VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY HOANG VU DUONG THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRAINING PERCEPTION AND EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT: IMPACTS OF PERCEPTION OF REWARD AND SELF-E
INTRODUCTION
Research motivation
Employee engagement is increasingly recognized as a crucial factor that directly enhances both employee and organizational performance In his 2004 book, “The New Rules of Engagement,” Mike Johnson emphasized that “the ability to engage employees, to make them work with our business, is going to be one of the greatest organizational battles of the coming 10 years,” highlighting its future significance Subsequent academic studies and industry reports have consistently underscored employee engagement as a key driver of positive business outcomes An article titled “Why Employee Engagement?” explores how active employee involvement can lead to improved productivity, loyalty, and overall company success.
According to a 2012 Forbes article by Kruse, 28 academic studies reveal strong correlations between employee engagement and key business outcomes such as service quality, sales, safety, retention, profitability, and shareholder returns Singh (2016) emphasized that employee engagement has become a critical focus in the corporate world, highlighting that organizations need highly motivated, dedicated, and involved employees to build loyal customer relationships and sustain success Recent research shows that organizations and researchers are extensively studying employee engagement to better understand and leverage its benefits for improved business results However, a Gallup report from 2017 indicated that only 15% of employees worldwide are engaged at work, revealing significant opportunities to enhance employee engagement levels for better organizational outcomes.
Employees are the most valuable asset to organizations, making it essential for companies to enhance employee performance through targeted training activities Effective training is a crucial component of organizational management, contributing to improved productivity and overall success Investing in employee development through various training programs helps organizations adapt to changing market demands and foster a skilled, motivated workforce.
Organizations can enhance employee engagement through targeted strategies, such as comprehensive training and development programs According to annual reports by the Society of Human Resources Management, employee satisfaction and engagement are influenced by various factors, with training and development being a key contributor However, despite its proven impact in numerous studies, investment in training has declined over recent years, ranking lowest among engagement drivers (SHRM, 2015-2017) Prioritizing effective training initiatives can significantly boost employee engagement and overall organizational performance.
These indications suggest the need to have a deeper look at such relationship and become the significant motivations for conducting this study.
Research objectives
This research aims to examine the relationship between employee training and employee engagement within Vietnam’s current business environment According to a 2010 report by Towers Watson, employee engagement in Vietnam remained steady at around 78% from 2007 to 2010, slightly higher than the Asia-Pacific region, influenced by management systems, company image perceptions, performance evaluations, empowerment, and sophistication However, Brands Vietnam reported a decline in engagement to approximately 70% in 2017, down from previous years, indicating a significant decrease that raises concerns for organizations in Vietnam Despite still comparing favorably to global and regional levels, this downward trend highlights the need for companies to focus on improving employee engagement Leveraging opportunities in employee training and talent management can help Vietnamese organizations enhance engagement and strengthen business performance.
This article explores the crucial relationship between employee training and employee engagement, emphasizing their interconnected roles in effective Human Resources Management (HRM) Drawing on practical insights and prior academic research, the study highlights how comprehensive training programs can foster higher levels of engagement among employees By understanding this link, organizations can implement targeted HR strategies that enhance workforce development and improve overall organizational performance.
3 to propose suggestions to improve the level of engagement for organizations in
Vietnam, hence enrich the outcomes and performance for those companies.
Research scope and objects
This study focuses on employees in Vietnam with work experience who have participated in organizational training activities It emphasizes the psychological and behavioral aspects of employee engagement, highlighting the importance of understanding employees' perceptions and satisfaction regarding training programs The research explores how employees' self-efficacy and perceptions of organizational rewards influence their level of engagement By analyzing these factors, the study aims to uncover the relationships between training, perceived rewards, self-efficacy, and overall employee engagement, providing valuable insights for enhancing workforce motivation and organizational development.
It will be discussed further on the next Chapter.
The structure of the paper
This article begins with an introductory chapter that outlines the purpose and scope of the study It is followed by four comprehensive chapters covering literature review, research methodology, data collection and analysis, and finally, the findings and conclusions Each chapter is designed to build upon the previous one, providing a clear and logical progression of the research process The literature review discusses existing studies and identifies research gaps, while the methodology chapter details the methods used to gather and analyze data The data collection and analysis chapter presents the results of the research, culminating in the final chapter that summarizes key findings and offers concluding insights This structured approach ensures a thorough exploration of the research topic aligned with SEO best practices.
Chapter 1 discusses about the introduction with research motivation, research objectives, scope and objects
Chapter 2 reviews and summarizes the previous papers which related to the variables in this study, as well as proposes research questions and hypotheses
Chapter 3 provides information about the approach method, research model and method of collecting data
Chapter 4 discusses the data analysis, and summarizes the results of the study
Chapter 5 concludes the work with the discussion about findings Besides, this chapter also states the limitation and suggestions for future studies
LITERATURE REVIEW
Employee engagement
Employee engagement remains a controversial and evolving concept after nearly three decades of research and development Despite extensive study, there is no single, universally accepted definition, as interpretations of the term vary based on individual perspectives of researchers and organizations.
The concept of "engagement" was first introduced by Kahn in 1990, who defined it as the process of harnessing organizational members' selves to their work roles, where individuals physically, cognitively, and emotionally express themselves during role performance Kahn emphasized that engaged employees can simultaneously reflect their true selves while fulfilling role requirements, highlighting the importance of meaningfulness, psychological safety, and psychological availability as key psychological conditions that influence engagement (May et al., 2004; Rich et al., 2010).
