CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS OF LIFE IN BRITISH NOVELS IN THE 21st CENTURY

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY M A THESIS CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS OF LIFE IN BRITISH NOVELS IN THE 21st CENTURY (Ẩn dụ ý niệm về cuộc sống trong những tiểu thuyết nước Anh.

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

Cognitive linguistics emerged in the 1970s as a pioneering approach to studying language, gaining widespread popularity since the 1980s Significant global research has been conducted within this framework, with particular attention to semantics and the role of conceptual metaphor in language use In Vietnam, scholars have extensively explored cognitive linguistics, contributing to a deeper understanding of how conceptual metaphors shape communication and meaning.

Metaphor is deeply embedded in human speech, serving functions such as motivation, replacing synonyms and polysemy, and filling lexical gaps (Ullmann, 1972) It operates as an implicit simile, comparing two ideas without explicitly stating similarity, often blending them into a unified concept These concise figures of speech involve two key ideas: the real-world object and its comparison, shaping everyday thought and action (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) In literature, metaphor enhances meaning and showcases linguistic artistry through its diverse diction and distinctive style.

Conceptual metaphors are structured around a system of thinking rather than language alone These metaphors reflect our natural cognitive processes, illustrating how we use familiar experiences to understand unfamiliar concepts Metaphorical expressions reveal how we typically interpret one type of experience in a particular context to make sense of another, highlighting the integral role of cognition in language.

Cognitive metaphors are rooted in background knowledge, cultural patterns, psychological traits, and ethnic thinking related to the human spirit Understanding and decoding these metaphors require familiarity with these contextual factors As a result, aligning language study with cognitive linguistics represents a new and increasingly popular approach among modern linguists and researchers interested in exploring the deeper connections between language and human cognition.

Metaphor is a powerful figure of speech that involves interpreting language figuratively through comparisons or analytical statements It is widely used to effectively convey ideas, express emotions, and introduce new concepts, making communication more engaging and impactful Many individuals prefer metaphors because they help clarify complex messages, evoke feelings, and entertain audiences, enhancing overall understanding and connection.

Throughout history, life has been an endlessly inspiring and captivating subject for writers While life is frequently discussed in daily conversations, its true meaning cannot be easily summarized in a few words It encompasses a wide range of experiences, including happiness and despair, achievement and failure, comfort and agony, encouragement and frustration The complex nature of life involves navigating possibilities and obstacles, love and hatred, relief and sorrow, struggle and surrender Consequently, understanding the true essence of life is challenging without relating it to concrete notions or tangible objects.

For all these reasons, the researcher has decided on the research entitled “

This article explores the conceptual metaphors of life in 21st-century British novels, aiming to help Vietnamese readers and learners recognize and understand metaphors in a new light It highlights how conceptual metaphors are integral to storytelling and everyday language, making them more familiar and relatable By analyzing contemporary British literature, the study demonstrates that metaphors reflect deeper cultural and personal experiences, enriching our understanding of life Ultimately, the article emphasizes that conceptual metaphors are woven into daily life, offering valuable insights into human perception and communication.

Aims and objectives of the study

This study aims to analyze the conceptual metaphors of life within the cognitive framework introduced by G Lakoff and M Johnson Through comprehensive research, the study seeks to deepen understanding of how these metaphors shape our perception of life Additionally, the findings will be used to develop effective teaching strategies for incorporating conceptual metaphors into English language instruction, enhancing learners' comprehension and communicative skills.

With the purposes mentioned above, this research is intended:

- To give a description of conceptual metaphors of life used in British novels.

- To investigate the meaning of life’s conceptual metaphors used in British novels.

Research questions

Based on the background study of the thesis, the researcher has formulated below research questions:

1 What types of conceptual metaphor are found in some selected British novels?

2 What are the meanings of conceptual metaphors used in some selectedBritish novels?

Methods of the study

This study employs both qualitative and quantitative research methods, including descriptive and contrastive analysis, to comprehensively examine the topic Qualitative approaches such as contrastive analysis and description are utilized to explore the meanings of conceptual metaphors of life in 21st-century British novels The descriptive method specifically helps to provide in-depth insights into how these metaphors are represented and understood within the literary context.

