Keywords: multimodal discourse analysis, text-image relationships, picture storybooks, picture book, “If You Give…”, teaching and learning English... Above all, the role of the teacher o
INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
Recent studies on children’s picture books highlight the diverse approaches to understanding their narratives, focusing on their developmental, therapeutic, and stylistic aspects While traditionally the visual elements have been considered secondary, recent critics emphasize the importance of analyzing how verbal and visual components collaborate to create meaning The relationship between images and text varies from simple illustration to complex, interactive communication, making it essential to study both language and other semiotic resources such as images, gestures, and sounds to fully understand the message conveyed in picture books (Guijarro & Jesus, 2014).
This study explores the relationship between visual and verbal modes in the "If You Give " series of children's picture storybooks by Laura Joffe Numeroff, complemented by Felicia Bond's illustrations Renowned for bestsellers like *If You Give a Mouse a Cookie*, Laura Joffe Numeroff's series is ideal for parents and educators interested in supporting children's language development The books feature simplified language and a repetitive cause-and-effect structure that engage children and encourage them to predict story outcomes, making them effective tools for language learning Each book in the series offers unique visual and narrative variations that convey meaningful lessons, enhancing children's understanding and critical thinking skills This combination of visual and verbal storytelling underscores the importance of multi-modal literacy in early childhood education.
The “If You Give…” series appeals to readers of all ages with its meaningful messages, making it an essential collection for parents, nursery, and kindergarten teachers Featuring adorable animals from diverse backgrounds, these stories resonate with children from varied upbringings As a long-standing and beloved series since its publication, exploring the interplay of text and images within these books offers valuable insights for aspiring children's book authors.
Aims of the study
This study explores the verbal-visual interactions in the picture book series
This study explores the interplay between language and images in the "If You Give…" storybooks by Laura Numeroff, highlighting how verbal and visual modes interact during the meaning-making process By analyzing these multimodal elements, the research aims to deepen understanding of how pictures and words work together to convey messages The multimodal analysis of both visual and textual components in picture books sheds light on the complementary functions of the verbal and visual modes, enhancing comprehension of how meanings are constructed in children's literature.
Significance of the study
This study highlights the importance of exploring the multimodality of picture books to enhance English teaching and learning in Vietnam Analyzing how texts and images interact helps facilitate children’s understanding and engagement with stories, capturing their attention throughout the reading process The diversity and creativity of children’s books, including both Vietnamese and English titles, reflect the growing demand for early English exposure among young learners Since children rely on parents and teachers for book selection and have limited English proficiency and experience with written texts, active responses—such as answering questions, expressing feelings, and imitating reading behaviors—are essential for deepening comprehension through spoken interaction These insights support effective strategies for fostering early English literacy in the Vietnamese educational context.
Recent research on picture books highlights their potential to enhance children's literacy through the rich interplay of visual and verbal resources These texts provide a valuable opportunity for parents, teachers, and caregivers to create shared reading experiences that deepen understanding and foster language development The study emphasizes that picture book reading serves as a shared context for exploring both visual and textual meanings, supporting language and cognitive growth Importantly, the role of adults as mediators is crucial in guiding children’s engagement with the texts, helping them interpret images and language effectively in English language learning Overall, picture books are a powerful tool for early literacy development when used intentionally in adult-led reading practices.
Children’s reading materials in both English and Vietnamese are diverse, and this study provides valuable insights that can inform similar research on Vietnamese picture books, though further investigation is needed due to differences between children learning Vietnamese as their native language and English as a foreign language Background studies like this are crucial for expanding knowledge in this area, and the findings hold significant relevance for stakeholders such as teachers, parents, educators, children, and publishers Teachers and parents can use these insights to make more informed choices about children’s books, while publishers and educators can better determine which types of books are appropriate for different age groups.
Scope of the study
The best-selling series on The New York Times List, renowned for its vivid illustrations and engaging "If then " phrases, captivates young readers and stimulates excitement This series effectively combines verbal and visual storytelling, making it a popular choice among children Additionally, recent studies explore the dynamic interactions between text and images within Laura Numeroff's five acclaimed picture books, highlighting their educational and entertainment value.