Employee engagement has evolved through various definitions since its conceptualization, remaining a subject of debate among researchers and organizations In the same year as Schaufeli’s development of the UWES, Harter et al introduced a widely recognized framework based on Gallup’s research, defining employee engagement as “an individual’s involvement and satisfaction with as well as enthusiasm for work.” This definition has become one of the most cited references in practitioner literature, emphasizing its significance in understanding employee commitment and motivation.
2017) Saks argued to determine engagement as ‘a unique construct of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components… associated with individual role performance’ (Saks, 2006) In 2008, Macey and Schneider proposed a complicated taxonomy of
Employee engagement is considered a desirable condition with organizational purpose, encompassing involvement, commitment, passion, enthusiasm, focused effort, and energy, reflecting both attitudinal and behavioral components Most definitions emphasize the psychological and behavioral aspects of engagement at the individual level Additionally, the social dimension of engagement involves a sense of connectedness with colleagues or others encountered through the work role, highlighting the importance of social relationships in fostering engagement (Kahn, 1990; Shuck and Wollard).
2010) (Soane et al., 2012) For example, Saks claimed that relationships with supervisors can be antecedents of engagement (Saks, 2006; cited by Soane et al.,
Social engagement in the workplace had not been clearly defined or measured until Soane et al.'s 2012 study, which identified it as a vital facet of employee engagement According to their research, employee engagement comprises three key components: Intellectual Engagement, referring to being deeply absorbed in work; Affective Engagement, involving positive feelings related to one’s role; and Social Engagement, which is about being socially connected with colleagues and sharing common values Understanding these three facets is essential for fostering a comprehensive understanding of employee engagement.
This article explores the concept of employee engagement as a multifaceted construct that encompasses individual psychological, social, values, and behavioral dimensions Drawing on Soane et al.'s definition, employee engagement is considered a collective of these three interrelated facets Moving forward, the term "employee engagement" will be understood to include these comprehensive components, emphasizing its complex and integrated nature within organizational contexts.
Research on engagement has identified key psychological conditions that influence employee involvement at work In 1990, Kahn emphasized three critical factors—meaningfulness, safety, and availability—that explain why individuals engage or disengage in their roles These conditions are essential for understanding how employees bring their full selves to work and how they decide to withdraw from their responsibilities.
Kahn (1990) initially conceptualized employee engagement around the psychological aspects of human beings, emphasizing the importance of internal motivation and mental presence at work In 1992, he expanded his theoretical framework to include the concept of psychological presence, which encompasses dimensions such as attentiveness, connectedness, integration, and focus These dimensions significantly influence personal engagement, highlighting the complex interplay between an individual's mental state and their level of involvement in work tasks (Michelle R Simpson, 2009).
Kahn's 1992 theory identifies that psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety, and availability are influenced by work elements, social systems, and personal distractions, which in turn affect personal engagement, performance quality, and productivity When employees perceive their work as meaningful, feel safe, and have access to necessary resources both externally and internally, they become "fully present" and highly engaged Building on Kahn’s foundation, May et al (2004) developed an individual engagement model that explores these psychological conditions alongside determinants such as job enrichment, interpersonal relationships, self-awareness, and available resources, highlighting critical factors that foster deeper employee engagement at work.
Research by Maslach and Leiter (1997) highlights that burnout and engagement mediate the relationship between organizational context, including the six areas of work life, and employees' perceptions of organizational change Building on this, subsequent studies, such as those by Laschinger, Finegan, and Simpson, have explored how empowerment influences burnout and work engagement, revealing that these factors are interconnected through various work life domains Additionally, research indicates that burnout partially mediates the relationship between work life factors and adverse workplace events, emphasizing its critical role in organizational dynamics These findings collectively deepen our understanding of how burnout and engagement impact employee responses to organizational change, offering valuable insights for fostering healthier work environments.
Whereby, a working environment which enabled higher support for professional practice, would lead to greater engagement (Leiter and Laschinger, 2006)
Schaufeli et al define work engagement as comprising three key components: vigor, dedication, and absorption, with vigor and dedication contrasting against burnout’s emotional exhaustion and cynicism They developed the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) in 2003 to measure this construct and examined how job resources influence engagement and turnover intentions, finding that work engagement mediates the relationship between job resources and turnover (Schaufeli et al., 2002, 2003, 2004) Since the introduction of UWES, research on work engagement has significantly expanded (Michelle R Simpson, 2009) Studies emphasize that organizational factors, rather than individual factors, play a vital role in predicting work engagement, with job resources like control, rewards, and values positively associated with higher engagement levels (Hakenen et al., 2006; Llorens et al., 2006; Mauno et al., 2007; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Xanthopoulou et al., 2007; Koyuncu, 2006) Employees with better work-life balance and greater control tend to be more engaged at work.
Previous empirical studies have shown that work engagement significantly influences key organizational outcomes, including reducing turnover intention, enhancing organizational commitment, improving service climate, and increasing customer loyalty (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Hakenen et al., 2006; Richardsen et al., 2006; Salanova et al., 2005) Additionally, research by Michelle R Simpson (2009) highlights that work engagement mediates the relationship between job resources—such as career opportunities, supervisor coaching, role clarity, and autonomy—and organizational outcomes.