This study employs a documentary research technique to analyze lines from selected 21st-century British novels by renowned authors, as referenced by Wikipedia The researcher carefully collects, selects, and analyzes these literary excerpts to identify the use of conceptual metaphors and their role in conveying themes related to life The analysis highlights how British novelists utilize domain-based metaphors to deepen meaning and engage readers, offering valuable insights into contemporary literary patterns.

This study utilizes Lakoff and Johnson’s conceptual metaphor theory to analyze linguistic metaphors, emphasizing how language reflects underlying conceptual frameworks The researcher applies a distributional method, which focuses on examining language patterns and usage within the data Additionally, the substitution technique is employed to replace specific elements, facilitating a deeper understanding of metaphorical expressions The analysis process follows a structured four-step approach to ensure comprehensive and systematic examination of the data, enhancing the reliability of the findings.

The researcher begins by analyzing all conceptual metaphors related to life in 21st-century British novels, carefully preparing and reviewing the data to gain a comprehensive understanding Through close reading, the researcher interprets the meanings behind each metaphor, uncovering the emotions and themes conveyed through these linguistic devices This process enables a deeper insight into how authors express complex feelings and societal perspectives through conceptual metaphors in contemporary literature.

In the 21st century, British novels were analyzed and categorized based on two types of conceptual metaphors identified by Lakoff and Johnson (1980): structural metaphors and ontological metaphors This classification highlights how modern literature employs these metaphor types to convey complex ideas and enrich narrative expression Understanding these metaphors offers valuable insights into the cognitive frameworks used by authors, enhancing the interpretation of contemporary British fiction through an SEO-friendly lens.

In qualitative research, the researcher analyzes data using an interpretative approach to achieve meaningful insights This methodology provides a clear understanding of each conceptual metaphor, with a particular focus on the source domain of the concept By thoroughly describing the data, the researcher ensures accurate identification and explanation of metaphorical concepts, enhancing the overall depth and clarity of the research findings.

Finally, the interpretation process is carried out from cognitive semantic perspectives.

Scope of the study

This research focuses on two key types of conceptual metaphors of life found in selected British novels, as classified by Lakoff and Johnson (1980/2003) and Kövecses (2002) The study primarily investigates structural metaphors and ontological metaphors, exploring how these conceptual frameworks shape the portrayal of life within literary texts By analyzing these metaphors, the research aims to reveal deeper cognitive and cultural understandings embedded in British literature This approach enhances the comprehension of metaphorical language's role in conveying complex ideas about life.

This study explores the conceptual metaphors related to the theme of life through the lens of cognitive linguistics theory The researcher specifically examines how these metaphors are represented in 21st-century British novels This analysis aims to shed light on the cultural and linguistic expressions of life concepts in contemporary British literature, providing valuable insights into modern narrative techniques and metaphor use.

Table 1: 21 st century’s selected British novels

1 Half Broken Things Morag Joss 2003

2 Millennium People James Graham Ballard 2003

5 Me Before You Jojo Moyes 2012

7 Life After Life Kate Atkinson 2013

9 The Girl on the Train Paula Hawkins 2015

Significance of the study

This pioneering study in Vietnam examines two types of conceptual metaphors for life in twenty-first-century British novels, providing valuable insights into how metaphors function as widespread figures of speech in everyday communication By analyzing these metaphors, the research enhances our understanding of their significance and presence in contemporary literature, contributing to broader societal awareness of their role in shaping perceptions and language.

This research aims to contribute to the advancement of cognitive linguistic theory, with a particular focus on cognitive semantics While numerous studies have explored conceptual metaphors globally and in Vietnam, there is a lack of analysis on how the concept of life is represented in British novels and how metaphorical expressions for this abstract idea vary across languages By examining these differences and similarities, the study seeks to aid language learners who have limited life experience and may struggle to understand the concept of life in reading materials or conversations with foreigners.

This research aims to contribute valuable insights and additional data to the field of teaching linguistics, with a specific focus on conceptual metaphors By providing an outline for teaching metaphors, it offers a practical resource for educators to enhance their instruction This study serves as an alternative example for teaching and learning about metaphors, enriching the linguistics curriculum and supporting students’ understanding of metaphorical language.

This research aims to inspire further exploration into conceptual metaphors, helping learners understand how emotions are expressed metaphorically By shedding light on the role of metaphors in conveying feelings, it encourages deeper study into their significance in language and communication Ultimately, this work seeks to enhance awareness of how metaphorical language enriches emotional expression and literary analysis.