1) If You Give a Mouse a Cookie
2) If You Give a Moose a Muffin
3) If You Give a Pig a Pancake
4) If You Give a Cat a Cupcake
5) If You Give a Dog a Donut
These five works are also the scope of study on the effectiveness of using picture books for teaching and learning the English language compared with conventional texts.
Research questions
To address the research objectives, a key research question was formulated:
How are verbal-visual interactions expressed in the "If You Give…" picture books series to show the meaning of the stories?
Visual storybooks play a crucial role in ESL education by effectively engaging very young learners, fostering their interest, and encouraging attentive participation These storybooks serve as an engaging pedagogical tool that can prime young students’ curiosity and motivate them to focus on the subject matter For ESL teachers, incorporating visual storybooks enhances interactive learning experiences, making language acquisition more accessible and enjoyable for early learners Ultimately, using visual storybooks in the classroom supports better engagement and comprehension, which are vital for effective language development in young ESL students.
This article explores key questions related to the analysis of the "If You Give " series of picture books, focusing on their meanings and pedagogical applications The discussion highlights how these books can be effectively integrated into teaching strategies to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes By examining the themes and educational opportunities within this series, educators can better understand their role in fostering creativity, critical thinking, and social-emotional development in children.
Structure of the study
Apart from the abstracts and the references, the organization of current research is designed as follows:
This chapter provides the background, aims, and significance of the study, outlining its scope and key research questions It also includes a structured overview of the paper's organization, highlighting the objectives and importance of the research within the broader context.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Picture books
Picture books captivate audiences of all ages, from young children to seasoned comics enthusiasts, illustrating their enduring appeal Historically, the development of comic books traces back to prehistoric times, with cave wall drawings over 35,000 years ago serving as early forms of storytelling through images Ancient Egyptian murals, often combining visual narratives with written hieroglyphs, can be regarded as the earliest examples of comics Throughout history, images have played a powerful role in conveying religious themes and messages, notably exemplified by the richly illustrated Holy Scriptures This history highlights the long-standing significance of picture books in human society as a means of storytelling and cultural expression.
The history of picture books in literature dates back over a century, with significant recognition beginning in 1937 when the Caldecott Medal was established to honor the best illustrated children's books of the year According to Maria Popova, a renowned writer and MIT Futures of Entertainment Fellow, pictorial storytelling has ancient roots, dating back to cave wall paintings However, the true development of the modern picture book started roughly 130 years ago, when artist and illustrator Randolph Caldecott transformed images from simple decoration into essential storytelling tools, marking a pivotal moment in the evolution of visual storytelling in children's literature.
2012) Another author, Maurice Sendak, who wrote Where the Wild Things Are in
In 1963, Caldecott’s legacy was recognized for revolutionizing children's literature by pioneering the modern picture book He creatively combined images and words through innovative contrasts—sometimes omitting text to let pictures tell the story, and vice versa—marking the first time this technique was effectively used His work laid the foundation for the development of the picture book as a new art form, blending visual storytelling with minimal text.
The popularity of picture books surged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, driven by advancements in printing technology and evolving attitudes toward childhood This growth was further fueled by innovative artists who brought new life to the genre During the 1950s, a cultural shift blurred the lines between artist and author, leading to a broader appeal of picture books A new wave of author-illustrators emerged, employing vibrant paints and colorful illustrations that captivated young readers and influenced educators and scholars alike This innovative group significantly shaped the modern landscape of picture book creation, impacting both educational practices and children's literature (Weeks, 2013).
In recent years, Vietnamese readers have shown increasing interest in picture books, making them a popular and emerging genre in the local publishing industry Picture books stand out due to their minimal text and reliance on vivid visuals to convey meaningful stories, appealing especially to beginners and young readers Unlike comics, which feature simple drawings depicting characters’ actions with dialogue, picture books incorporate literary content alongside illustrations, including real paintings, to create a cohesive narrative (Pham, 2020) Authors like Pham Thu Thuy emphasize that picture books are designed to capture specific moments and emotions, with words and images working together to tell a condensed, impactful story—sometimes even embodying maxims (Pham, 2020) Today, picture books cater to diverse audiences, from children to the elderly, facilitating early reading habits by engaging them visually and encouraging personalized discovery of stories.