Employee engagement, as defined and researched by Harter, is closely linked to key organizational outcomes such as profitability, productivity, customer satisfaction, employee safety, and turnover rates His investigations revealed a strong relationship between unit-level employee satisfaction and engagement, highlighting their impact on overall organizational performance Additionally, factors like self-efficacy, organizational-based self-esteem, and optimism serve as mediators between job resources and work engagement, influencing both engagement levels and exhaustion (Xanthopoulou, 2007).
Recent studies indicate that while Kahn’s three conditions of meaningfulness, safety, and availability do not significantly influence discretionary effort, meaningfulness and availability negatively impact employee turnover intention under specific organizational constraints (Shuck et al., 2011) Research utilizing the UWES-9 measurement found that learning opportunities, coworker support, and supervisor support positively enhance work engagement (Sarti, 2014), whereas other job resources like financial rewards and performance feedback showed no similar effect Leadership styles also play a crucial role, with transformational leadership exerting a significant positive impact on engagement, whereas servant leadership has a minimal effect, and transactional leadership may need transformation to foster higher engagement levels (Shuck and Herd, 2012; De Clercq et al., 2014) Additionally, employee engagement mediates the relationship between perceived support for participation in HRD practices and turnover intention, highlighting its vital role in organizational retention strategies (Shuck et al., 2014).
9 found that employee engagement and its components, such as cognitive, emotional, behavioral engagement, have partial mediating effects
In 2006, Saks proposed a comprehensive model identifying the antecedents and consequences of employee engagement, distinguishing between job engagement and organizational engagement Key antecedents include job characteristics, perceived organizational and supervisor support, rewards and recognition, along with procedural and distributive justice The model suggests that employee engagement influences outcomes such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, intention to quit, and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) Saks's findings indicate that the impact of these variables varies depending on the specific types of engagement and the related antecedents and consequences, highlighting the importance of categorizing employee engagement for more accurate understanding and effective management.
Employee training
Training has long been regarded as a crucial factor in making organizations profitable According to Landy, job training involves planned activities undertaken by an organization to enhance employees' job knowledge and skills, as well as to modify attitudes and social behaviors, aligning them with organizational goals and job requirements.
Perceived support for participation in HRD practices
Work role behavior Turnover intention Organizational knowledge creation Outcome variables (in-role performance, turnover intentions, OCB) Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)
Discretionary effort Perceptions of HRD practices
Training is a systematic process for developing an individual's knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to perform specific tasks or jobs effectively (Armstrong, 2001) It involves planned activities designed to transfer or modify competencies through learning experiences, helping personnel maintain competence and adapt to changing circumstances and technological advancements (Ross Holland, 2012) Primarily, training aims to improve and upgrade employees' skills and knowledge, focusing on enhancing overall job performance and fostering positive employee behavior for both current and future roles (Malik et al., 2013).
This study examines how employees’ perceptions of workplace training influence their job satisfaction, highlighting the importance of understanding this relationship for organizational success Schmidt (2007) introduced the concept of "job training satisfaction," combining definitions from Landy (1985), Patrick (2000), and Spector (1997), to describe how employees perceive the training they receive Research indicates a positive link between employee training and increased commitment to the organization, suggesting that HRD should adopt innovative methods to demonstrate training’s impact on workplace attitudes, behaviors, and retention (Bartlett, 2001, cited by Schmidt, 2007) Studies on new employee training reveal that employees’ attitudes—whether positive or negative—are heavily influenced by their training experiences Furthermore, workplace learning opportunities significantly contribute to overall job satisfaction, especially for employees in customer contact roles, emphasizing the critical role of effective training in enhancing employee satisfaction and organizational performance.
Besides, he recommended that this correlation is proper among variety of occupational fields
Employee perceptions of training significantly influence their motivation, behavior, and organizational commitment (Mohammed, 2017; Ahmad & Bakar, 2003) When employees view training positively, they are more likely to be motivated and engaged, leading to better performance outcomes Organizations’ investment in training can foster higher commitment levels, as individual perceptions of training benefits shape attitudes and behaviors (Guest, 2002; Burke & Hutchins, 2007) Perceptions of training vary based on employees' experiences and understanding of its purpose, impacting its effectiveness (Nishi, Lepak, & Schneider, 2008) Research demonstrates that positive perceptions of training are associated with increased productivity, improved performance, and higher engagement levels (Paul et al., 2003; Kuvass et al., 2009; Salanova, 2005).
Employee training is a crucial component of HR practices that significantly enhances work and organizational outcomes as well as employee behavior Multiple studies have demonstrated the positive impact of training on employee performance; for instance, a 2013 study found that "organizational performance is significantly determined by training imparted to the employees" (Zahid, 2013) Similarly, research conducted in Uganda revealed that training and development positively influence employees’ job performance (Nassazi, 2013) Despite some constraints, there is generally a positive attitude towards the role of training in improving employee work performance, underscoring its importance for organizational success.
Training activities have been shown to significantly enhance employee performance, as evidenced by the research of Mohammed Al-Mzary et al (2015) and supported by studies from Elnaga et al (2013), Aragón (2014), and Amadi (2014) Additionally, training positively influences employee satisfaction; Chepkosgey et al (2015) developed a framework demonstrating that training markedly impacts job satisfaction and employee retention, emphasizing its role in keeping employees competent and satisfied Further research by Taormina (1999) and Garcia (2005) confirms that training has a strong positive effect on employee job satisfaction, a relationship also supported by Okechukwu’s study, which clearly illustrates the link between training and increased employee satisfaction.