Structure of the study

The thesis begins with Certificate of originality, Acknowledgements, Table of Contents and Abstracts The content of the study is divided into four chapters:

This chapter outlines the motivation behind selecting the research topic, highlighting its relevance and importance It clearly states the research aims and objectives, providing a focused direction for the study The chapter also defines the key research questions guiding the investigation, along with the scope and delimitations of the research Additionally, it emphasizes the significance of the study in contributing to the existing body of knowledge and practical applications The methods employed to gather and analyze data are briefly described, followed by an overview of the structural organization of the study to facilitate understanding and navigation.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Previous studies

Many researchers, both in English and Vietnamese, are increasingly examining the significance of metaphors in various contexts Historically, the concept of trope was linked to metaphor until Locke (1690) introduced the term "ideal" in language, inspired by tropes and figures The publication of Lakoff and Johnson’s “Metaphor We Live By” in 1980 marked a significant advancement in metaphor theory, revealing that metaphors are embedded not only in everyday language but also in thought and action Over time, the understanding of metaphor expanded beyond language to encompass ideals, beliefs, and behaviors, influencing poetry, art, education, and social development.

Littlemore and Graham (2006) highlighted the pervasive role of metaphor across Bachman’s language competencies, emphasizing its importance in English language use They defined illocutionary competence as the ability to understand messages conveyed through words, involving ideational, manipulative, heuristic, and imaginative capacities, with metaphors often used persuasively in communication Their research underscores the importance for learners to identify and critically assess metaphoric constructions, especially in academic contexts Additionally, they described textual competence as the ability to produce and comprehend well-organized, cohesive text in both written and spoken forms Finally, the authors demonstrated how metaphoric thinking enhances strategic competence, supporting learners’ use of both compensation and interactional strategies to overcome gaps in second language knowledge.

Conceptual metaphor (CM) has been extensively studied across various semiotic resources, including visual media such as cartoons Bounegru and Forceville (2011) explored the application of CM to images, highlighting how visual representations utilize metaphorical concepts to convey complex ideas effectively Their research underscores the significance of CM in understanding how imagery communicates meaning and enhances audience engagement.

Cognitive Metaphors (CMs) play a crucial role in systematically structuring concepts across various fields, including cartoons and political texts For example, research by MsEntee-Atalianis (2011) reveals that CMs shape the speeches of the United Nations Secretary-General, portraying the organization as a “family” driven by a desire to combat evil forces This study highlights how metaphors influence organizational narratives and communicate complex ideas effectively, showcasing the importance of CMs in political discourse.

The beginnings of Cognitive Linguistics can be traced back to 1975, when Lakoff appeared to have first used the term "Cognitive Linguistics" (Dirk & Hubert,

In 2007, Lakoff revealed that figures of speech such as metaphor and metonymy are not merely decorative language, but fundamental elements of everyday communication These cognitive tools shape how we perceive the world, influence our thought processes, and guide our actions, highlighting their crucial role in human cognition and language.

Lakoff began his collaboration with the philosopher Mark Johnson in

In 1980, Lakoff and Johnson published *Metaphors We Live By*, which revolutionized the understanding of metaphor by introducing Cognitive Linguistics to a broader audience They challenged traditional views by arguing that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, influencing not only language but also thought and action Their work presented a coherent and systematic critique of established theories, introducing the concept of conceptual metaphor supported by numerous linguistic examples This seminal publication serves as the foundational theoretical framework for my thesis.

Since then, numerous studies have been conducted worldwide and in Vietnam, focusing on cognitive linguistics Küvercses (2010) highlights that common target domains include emotions such as anger, fear, love, happiness, sadness, shame, and pride, as well as desire, morality, thought, society, politics, economics, human relationships, communication, time, life and death, religion, and various events and actions For example, Lakoff and Turner (1989) explore metaphors related to life, death, and time in literary texts, illustrating how these conceptual domains are represented through metaphorical language.

In 1992, Kvecses explored the concept of morality through the lens of moral accounting, emphasizing how moral evaluations function like a system of metaphors He described a comprehensive framework where the mind is metaphorically represented as a workshop, and thought is depicted as the manipulation of tools and objects, highlighting how cognitive processes are structured metaphorically to understand moral reasoning.