Picture books are a unique genre distinguished from children's books that contain only illustrations, emphasizing the equal importance of both visual and written elements According to Seplocha and Strasser (2007), a picture book must simultaneously tell a story through words, pictures, and their combination, creating a highly aesthetic narrative where art and text are inextricably linked Unlike traditional storybooks, which primarily use illustrations to supplement the text and can often stand alone without images, picture books integrate both elements to convey meaning, fostering a richer storytelling experience (Wu, 2014) Words and pictures in picture books work together to help readers create literal realities that reflect the story, making them a powerful tool for engaging young audiences.
In 2014, picture books are defined as visual works that represent and interpret textual content to help readers visualize story sequences and connect with real-world elements These books combine images and text to enhance understanding, making stories more engaging and accessible for readers of all ages By integrating visual storytelling, picture books effectively bridge imagination and knowledge, fostering a deeper connection with the narrative.
Picture books serve as a vital medium for children's development by integrating visual and textual elements to create meaningful experiences, as highlighted by Barbara (1976) These books often feature canonical characters that mirror our behavior patterns, offering children a navigational map of potential roles and worlds They play a crucial role in shaping and reshaping cultural imagination, providing patterns and templates through which human experiences are articulated and visualized Additionally, picture books contribute to shaping children's identities both as individuals and as members of a socially constructed reality From a social semiotic perspective, their definitions encompass cultural context and situational factors, emphasizing the importance of cultural and contextual influences in their interpretation.
Comics exemplify the effective use of visuals in storytelling without relying heavily on verbal narration, showcasing the creative synergy between visual arts and literature They harness the imagination of artists and writers to transcend traditional writing, often telling complex stories through sequential images Interestingly, visual sequences in comics can convey narratives and character actions even without captions, making them a powerful medium for communication Beyond entertainment, comics are also capable of expressing abstract concepts and deeper themes beyond what words can easily describe.
Children's picture books are essential for developing literacy, literature appreciation, and social values in young learners Although visuals typically occupy most of the pages, both the images and the text play a vital role in a child's literacy journey The visual components in picture books are as important as the verbal content, supporting early reading and comprehension skills (Painter et al., 2013).
A picture book combines images and words to create meaning, with visual text conveying messages that are crucial for understanding the story According to Lawrence Sipe (1998), visual texts are on equal footing with verbal texts, emphasizing their importance in communication The interaction between images and words can be categorized into congruency—such as elaboration, amplification, and extension—and deviation, including opposition and counterpoint (Schwarcz, 1982) Recent studies highlight the diversity and complexity of image-text relationships in picture books, revealing a gap in theoretical research on their interactions This has raised increasing academic interest in the relationship between picture and text in children's literature, though comprehensive theoretical frameworks remain underdeveloped (Nikolajeva & Scott, 2000; Wu, 2014).
Debbie Ridpath Ohi (2013) emphasizes the vital role of picture books in early childhood development, highlighting their ability to familiarize children with reading concepts even before literacy skills are fully developed She notes that picture books encourage conversations between young and older readers, thereby fostering communication skills Moreover, they enhance visual thinking and help children connect observations with reasoning, bridging visual and verbal understanding Picture books also stimulate an interest in art that surpasses mere visits to art galleries and promote critical thinking while providing children with a sense of control, boosting self-confidence Additionally, they introduce complex ideas in a safe environment, facilitating self-discovery and awareness of the world Importantly, their engaging nature inspires a love for reading, making them an effective tool to stimulate creativity and interaction, which has been extensively supported by research (Weeks, 2013).
2.1.5.1 Visual storybooks from learners’ perspective
Understanding learners’ initial knowledge and mindset is essential for effective curriculum planning, especially in early-years education where making informed assumptions about young children’s memory, cognitive, and logical abilities is both practical and necessary (Unsworth & Cléirigh, 2009) These assumptions help establish a foundational curriculum framework that can be expanded to support individual learning progress Gathering learners’ perspectives through self-description fosters a better understanding, but with very young children, educator observations and analysis are crucial to complement these insights, ensuring a comprehensive view of each child's learning process Recognizing the potential disconnect between educator perspectives—shaped by analysis and preparation—and young learners’ experiences emphasizes the importance of understanding children’s viewpoints, particularly when engaging with visual storybooks, as a vital step toward developing a critical visual pedagogy in early childhood education.