Research by Truitt (2011, 2017) highlights that adequate job training positively influences employees' attitudes toward job proficiency and training, fostering a more competent and motivated workforce Effective training not only enhances employee skills but also builds long-lasting stakeholder loyalty, serving as a crucial element for business resilience during challenging periods.
While numerous studies have examined human resource management practices and their impact on employee engagement, there is a limited number of research focusing on the direct influence of individual factors on employee engagement levels Understanding these direct effects is crucial for developing targeted HR strategies that enhance workforce motivation and productivity Further investigation into individual-level influences can provide deeper insights into how HR practices effectively foster employee commitment and performance.
Employee training plays a crucial role in influencing key organizational outcomes, including reducing turnover intentions, promoting organizational citizenship behavior, and enhancing commitment and motivation (Ahmed et al., 2015; Skarlicki, 1997; Sahinidis, 2008) It also positively impacts performance, job satisfaction, and post-training organizational commitment (Frayne, 2000; Palmen, 2013; Schmidt, 2007) According to Demerouti et al (2010), training helps employees modify their behaviors and emotions, thereby improving their skills and competencies, which in turn fosters greater engagement within the organization.
Empirical research has shown that organizational resources, such as training interventions, significantly enhance employee engagement (Salanova, 2005) Training programs not only improve overall performance but also boost psychological capital, leading to increased engagement behaviors (Luthan, 2010) Although employee engagement has been primarily studied within HRM practices, recent findings highlight the direct impact of organizational resources on fostering higher engagement levels (Ahmed et al., 2015).
Employee training and employee engagement
Limited empirical research has directly examined the relationship between employee training and employee engagement For instance, a study involving over one hundred employees in a Malaysian hotel found that training activities significantly enhance engagement levels (Salanova et al., 2006) Similarly, improving service training can boost work engagement (Suan et al., 2014) Fletcher (2015) explored how personal role engagement and work engagement mediate the relationship between training perceptions and work role behaviors, finding that personal role engagement has a stronger impact on task proficiency and adaptability, while both engagements similarly influence task proactivity These findings suggest that training content and perceived benefits are key drivers of employee engagement Previous HRM studies have emphasized the essential connection between training activities and increased employee engagement, indicating that effective training can help organizations foster higher levels of workforce engagement Moreover, Ahmed et al proposed a comprehensive model linking training—categorized into need assessment, training design, trainer and delivery, and evaluation—to employee engagement, highlighting the critical role of training components in shaping engagement outcomes.
Recent research by Ahmed et al (2015) demonstrates that all training components have a positive relationship with post-training employee engagement The study concludes that effective employee training significantly enhances post-training engagement levels, highlighting the importance of comprehensive training programs in boosting employee commitment and performance Implementing targeted training initiatives can lead to higher employee engagement, ultimately contributing to improved organizational outcomes.
Figure 2.2 Training components and employee engagement model
Although numerous studies have demonstrated a positive relationship between employee training and employee engagement in the past, recent research by Semwal et al has reported some inconsistent findings, highlighting the need for further investigation into this connection.
A 2017 study involving 127 employees in IT companies demonstrated that training significantly enhances all aspects of employee engagement However, research within the Pakistani banking sector by Ezam et al (2018) did not find sufficient evidence to confirm a direct impact of training and development on employee engagement.
Research studies, including Ezam et al (2018), have identified a hypothesis suggesting that "training has no significant impact on employees’ engagement," indicating that training programs may not necessarily lead to higher levels of employee engagement This finding aligns with reports from Gallup and SHRM, which were discussed in the first chapter, emphasizing that training alone might not effectively enhance employee engagement levels.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura (1977), refers to an individual's belief in their ability to perform specific tasks and meet situational demands According to Bergh and Theron (1999), cited in Stadler and Kotze (2006), self-efficacy influences whether a person will pursue particular goals and the level of effort they will invest in achieving them This concept plays a crucial role in determining motivation and perseverance in goal attainment.
Self-efficacy comprises three key dimensions: magnitude, which refers to the level of task difficulty a person believes they can achieve; strength, indicating the conviction regarding the belief's intensity; and generality, reflecting how broadly these expectations apply across different situations (Fred C Lunenburg, 2011) Higher self-efficacy levels enhance motivation, encouraging individuals to persevere despite obstacles, thereby improving overall performance An employee’s sense of capability significantly influences their perception, motivation, and job performance (Bandura, 1997).
Bandura identified three key ways self-efficacy influences employee learning and performance First, employees with higher self-efficacy tend to set more ambitious goals, while those with lower self-efficacy generally choose easier objectives Second, self-efficacy impacts learning behavior and the effort employees invest in their tasks, enhancing overall work engagement Third, a strong sense of self-efficacy boosts perseverance and adaptability when facing challenging or unfamiliar tasks Higher self-efficacy leads to greater confidence in performance and persistence in overcoming difficulties, ultimately improving employee performance quality (Bandura, 1982).
Self-efficacy at work is a vital factor for overall performance and motivation, making it important to understand its main drivers According to Bandura's 1997 model, there are four key sources that influence individual self-efficacy: mastery experiences, social modeling, social persuasion, and psychological states These factors collectively shape a person's belief in their capabilities, thereby impacting their success and productivity in the workplace Understanding these sources can help organizations enhance employee confidence and performance effectively.
Past performance is a crucial indicator that can boost employees' confidence, as it demonstrates their ability to succeed in previous roles Workers with a successful work history are more likely to develop high self-efficacy, which in turn enhances their motivation and performance in new tasks Recognizing the importance of past achievements can improve employee self-belief and contribute to overall organizational success.