(1986, 1988, 1990, 1991a, 1991b) are analyses of various emotion concepts Lakoff

(1990, 1993) looks at metaphors for events and actions in general Lakoff (1993,

1994) and Radden (1997) examine the concept of time as conceptualized in terms of moving objects Evans (2004) is a book-length study of time

In Viet Nam, there are some noticeable cognitive linguists, such as Lý Toàn Thắng (2005), Trần Văn Cơ (2007), Nguyễn Đức Tồn (2007, 2009), Phan Văn Hoà

Lý Toàn Thắng (2005) introduces cognitive linguistics and highlights the distinctive features of linguistic models that explain how humans understand the world Trần Văn Cơ (2007) discusses traditional views of metaphor and presents the new perspectives offered by cognitive linguistics, emphasizing its role in modern language analysis Researchers such as Nguyễn Đức Tồn (2008) and Nguyễn Lai (2009) focus on the use of conceptual metaphors in idioms and poetry, respectively, demonstrating how metaphors shape language understanding Additionally, studies from VNU University of Languages and International Studies include Hồ Thị Hải Yến (2012), who examines conceptual metaphors related to "economy" as the human body; Trần Thị Minh Yến (2012), who analyzes metaphors expressing "anger"; and Lê Thị Khánh Hoà (2012), who investigates metaphors of "love" in American and Vietnamese romantic novels from 2008 to 2013 However, none of these studies specifically explore conceptual metaphors of LIFE derived from these other metaphors, indicating a research gap in this area.

Hoàng Nguyên Tôn Ngân (2014) conducted research on cognitive metaphors related to the concept of life, analyzing data primarily sourced from English and Vietnamese lyric songs.

This gap in research highlights the lack of studies examining conceptual metaphors related to life in British novels of the 21st century Motivated by this, I am driven to investigate how life is represented through conceptual metaphors in contemporary British literature My primary focus is to analyze the patterns and themes of these metaphors to contribute new insights into metaphorical language and cultural representations in modern British novels This study aims to fill existing research gaps and enhance understanding of how life is conceptualized in 21st-century British fiction.

Cognitive science

The term "cognition" originates from the Latin root "cognosco," meaning to know, perceive, or conceptualize According to the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, cognition is defined as "the process by which knowledge and understanding are created in the mind," encompassing mental functions such as attention, memory, language, problem solving, and decision making As Ly Toan Thang explains, cognition involves the process of absorbing, storing, and processing information into knowledge, highlighting its essential role in mental functioning.

Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field that studies the mind and intellect, gaining significant attention since the late twentieth century Unlike early philosophical views that considered the mind as a non-empirical entity, cognitive science treats it as a valuable source of data, integrating psychology, linguistics, philosophy, computer science, artificial intelligence, and neuroscience Linguists analyze how people construct and interpret meaningful phrases, while psychologists gather behavioral data on social interactions, language comprehension, and emotional experiences This collaborative approach has led to groundbreaking insights into human thinking, enhancing our understanding of how information is processed in the human brain.

Cognitive linguistics, developed by George Lakoff, Ron Langacker, and Len Talmy in the late 1970s and early 1980s, offers a flexible framework for analyzing natural language Unlike traditional theories, it encompasses multiple overlapping theories that view language as a means of organizing knowledge reflecting individual and societal experiences This approach studies the formal structures of language as reflections of broader cognitive processes, including categorization, conceptual organization, and experiential influences Unlike generative grammar, which relies on rule-based systems to produce grammatical sentences, cognitive linguistics considers language as both a system of rules and a repository of world knowledge, offering meaningful categories that aid in understanding new experiences and storing information.

According to Croft & Cruse (2004), the theory formation in Cognitive Linguistics remains incomplete, but it is guided by three fundamental hypotheses that serve as core principles in understanding language within this framework.

- Language is not an autonomous cognitive faculty

- Knowledge of language emerges from language use

Cognitive linguistics currently challenges traditional research paradigms such as Generative Grammar and Truth-conditional Semantics by presenting alternative hypotheses Ongoing debates and empirical questions within cognitive linguistics aim to defend and refine these innovative theories, highlighting its significance in advancing understanding of language and cognition.

Cognitive Linguistics focuses on the structural characteristics of natural language categorization, such as proto-typicality, systematic polysemy, cognitive models, mental imagery, and metaphor, providing insight into how meaning is structured It also examines the functional principles of linguistic organization, including iconicity and naturalness, which shape how language reflects human cognition The field explores the conceptual interface between syntax and semantics through frameworks like Cognitive Grammar and Construction Grammar, emphasizing the connection between form and meaning Additionally, it considers the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, highlighting how context influences linguistic meaning Finally, Cognitive Linguistics investigates the relationship between language and thought, addressing questions related to linguistic relativism and the existence of conceptual universals, thereby deepening our understanding of language’s role in human cognition.