A picture is often considered as valuable as a thousand words, highlighting its importance in effective communication Educators continually seek innovative methods to boost students' literacy skills, emphasizing the significance of visual aids in learning Engaging young learners in reading activities from nursery and kindergarten levels is essential, as modern texts increasingly combine words and pictures to enhance understanding and interpretation This integration of visuals and text plays a crucial role in fostering early literacy development and maintaining student engagement.
A picture book is a unique art form where illustrations are essential to the reader’s experience, and the story relies heavily on visual storytelling (Danko-McGhee & Slutsky, 2011; Moreillon, 2017) For many young children, their first reading experiences often involve picture books, which effectively motivate early literacy and foster a love of reading The combination of engaging visuals and storytelling encourages children to explore story layers and develop a deeper connection with the text, making picture books a vital tool in early childhood education.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
This study critically examines verbal-visual interactions in the “If You Give…” picture book series to explore how language and images convey meaning and interrelate during the meaning-making process Employing a mixed-methods approach, the research first uses qualitative analysis to identify different types of text-image relationships within the books, providing in-depth insights into multimodal communication Subsequently, a quantitative analysis determines the frequency of these relationship types across five picture books, enabling the researcher to generalize findings This comprehensive methodology offers a nuanced understanding of how visual and verbal modes collaborate to create meaning in visual storytelling.
Research questions
The study focuses on the one key research question and one sub-question as following:
1 How are verbal-visual interactions expressed in the "If You Give…" picture books series to show the meaning of the stories?
2 How would visual storybooks benefit ESL teachers in engaging very young learners, priming their interest and encouraging attention to the subject being taught?
Materials
This series has captivated my interest, especially after observing them in my nephew’s house Notably, no prior research has examined these picture books through multimodal analysis of text and verbal linkage, making this study the first of its kind The series are widely accessible in Vietnam, available in bilingual (English and Vietnamese) editions, and are actively used in numerous kindergartens’ libraries and classrooms Additionally, many parents purchase these books for their children to read at home Recognized globally, the authors and books are renowned worldwide, highlighting their significance in early childhood education and literacy development.
Analyzing a series rather than a single picture storybook offers valuable insights into the frequency and relationship of text and verbal linkages within the Expansion and Projection categories This approach enables a comprehensive understanding of how these linguistic features function across multiple images, highlighting patterns and variations that may not be evident in individual stories The researcher selected this series specifically to investigate these dynamics, aiming to uncover meaningful differences and similarities in their occurrence, which can contribute to advancements in visual storytelling and cognitive engagement theories.
This study analyzes five picture storybooks by Laura Numeroff to explore key themes and educational value While increasing data generally enhances research reliability, limited resources in terms of time, budget, and research scope necessitated focusing on these five books These selected titles provide valuable insights into Numeroff's storytelling techniques and their impact on young readers, supporting the overall objectives of the research.
+If You Give a Mouse a Cookie (1985)
+If You Give a Moose a Muffin (1991)
+If You Give a Pig a Pancake (1998)
+If You Give a Cat a Cupcake (2008)
+ If You Give a Dog a Donut (2011)
Summary of the author and selected stories
3.4.1 Laura Joffe Numeroff (the author)
Laura Joffe Numeroff was born on July 14, 1953, in Brooklyn, New York, and grew up immersed in art, music, and books as the youngest of three girls She attended Pratt Institute, where she earned a degree in communications, leading to her first published children's book, *Amy for Short*, in 1975 by Macmillan.
She is an American author and illustrator renowned for her children's books, most notably the “If You Give…” series Her debut book, *If You Give a Mouse a Cookie*, was published in 1985 and illustrated by Felicia Bond Despite facing nine rejections from publishers, the book was eventually accepted by Harper, highlighting perseverance in publishing Her stories are characterized by a circular narrative structure, presenting a chain of events that ultimately loop back to the starting point, engaging young readers with its clever storytelling.
This story serves as a cautionary tale illustrating that when kindness is shown by giving someone something, they may gradually start asking for more, highlighting the importance of setting boundaries The moral emphasizes that generosity should be balanced with discretion to prevent being exploited It’s a reminder to be mindful of how kindness can sometimes be taken for granted, encouraging us to practice wisdom when offering help or gifts Understanding this lesson can help foster healthier relationships and ensure that generosity remains sustainable.