Vicarious experience enhances self-efficacy by observing others or colleagues succeed in completing tasks This source of confidence-building is most effective when individuals see others with similar attributes, characteristics, or abilities succeed, inspiring belief in their own capabilities.
Verbal persuasion can enhance employees’ self-efficacy by convincing them they possess the necessary qualifications to succeed This approach is rooted in the Pygmalion effect, which suggests that higher expectations from supervisors or managers can positively influence employee performance Research indicates that employees tend to perform better when their leaders believe in their capabilities; however, the effectiveness of verbal persuasion may vary depending on certain conditions (Lunenburg, 2011).
According to Bandura, emotional cues play a significant role in employee performance; when employees perceive their tasks as unsuitable or anticipate failure, they are likely to experience physiological symptoms These emotional responses can vary among individuals but typically lead to decreased productivity and poorer work outcomes, highlighting the importance of addressing emotional well-being in the workplace.
Figure 2.3 Sources of Self-efficacy (Source: Bandura, 1997)
Effective employee training is crucial for enhancing self-efficacy and overall performance Training allows employees to perform tasks under expert guidance, reducing mistakes and enabling immediate correction, which builds confidence It also provides vicarious experiences, verbal encouragement, and positive emotional reinforcement through activities like discussions, observations, and hands-on experiences As a result, workplace training significantly boosts employees' perception of their abilities, leading to improved performance and increased self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy beliefs are task- or domain-specific and play a crucial role in motivating better performance, according to Bandura (1986, 1997) These beliefs influence an individual's feelings of competency and confidence in their abilities, encouraging them to strive toward their goals Moreover, self-efficacy enhances performance by increasing the sense of control and agency over life circumstances Additionally, self-efficacy perceptions involve the belief that effort will lead to successful outcomes.
Self-efficacy, defined as the belief in one’s ability to sustain effort toward goals, is a key factor in enhancing individual performance (Carter et al., 2016) Research by Lorente demonstrates that self-efficacy positively influences job and personal resources, leading to greater work engagement, especially among construction workers, and mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and extra-role performance (Lorente, 2009) Additionally, Frayne and Geringer (2000) found that self-efficacy partially mediates the impact of self-management training on job performance, highlighting its importance for both theory and practice Carter (2016) identified significant conceptual overlaps between self-efficacy and employee engagement in shaping individual motivation, noting that both independently improve performance outcomes However, the effects of high self-efficacy can vary depending on the nature of the task and performance measurement, with potential positive or negative consequences based on activity type and behavioral context (Lorente).
Numerous studies have established a significant and consistent link between self-efficacy and various aspects of employee behavior, including sales performance (Peterson & Byron, 2008), proactive behaviors (Parker, Williams, & Turner, 2006), and overall work performance (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998; Carter et al., 2016) A lack of self-efficacy can lead to negative workplace emotions, increased depression and anxiety (Schwarzer, 1999, cited by Ventura et al., 2015), and burnout (Cherniss, 1993; Llorens, García, & Salanova, 2005) Conversely, high self-efficacy fosters optimistic emotions and behaviors that enhance employee engagement (Llorens, Schaufeli, et al., 2007; Salanova, Llorens, et al., 2011; Vera et al., 2012), highlighting its crucial role in promoting work engagement and positive workplace outcomes.
Self-efficacy plays a crucial role in influencing work engagement and work-life balance, with its effects being mediated by employees’ perception of work and family demands, as well as their work–life balance Studies show that higher self-efficacy positively impacts employees' engagement levels, especially when supported by a balanced work–life dynamic Research from 2007 by Xanthopoulou highlighted that self-efficacy, as a key personal resource, mediates work engagement, while more recent findings indicate that employees with greater self-efficacy perceive fewer challenge and hindrance demands, reducing burnout and enhancing engagement (Ventura et al., 2015; Wen et al., 2017) Additionally, work–family demands negatively mediate the relationship between self-efficacy and work–life balance, which in turn influences overall employee engagement.
Recent research on the relationship between training and employee engagement has yielded inconsistent results, prompting the author to explore potential mediating factors After reviewing various variables, self-efficacy emerged as a promising candidate due to its strong association with both training outcomes and engagement levels Consequently, this study investigates self-efficacy as a mediator to better understand how it influences the link between training and employee engagement, providing deeper insights into their relationship.
H2: Employee’s self-efficacy positively mediates the relationship between employee training and employee engagement.
Reward
This study adopts a comprehensive definition of reward, drawing from the works of Pitts Collins and Schermerhorn et al., to address the diversity of classifications Reward is specifically understood as a combination of various forms of recognition and compensation that motivate and reinforce desired behaviors within organizations.
Reward, as defined by Collins (1995), refers to the benefits gained from performing a task, providing a service, or fulfilling a responsibility These rewards are generally classified into two categories: intrinsic rewards and extrinsic rewards Intrinsic rewards are valued outcomes that come from within the individual, such as personal satisfaction and sense of achievement, while extrinsic rewards are external incentives like monetary bonuses or recognition that motivate behavior Understanding the distinction between these reward types is essential for effective motivation and performance management.
22 received as internal enjoyment of task performance”; “Extrinsic rewards are valued outcomes received from an external source or person” (Schermerhorn et al., 2014)
Motivation, including reward mechanisms, is a vital element in fostering employee engagement, which ultimately enhances performance and organizational outcomes According to the Institute for Employment Studies (IES), employee engagement is a blend of commitment, motivation, and organizational citizenship behavior Engaged employees strongly believe in their organizations and view their work as a means to improve and contribute to organizational success.
