of Japanese In TLF 22
B l ~ b e r g , O., 1984 S v e n s k b ~ j n i n g s m o r f o -
l o g i : e n t i l l ~ m p n i n g a v t v ~ n i v ~ - modellen U n p u b l i s h e d seminar paper
D e p a r t m e n t of G e n e r a l L i n g u i s t i c s ,
U n i v e r s i t y of Helsinki
G a j e k , O., H B e c k , D E l d e r , and G W h i t - remote, 1983 KIMMO: LISP I m p l e m e n t a - tion In T L F 22
K a r l s s o n , F & K o s k e n n i e m i , K., f o r t h - coming A p r o c e s s m o d e l of m o r p h o l o g y and lexicon Folia Linguistica
K a r t t u n e n , L., 1983 K I M M O : A G e n e r a l
M o r p h o l o g i c a l Processor In TLF 22
K a r t t u n e n , L & R o o t , R & U s z k o r e i t , H.,
1981 TEXFIN: M o r p h o l o g i c a l analysis
of F i n n i s h by c o m p u t e r A p a p e r r e a d
at 7 1 s t M e e t i n g of the S A S S , A l b u - querque, N e w Mexico
K a r t t u n e n , L & W i t t e n b u r g , K., 1983 A
T w o - L e v e l M o r p h o l o g i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n
of E n g l i s h In T L F 22
Kay, M., 1982 W h e n m e t a - r u l e s are n o t
m e t a - r u l e s In S p a r c k - J o n e s & W i l k s (eds.) A u t o m a t i c n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e processing U n i v e r s i t y of Essex, Cog- nitive S t u d i e s Centre (CSM-10.) Khan, R., 1983 A T w o - L e v e l M o r p h o l o g i c a l
A n a l y s i s of Rumanian In TLF 22 Khan, R & Liu, J & Ito, T & S h u l d b e r g , K., 1983 K I M M O U s e r ' s M a n u a l In T L F
22
K o s k e n n i e m i , K., 1983a T w o - l e v e l M o d e l for M o r p h o l o g i c a l Analysis P r o c e e d - ings of IJCAI-83, pp 683-685
-, 1983b T w o - l e v e l M o r p h o l o g y : A Gen-
e r a l C o m p u t a t i o n a l M o d e l for W o r d -
F o r m R e c o g n i t i o n and Production Uni-
v e r s i t y of Helsinki, Dept of G e n e r a l
L i n g u i s t i c s , P u b l i c a t i o n s , No ii
L i n d s t e d t , J., f o r t h c o m i n g A t w o - l e v e l
d e s c r i p t i o n of O l d C h u r c h S l a v o n i c morphology Scando-Slavica
Lun, S., 1983 A T w o - L e v e l A n a l y s i s of
F r e n c h In T L F 22
TLF: T e x a s L i n g u i s t i c F o r u m D e p a r t m e n t
of L i n g u i s t i c s , U n i v e r s i t y of Texas, Austin, TX 78712