_, then _" scenario If You Give a Mouse a Cookie spawned numerous more books that expanded from the mouse to include the characters of a moose, a cat, a pig, and a dog (Numeroff, 2020).
"If You Give a Mouse a Cookie" is a best-selling children's book by NYT, with the fourth book, "If You Take a Mouse to the Movies," spending five months on the NYT Children’s Best Seller list, including nine weeks at number one The series has sold over 4.5 million copies, been translated into fourteen languages, and earned the prestigious Quill Award in the picture book category "If You Give a Pig a Pancake" was featured multiple times on Oprah’s show, highlighted as Oprah’s favorite children’s book of the year, and was on the Publishers Weekly Bestseller List for over a year, boosting their popularity Co-created by Laura Numeroff and Sean Hanrahan, the series supports charitable causes, including "Raising a Hero," published in 2016 to benefit Canine Companions for Independence, a nonprofit providing free service dogs to those with disabilities Notable figures like President George W Bush, First Lady Laura Bush, Secretary Hillary Clinton, and First Lady Michelle Obama have read these books to children, underscoring their significant cultural impact.
3.4.2 Summaries of the series “If You Give …”
3.4.2.1 If You Give a Mouse a Cookie (1985)
The book consists of 34 pages with 294 words The images of the boy appear
This engaging book features 19 instances of the word "times" and 26 occurrences of "mouse," making it ideal for parents and caregivers who want to support children's language development With simple, repetitive speech and a cause-and-effect structure, the story encourages children to predict what will happen next and develop critical thinking skills It's a valuable resource for fostering early language comprehension and curiosity in young learners.
“If You Give a Mouse a Cookie” uses lighthearted language to teach children about patience and love through the characters of a good boy and a small mouse.* The story follows a sequence where, if a hungry mouse shows up, the boy offers him a cookie, leading the mouse to request milk, mirror checks, and scissors, illustrating greed or the desire for more *“If a hungry visitor arrives, he might ask for a cookie, then for milk, and eventually for scissors, demonstrating the chain of requests.”* Despite the mouse's antics, the boy responds kindly, highlighting themes of generosity and unconditional giving The narrative is circular, ending with the characters in the same situation as at the beginning, emphasizing the moral that kindness can sometimes lead to endless requests *“The story concludes with a circular pattern, illustrating that giving without boundaries can lead to ongoing demands.”* It also serves as a cautionary tale about the consequences of giving out of good intentions, as the mouse's continual asks mirror real-life situations where giving can be taken for granted *“This story offers an opportunity to discuss the dynamics of kindness and boundaries in relationships.”* Overall, the book explores themes of generosity, boundaries, and the relationship between the boy and the mouse through the familiar pattern of “If _, then _.”
3.4.2.2 If You Give a Moose a Muffin (1991)
"If You Give a Moose a Muffin" is a charming children's book that tells the story of a curious moose who initially desires a muffin, leading to a series of escalating requests As the moose's appetite grows, he asks for jam to go with his muffin, and then continues to demand more treats until the bread is finished This delightful tale highlights themes of curiosity and the chain reaction of wants, making it an engaging read for young audiences Perfect for children’s literature enthusiasts, this book emphasizes humor and imagination while encouraging conversations about desire and contentment.
This 32-page book, featuring 306 words and 48 illustrations—23 of a boy and 25 of a moose—uses vivid imagery to clearly depict its two main characters throughout the story The narrative follows a circular structure, emphasizing the theme that the characters end up in the same situation as at the beginning, highlighting its nature as a cautionary tale The story conveys a moral about human greed, illustrating that kindness can sometimes lead to people asking for more The recurring scenario pattern, "If _, then _," ties the story together and reinforces its core message.
3.4.2.3 If You Give a Pig a Pancake (1998)
"Another humorous and engaging addition to the series, *If You Give a Pig a Pancake* helps children understand how their persistent requests can frustrate parents The book's vibrant illustrations captivate young readers, showcasing the adorable protagonist's expressive face, along with detailed scenes like bubbly marshmallow clouds and cluttered closets This entertaining story combines humor and vivid art to promote understanding and keep children engaged."