Equal opportunities and fair treatment Engagement
Figure 2.4 Engagement Diagnostic Tool: National Health Service
(Source: Robinson et al., 2004, Institute for Employment Studies)
Numerous studies and organizational research have demonstrated that various types of rewards significantly enhance employee engagement and organizational performance For example, performance-related pay and profit-sharing bonuses are identified as key HR development practices that positively influence employee performance and commitment (Guest, 2003) Additionally, team rewards are also recognized as effective strategies for fostering collaboration and boosting overall organizational success.
23 incentive pay were found as the important factors which are associated with high performance (Thompson, 2000)
Research by IES highlights that pay, benefits, and career opportunities significantly influence employee engagement within the UK’s National Health Service Additionally, a 2004 study by the Corporate Leadership Council demonstrated that a strong link between pay and work performance greatly impacts employees’ willingness to exert discretionary effort Furthermore, fair compensation plays a crucial role in fostering employee engagement and commitment, as emphasized by Heintzman and Marson.
Performance pay is identified as a key factor driving engagement among top performers within organizations (WorldatWork, 2004) According to WorldatWork, a comprehensive model of the total reward system highlights the interconnected relationships between organizational practices, rewards, employee satisfaction, engagement, and performance This model emphasizes the central role of total rewards in enhancing overall employee motivation and organizational success.
Figure 2.5 Total reward system (Source: WorldatWork journal, 2008)
Research by Koyuncu et al (2006) indicates that rewards play a significant role as antecedents of work engagement, with their study involving 286 women managers and professionals at a Turkish bank demonstrating that positive work-life experiences, including rewards, predict higher levels of employee engagement.
Research indicates that rewards are a significant predictor of trust and employee engagement in the workplace (Victor et al., 2016) A total reward system shows a moderate correlation with employee engagement, though it remains unclear which reward category has the most impact (Hoole et al., 2016) Combining intrinsic and extrinsic rewards can effectively enhance employee engagement levels (Ram and Prabhakar, 2011), a finding supported by Roberts and Davenport, who observed that workplaces offering diverse rewards tend to foster higher employee engagement (Roberts et al., 2002) In the South African context, studies reveal a strong relationship between intrinsic rewards and employee engagement, with demographic factors like gender and age influencing this correlation (Godday et al., 2013) Additionally, research involving bank employees found that extrinsic rewards have a greater impact on job satisfaction compared to intrinsic rewards (Godday et al., 2013) Overall, integrating multiple reward types is crucial for boosting trust and engagement among employees.
(2017) findings expressed that both intrinsic and extrinsic reward positively influence employee performance; but intrinsic reward has higher effect; and no correlation between extrinsic and intrinsic reward
Appropriate reward is significant in enhancing employee engagement (Saks, 2006)
Effective reward systems, perceived as appropriate to employees' abilities, significantly motivate higher engagement and effort When employees feel their skills and performance are highly valued by the organization, they become more committed and dedicated to their work Research indicates that various reward mechanisms positively influence employee attitudes and behaviors, with some systems fostering greater involvement—such as stock and dividend rewards that link employee benefits to organizational success Moreover, reward systems that enhance competencies and decision-making capabilities encourage employees to take more responsibility and feel more empowered within their roles.
Research indicates that fair and proportional rewards, aligned with employees’ contributions and organizational outcomes, significantly enhance motivation and commitment (Jackson, Rossi, Hoover, and Johnson, 2012) When employees perceive their rewards as equitable, they demonstrate higher engagement levels and are motivated to exceed routine expectations to achieve superior performance (Chebat et al., 2002) Consequently, rewards serve as a crucial motivation mechanism that positively influences employee behavior and attitudes, ultimately supporting organizational goals (Haal-Ellis, 2014; Waal and Jansen, 2013).
Research indicates that employees’ perceptions of rewards significantly influence their feelings, engagement, and work behaviors, depending on their self-beliefs about their abilities and contributions, as well as perceived organizational resources The diversity in reward perception affects how employees respond to organizational practices, highlighting its role as a critical factor in shaping employee attitudes Therefore, reward has been identified as a key moderator in examining the relationship between employees’ perceptions of training and their level of engagement within the organization.
H3: Reward moderates the impact of training perception on employee engagement, that this impact will be stronger when employees’ perception of reward becomes more positive.
Research questions
This study is conducted primarily aiming at answering below research questions:
What is the relationship between employee training and employee engagement in Vietnamese workplace context?
Are there any impacts from self-efficacy and reward on the relationship between employee training and employee engagement separately?
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research design
The quantitative research approach focuses on testing objective theories by examining relationships among variables through statistical measurement and analysis This method involves using instruments and statistical procedures to quantify variables such as employee training perception and employee engagement The study aims to explore the connection between these variables and how other factors influence this relationship, formulating testable hypotheses Based on Creswell et al., the quantitative approach is suitable for collecting and analyzing primary data, while secondary data—comprising descriptive, explanatory, and literature review sources—complements the background theoretical framework.
This paper employs survey research as its chosen methodology, which offers a quantitative description of trends, attitudes,, and opinions within a population by analyzing a representative sample According to Creswell, survey research is valuable for providing numerical insights into the perceptions and behaviors of a group, making it an ideal approach for this study.