Cognitive semantics, a key aspect of cognitive linguistics, offers a perspective on how the mind interacts with embodied experience and culture Using language as a primary tool, it reveals the organization and structure of human concepts Emerging in the 1970s as a reaction to the objectivist worldview of traditional Anglo-American philosophy and truth-conditional semantics within formal linguistics, cognitive semantics emphasizes the inseparable connection between language, thought, and experience.

Cognitive semantics views linguistic meaning as a reflection of our conceptual structures, emphasizing how language manifests our mental organization of concepts According to Talmy (2004), research in cognitive semantics focuses on understanding conceptual content and how it is systematically organized within language In contrast, truth-conditional semantics, which considers meaning as the relationship between words and the world, excludes cognitive organization from the linguistic system (Sweetser, 1990) This perspective highlights the importance of conceptual structures in shaping linguistic meaning, making cognitive semantics a key approach to understanding language cognition.

Evans and Green (2006) in their book Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction examine the four guiding principles that collectively characterize the collection of approaches that fall within semantics, as follows:

2 Semantic structure is conceptual structure

Figurative language

Figurative language is a common and natural form of communication, not a deviant or complex process that requires special cognitive skills to understand It is frequently used to convey intense emotional states rather than mild ones, highlighting its role in expressing powerful feelings effectively (Ortony, 1978).

Figurative language involves the use of figures of speech, such as metaphors, to create vivid and expressive communication According to Kennedy and Gioia (2007), figures of speech occur when speakers or writers intentionally deviate from the usual meaning of words to add freshness or emphasis An example is Hamlet’s line, “I will speak daggers to her, but use none,” which highlights how language can be understood both literally, as sharp weapons, and nonliterally, as powerful words This rhetorical device enriches language by allowing double meanings and expressive power.

McArthur (1992) classified figures of speech into four main groups:

1 Phonological figures which include alliteration, assonance and onomatopoeia;

2 Orthographic features, they are visual forms created for effects;

3 Syntactic figures, they may bring the non – standard into standard language;

4 Lexical figures, they extend the conventional so as to surprise or entertain

Figures of speech, despite varying classifications among linguists, share the core principle of conveying one meaning while implying another, as defined by McArthur (1992), who described them as methods of saying one thing and meaning another These rhetorical devices are not meant to be taken literally; instead, they serve to extend the meaning of words, phrases, or sentences beyond their literal expressions, making communication more effective and expressive Figures of speech include various types such as metaphors, similes, personification, metonymy, paradoxes, overstatement, understatement, irony, and allusion, and they function as stylistic tools that clarify, emphasize, evoke emotions, stimulate associations, and enhance aesthetic appeal Their purposes range from clarifying meaning and emphasizing points to amusing and ornamenting language, ultimately enriching our perception and understanding of ideas and objects Overall, the primary purpose of figures of speech is to express one idea while implying another, adding depth and nuance to communication.

Figurative language involves words or phrases that convey meanings beyond their literal interpretation, enriching the text with vivid imagery and depth Various types of figurative language, such as metaphors, similes, and personification, are commonly used to effectively communicate complex ideas and evoke emotions Although these devices are most frequently found in poetry, they are also widely employed in prose and other writing styles to enhance storytelling and engage readers Incorporating figurative language into your writing not only adds literary flair but also helps convey messages more powerfully and memorably.

Figurative language is a fascinating aspect of literary expression that involves making comparisons between different things, often highlighting similarities between inanimate objects and life Authors use these comparisons to provide readers with fresh perspectives on complex or hard-to-describe concepts Common types of figurative language include simile, metaphor, hyperbole, and personification, which are not meant to be taken literally but enrich the meaning and imagery of a text Understanding these elements can enhance one’s appreciation of literary works and improve descriptive writing skills.

Similes are figures of speech that use “like” or “as” to make clear comparisons between two different concepts According to McArthur (1992), a simile involves a possibly fanciful or unrealistic comparison, emphasizing similarities through these connecting words Common examples include phrases such as “He was wily as a fox” and “I slept like a log,” demonstrating how similes effectively enhance descriptions and imagery in language.