This engaging 32-page children's book features 290 words, including 11 complex sentences and 19 simple sentences, making it easy to understand and captivating for young readers Throughout the story, the recurring images of a pig (24 times) and a baby (21 times) enhance visual appeal and reinforce key themes The narrative centers around a little girl and her adorable pig, closely resembling previous books in the series, creating a sense of familiarity for returning readers The story’s foundation built on the pig’s constant demands and the girl’s efforts to accommodate them provides humor and entertainment, making it highly engaging Additionally, the story employs a clear "If _, then _" scenario structure, making the plot straightforward and memorable Visually appealing and spellbinding, this book is designed to leave a lasting impression on children, combining charming illustrations with compelling storytelling.
3.4.2.4 If You Give a Cat a Cupcake (2008)
"If You Give a Cat a Cupcake" is a charming addition to the beloved series, featuring a recurring feline character who first appeared in "If You Give a Pig a Party." The book showcases Felicia Bond's vibrant illustrations and Laura Joffe Numeroff's distinctive writing style, maintaining the series' signature charm Renowned for its rich imaginative personification and multidimensional storyline, it exemplifies Numeroff's storytelling prowess while remaining accessible and engaging for children.
The story includes 32 pages with 319 words, 11 complex sentences, and 24 single sentences The author repeated the image of the little girl 17 times with the cat
The story, inspired by its predecessors, features a whimsical narrative centered around a girl’s wish-granting conundrum and a cat’s unwavering demand-giving This recurring theme highlights the playful dynamic between the characters, emphasizing the fantastical elements that make the story captivating By exploring the challenges of fulfilling wishes and persistent requests, the tale creates a charming and engaging experience for readers.
3.4.2.5 If You Give a Dog a Donut (2011)
This story highlights the importance of altruism, demonstrated through the heartfelt relationship between a boy and a dog, emphasizing that giving without expecting anything in return is a valuable life lesson Giving not only enriches others’ lives but also brings joy to the giver, fostering kindness and compassion In "If You Give a Dog a Donut," Numeroff illustrates how simple acts like sharing donuts and juice can inspire adventurous and playful experiences, such as apple-tossing and treasure hunts, leading to a delightful backyard adventure This narrative underscores that acts of generosity and playful exploration can create meaningful and memorable moments.
This 32-page story, comprising 234 words, features frequent visual and thematic elements, including a dog appearing 24 times and a boy 15 times, which enhance engagement and storytelling The narrative revolves around a future contest, emphasizing key keywords like "ask for," "ask to," and "want to," which highlight the characters' desires and motivations The author skillfully incorporates linking words such as "when" and "then" to create a coherent, logical flow that maintains reader curiosity and interest These carefully chosen phrases and repetitions not only reinforce the story's themes but also optimize it for SEO by aligning with common search terms related to storytelling, character interactions, and plot progression.
Data analysis
The unit of analysis is the interaction between languages and images on each page, each of which closely conforms to the unit of analysis proposed by Unsworth
(2006, p 1174) - consisting of "an image and all the verbiage related to it by ideational content" Unlike language, such units are not linear, as he puts it:
The multidimensional nature of verbiage and images enables readers to repeatedly navigate between text and visuals, reflecting the sequencing of meaning created by the producer An intermodal unit of analysis encompasses all the cycles a reader can perform between related images and text, allowing multiple recursive passes that represent the potential intermodal relationships within the communication system This process highlights how readers probabilistically engage with content through repeated intermodal interactions, enriching their understanding of the material.
Using Unsworth's theoretical framework, the researcher investigates the interactions between verbal and visual elements to understand their relationship within texts The study analyzes the frequency of image and language interactions both at the individual story level and across multiple narratives These findings are systematically presented in tables, providing a comprehensive overview of how visual and verbal components co-occur in different contexts.
Concurrence Complementarity Enhancement Verbal Mental No.
Sub-types Causal Temporal Spatial Condition
This research analyzes each story’s overall structure by examining page count, content overview, and the use of quote images and texts as illustrations Using Unsworth's framework, it categorizes the relationship between texts and images into types like Expansion or Projection, further dividing them into sub-types such as Concurrence, Complementarity, and Enhancement Additionally, the study identifies more specific sub-categories, including Verbal and Mental relationships, to understand how images complement and enhance textual content This comprehensive approach provides insights into the interconnected roles of images and texts within visual storytelling for optimal SEO content creation.
Enhancement in Expansion relation The researcher will calculate the ratio of each sub-type, and type as a whole and then make the comparison and analysis.