This study aims to explore employees' perceptions and opinions regarding their training experiences, self-efficacy, rewards, and engagement levels to understand the relationships among these variables A survey methodology, utilizing a structured questionnaire with close-ended questions, is employed as the most appropriate research approach The survey will be distributed to qualified participants who meet the criteria outlined in the study’s scope, ensuring relevant and reliable data collection.
Collected data would be analyzed using SPSS software The results and analyses will be discussed later in chapter 3.
Conceptual research model
This study introduces a moderated mediation model examining four key variables: training satisfaction perception, self-efficacy, rewards, and employee engagement A comprehensive review of previous research highlights the theoretical characteristics and interrelationships of these variables, providing a solid foundation for understanding their roles in employee motivation and performance By synthesizing existing evidence, the authors develop informed assumptions to construct the conceptual framework and formulate hypotheses, contributing valuable insights to the fields of organizational behavior and human resource management.
Various scales have been developed over time to measure training satisfaction; in this study, the instrument is adapted from the Job Training and Job Satisfaction Survey (JTJSS) by Schmidt (2007), which in turn was based on Spector’s (1997) Job Satisfaction Survey The adapted scale includes 8 items that assess employees' overall satisfaction with on-the-job training and organizational support, using a 5-point Likert scale Sample items include “Overall, the training I receive on the job meets my needs,” and “In my department, learning is planned and purposeful rather than accidental.” Although the original JTJSS utilizes a 6-point Likert scale, research comparing 5- and 6-point scales indicates that they produce similar results in terms of construct validity, mean, standard deviation, and correlation, with no significant differences in the number of components identified.
Research by Leung (2011) emphasizes the importance of reliability and validity in survey tools A forum hosted by Infosurv, a research service organization, found that 71% of researchers prefer the 5-point scale due to its balanced design The 5-point scale is favored because it includes a neutral midpoint, allowing respondents to express a legitimate neutral opinion, which reduces bias The absence of a neutral option may force respondents to choose sides, potentially skewing results (Infosurv, 2006) Based on these insights, the author selected the 5-point scale to measure training satisfaction, ensuring more accurate and unbiased responses.
From the late of 20 th century, researchers become keen on the term general self- efficacy (GSE), “a more trait-like generality dimension of self-efficacy” (Chen et al.,
Research by Judge, Erez et al (1998) defines General Self-Efficacy (GSE) as individuals’ perception of their ability to perform across various situations Among the numerous scales developed to measure GSE, Sherer et al (1982)’s scale is the most widely used Chen et al (2001) introduced a new GSE scale (NGSE), which demonstrated higher reliability and validity compared to existing tools, despite being shorter Comparative studies, including those by Charles et al (2006), highlighted the NGSE’s superior discrimination, item information, and efficiency Consequently, the NGSE scale was chosen for this study, comprising 8 items on a 5-point Likert scale, such as “I will be able to achieve most of the goals that I set for myself” and “When facing difficult tasks, I am certain that I will accomplish them,” to effectively measure self-efficacy.
This study assesses perceptions of reward using a validated scale developed by Kuvaas et al (2006, 2009), Dysvik et al (2013), and later adopted by Kuvaas et al (2017) to examine differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on employee outcomes The scale comprises 10 items that measure two distinct types of rewards: intrinsic rewards (IR) and extrinsic rewards.
The study includes six items, with four items specifically measuring extrinsic rewards (ER) All items are assessed using a 5-point Likert scale to gauge the intensity of respondents' agreement or disagreement Example statements for intrinsic motivation include "The tasks I do at work are enjoyable" and "My job is meaningful," while the extrinsic reward item states, "It is important for me to have an external incentive to strive for in order to do a good job." This approach helps differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators in the workplace.
The ISA engagement scale, developed by Soane et al (2012), was adopted in this study to measure engagement across three core conditions—focused attention, activation, and positive affect—and three dimensions: intellectual, affective, and social engagement (Soane et al., 2012) This scale comprises nine items rated on a 7-point Likert scale, evenly divided among the three engagement facets, with example items such as “I focus hard on my work,” “I share the same work values as my colleagues,” and “I feel positive about my work.” Validation studies indicate that the ISA engagement scale outperforms the widely used UWES in predicting individual behavior, demonstrating its effectiveness for assessing employee engagement (Fletcher & Robinson, 2014).
This study, however, adjusted from 7-point to 5-point scale to measure this variable
A study by Sachdev and Verma (2004) recommends using a 5-point scale to reduce respondent frustration and enhance response rate and quality Additionally, Dawes (2008) highlighted that a 5-point scale simplifies the process for interviewers to read and explain scale descriptors, making it a user-friendly choice for surveys.
H1: Employee training positively influence employee engagement
H2: Employee’s self-efficacy positively mediates the relationship between employee training and employee engagement
H3: Reward moderates the impact of training perception on employee engagement, that this impact will be stronger when employees’ perception of reward becomes more positive
Population, sample and data collection
After thoroughly reviewing previous literature, the author designed a questionnaire grounded in established studies, ensuring its reliability and validity The survey comprises six sections, systematically capturing relevant data for comprehensive analysis.
The first section including 2 yes/no questions, which are used to aim at eliminating the unsuitable respondents who have not worked or received any training activity before December 2018
The second section including some demographic questions, which ask respondents to provide some individual information about age, gender, highest position at work, and average income
The survey utilized a 5-point Likert scale, where respondents rated their level of agreement or disagreement on various items related to training perception, self-efficacy, reward perception, and engagement The scale ranged from 1, indicating "totally disagree," to 5, meaning "totally agree," allowing participants to select the most appropriate response The original survey items were in English and then translated into Vietnamese, with a back-translation process to ensure accurate understanding of the items in both languages Collected data was securely stored in an Excel spreadsheet and kept confidential in accordance with the author's commitments.