Metonymy is a figure of speech where one thing is used to represent related concepts, such as using "wheels" to refer to automobiles, exemplified by the sentence “she’s really proud of her new wheels.” It involves substituting a word associated with the actual object or idea for it, often referring to a part used to signify the whole Unlike a simile, which uses connecting words for comparisons, metonymy directly equates two separate things, as in “He was a wily fox” or “She cried a river of tears,” creating vivid imagery through figurative language.

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Johnson (1980) stated that personification is the assigning of human characteristics to non – humans For example: The moon smiles at us.

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A metaphor is a figure of speech where a word or phrase is applied to an object or action in a way that is not literally applicable, creating the impression that the tenor and vehicle are identical Metaphors often feel more vivid and believable than literal descriptions, although, from a linguistic perspective, their literal meaning forms the basis for understanding the figurative language According to Leech (1969), a metaphor involves a mapping between two different things, and it does not rely on words like "like" or "as" to make the comparison.

A brief example of metaphor can be seen below:

- “You are the light of my life” The person described by this metaphor isn't really providing physical light He or she is just someone who brings happiness or joy.

- “He is the apple of my eye” There is no real apple in a person's eye The "apple" is someone beloved and held dear.

- “Time is a thief” Time isn't really stealing anything This metaphor just indicates that time passes quickly and our lives pass us by.

Irony, derived from the Greek word associated with hypocrisy and deception, involves a form of negativity or contradiction It occurs when the opposite of what is intended or expected happens, creating an incongruity between expectation and reality Irony can manifest as dramatic, verbal, or situational, often adding humor or mild sarcasm to narratives According to McArthur (1992), irony refers to words that imply their opposite meaning, exemplified by statements like, “Well, that’s a lot better, isn’t it?” when kindness in a tough situation unexpectedly makes things worse.

Sarcasm, also known as verbal irony, involves saying one thing while intending another, often conveying sneering or mocking remarks According to McArthur (1992), sarcasm is defined as "sneeringly ironical remarks" used in both rhetoric and everyday conversation An example of sarcasm is saying, “Oh yes, we know how clever you are,” to indicate the opposite of the literal meaning.

Parallelism is a rhetorical device that involves the repetition of a specific grammatical structure, sound, or meaning to create rhythm and emphasis in poetry or prose According to McArthur (1992), "Parallelism is a rhetorical device in which a formula or structural pattern is repeated," enhancing the coherence and impact of the message An example of parallelism is the phrase "We can't hide," which emphasizes the inevitability of facing the truth.

Metaphor

Recent advancements in linguistics, cognitive science, and philosophy have led to diverse definitions of “metaphor,” contrasting with traditional theories (Lakoff, 1992) Cognitive linguists Lakoff and Turner (1989) describe metaphor as a fundamental aspect of thought, encompassing emotions, society, human nature, language, and existential concepts, highlighting its role in shaping our understanding of complex ideas Punter (2007) emphasizes that metaphors are pervasive not only in literature but also in everyday communication, illustrating their significance in daily speech Additionally, Baake (2003) explains that metaphors facilitate interaction between two concepts in the human mind, generating knowledge beyond individual concepts, thus playing a crucial role in the cognitive process of understanding.

Metaphors are a fundamental figure of speech widely used in literature to create implicit comparisons between two unlike objects, highlighting shared qualities through identification or substitution They serve as a powerful device for poetic imagination and rhetorical expression, making language more poetic, engaging, and vivid According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), metaphors can be categorized into three types: structural, orientational, and ontological metaphors, each contributing uniquely to the art of language Writers utilize metaphors to enhance the beauty and expressiveness of their work, making their language more lively and impactful.

Lakoff and Johnson (1980) define metaphor as understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another, emphasizing its deep presence beyond poetic language They highlight that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, shaping our thoughts and actions as much as our language, making it a fundamental aspect of human cognition and communication.

According to Matthews and Goatly (1997), a metaphor is a figure of speech where a word or phrase is taken out of its usual context and applied to another object to suggest a likeness It involves using a descriptive term or name to create vivid imagery by transferring the attributes of one object onto another, emphasizing similarities and enhancing visual expression in language.