The questionnaire begins with an introduction that clearly explains the purpose of the research and includes a statement of purpose and acknowledgements, helping respondents understand the survey's objectives Each subsequent section starts with an overview of its main purpose and brief instructions to guide respondents through the survey At the end of the questionnaire, a thank-you statement is provided to express gratitude to the participants for their valuable time and input.
A pilot test was conducted for this questionnaire, involving 10 respondents who not only answered the questions but also provided feedback on the content and expressed any difficulties encountered This valuable input led to modifications of certain items, enhancing clarity and ensuring easier understanding for future respondents.
This research focuses on employees currently or previously working in the creative industry within Vietnamese organizations who received training during their employment To ensure an accurate analysis of skill development, only training activities conducted before December 2018 are included, allowing sufficient time for employees to convert training into valuable skills and knowledge.
Sample and data collection process
The author employs a nonprobability sampling method, selecting respondents based on their convenience and availability, which is well-suited for online survey distribution (Creswell et al., 2018) To collect data efficiently, the survey is distributed via email and social networks, facilitating easy access to a broad respondent pool The questionnaire is designed and hosted on Google’s platform, ensuring user-friendly online accessibility and streamlined data collection.
The survey was distributed via email to 220 organizational representatives in Vietnam, accompanied by an invitation letter and a short URL linking to the online questionnaire Recipients in charge of these email addresses were kindly encouraged to respond thoughtfully, ensuring the collection of accurate and valuable data for the study.
By this way, 15 valid responses were collected, with the response rate of 6.8%
The survey URL was shared across various social media platforms, including Facebook and LinkedIn, targeting communities interested in the creative industry such as marketing and design, as well as business forums and recruiting groups A total of 157 responses were received, though 20 were invalid because respondents had not participated in any training activities before December 2018.
Thus, after three weeks, in total there has 152 valid responses were received, and the author used that data for the analysis of this paper.
Sample demographics
Table 3.1: Frequency of demographic information of respondents
DATA ANALYSIS
Data preparation
Data from 153 valid responses were collected through an online survey conducted via Google Docs and subsequently compiled into an Excel spreadsheet for organization The dataset was then imported into SPSS for comprehensive processing and analysis The coding of variables used in the study is detailed in Table 4.1, ensuring clarity and consistency in data interpretation.
Descriptive statistics
Table 4.2 presents the descriptive statistics for all survey items measuring four variables, with mean scores ranging from 3.34 to 4.26, reflecting strong agreement among respondents The minimum values are observed in two items related to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, while the highest maximum score appears in an extrinsic reward item Standard deviations range from 0.701 to 1.191, indicating moderate variability, and variance values span from 0.491 to 1.419, demonstrating differences in response dispersion across items.
Table 4.2: Descriptive statistics of all variables
Construct Variable Minimum Maximum Mean Std
Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std
Reliability and validity
The reliability of the data was initially evaluated to determine the correlation between items measuring the same variable, with Cronbach's alpha coefficient used as the key indicator Given that reward perception and employee engagement were segmented into two and three sub-dimensions respectively, reliability analyses were also conducted for each sub-variable The reliability testing was performed using SPSS software, and the overall results indicated acceptable consistency across all measured constructs.
Table 4.3: Overall Cronbach’s alpha for each variable and sub-variable
Variable No of item Acceptable level Cronbach’s alpha
The overall Cronbach’s alpha for each variable exceeds the acceptable threshold, indicating good reliability across the items However, the Corrected Item-Total Correlation for item IR1 is only 0.308, which is below the recommended 0.4, suggesting low reliability in measuring Intrinsic Reward As a result, the author opted to remove IR1 from the item list to enhance the scale’s internal consistency, as detailed in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Item-total statistics for Intrinsic reward variable
Hence, after processing reliability test, there was one item deleted, and the total number of items become 34
To assess the validity of the data, the researcher employed Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's tests, utilizing principal components extraction with varimax rotation The KMO measure of sampling adequacy was 0.860, and Bartlett’s test yielded a significance value of 0.000, confirming the data's suitability for further analysis Additionally, the rotated component matrix indicated that all items had loadings greater than 0.5, demonstrating their appropriateness for measuring the selected variables.
Scale Mean if Item Deleted
Scale Variance if Item Deleted
Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted
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Pearson correlation
The Pearson correlation analysis results are presented in Table 4.6, showing significant relationships between employee engagement and other variables, with correlation coefficients exceeding 0.4, indicating strong and meaningful associations All variables exhibit significant correlations with each other at the 0.01 2-tailed significance level, validating their suitability for testing mediating and moderating effects on employee engagement These findings confirm that the selected variables are statistically appropriate for further analysis of their impact on employee engagement.
Regression analysis and hypotheses testing
H1: Employee training positively influence employee engagement
Regression analysis was conducted to explore the relationship between training perception and employee engagement, considering the influences of self-efficacy and rewards To test hypothesis H1, which states that employee training positively influences employee engagement, the analysis focused specifically on the impact of perceived training quality on engagement levels The findings suggest a significant positive relationship, indicating that effective training perceptions can enhance employee engagement, thereby emphasizing the importance of targeted training programs in fostering a motivated and committed workforce.
Training Self-efficacy Reward Engagement Training
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
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