Aristotle (1902) explains that a metaphor consists of two essential components: the tenor and the vehicle The tenor represents the implied idea or the hidden subject of the comparison, while the vehicle is the metaphorical word or image used to convey that idea These parts are connected through a shared common ground, creating a meaningful and innovative comparison.

“All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players They have their exits and their entrances.”

William Shakespeare's work often demonstrates the use of metaphor, a literary device discussed extensively by Aristotle in his 1902 works on poetics and rhetoric, where he emphasized its role in tragedy and persuasive speech Metaphors appear not only as nouns but also as verbs and adjectives, enriching language and expression According to Kövecses (2010), traditional views on metaphor highlight its artistic and rhetorical uses, noting that it is typically deployed deliberately by creative individuals for specific effects Moreover, metaphors are often considered optional elements, primarily used for aesthetic enhancement rather than everyday communication, underscoring their significance in literature and persuasive language.

Lakoff and Johnson (1980) identified a significant development in the understanding of metaphor, highlighting its presence beyond language to include thought and action They argued that metaphor is deeply embedded in our daily lives, shaping how we perceive and interact with the world As they stated, “Thought and act are metaphor in natural, and it is in our ordinary conceptual system,” emphasizing that metaphors influence our everyday cognition and behavior.

Metaphor tends to flourish when people discuss their perceptions, raising the question of whether understanding requires going beyond literal meanings or if literal interpretations always take precedence According to Glucksberg, Gildea, and Bookin (1982), metaphorical meanings are automatically processed whenever they are available, regardless of whether there is an apparent need This highlights the automatic nature of metaphor comprehension and its significance in language processing.

(1978, p.95) further argued that “Literal meanings do not have priority”

Larson (1998) explains that a metaphor consists of four key parts: the topic, which is the actual subject being discussed; the image, which represents what the topic is compared to; the point of similarity, highlighting the common aspect shared by both; and the non-figurative equivalent, which provides a literal explanation when the topic involves events His theory emphasizes the role of imagery in understanding metaphors, categorizing them into four main types: anthropomorphic metaphors, animal metaphors, and metaphors that move from concrete to abstract concepts.

Metaphors are often easier to understand than similes, as they directly compare one thing to another without using "like" or "as." Unlike similes, which explicitly highlight similarities, metaphors convey meaning more subtly For example, referring to a failed military campaign as a "vehicle like Vietnam" uses metaphorical language to characterize its tragic and ill-fated nature Incorporating metaphors in writing enhances clarity and adds powerful imagery, making complex ideas more accessible and engaging for readers.

Cognitive semantics is part of the cognitive linguistics movement The main tenets of cognitive semantics are:

2.That conceptual structure is embodied and motivated by usage;

3.That ability to use language draws up on general cognitive resources and not a special language module (Croft & Cruse, 2004)

Cognitive linguistics, as defined by Evans and Green (2006), is primarily focused on the role of meaning rather than formal grammatical rules It is divided into two main areas: cognitive semantics and cognitive approaches to grammar Cognitive semantics explores the connection between human experience, mental conceptual systems, and the semantic structures expressed through language This approach highlights how meaning shapes linguistic understanding, setting it apart from traditional formal linguistic theories that emphasize grammar.

Cognitive semantics plays a crucial role in developing an adequate cognitive model of grammar by first establishing the model of meaning within cognitive linguistics Unlike traditional linguistics that separate phonology, syntax, and pragmatics, cognitive semantics integrates meaning as both construction and knowledge representation, fostering a unified approach This perspective allows for the study of semantics and pragmatics simultaneously, emphasizing the interconnected nature of language understanding By delineating the model of meaning, cognitive semantics provides a comprehensive foundation for advancing cognitive grammar theories and enhancing our grasp of language's cognitive basis.

Cognitive semantic theories are founded on the idea that lexical meaning is conceptual, meaning that a lexeme's meaning relates to mental concepts formed through personal experiences rather than direct references to entities in the real world This suggests that semantics is subjective and intertwined with encyclopedic knowledge, rather than being purely objective These theories also propose that semantic processing shares the same cognitive mechanisms as encyclopedic knowledge, drawing from cognitive psychology and anthropology to explain phenomena like proto-typicality, which cognitive semanticists believe underpins polysemy.

Many cognitive semantic framework, such as the one that developed by Talmy (2000) take into account of syntactic structures as well, while others focus mainly on lexical entities.

The four tenets of cognitive semantics are:

1.Semantic structure is conceptual structure 2.Conceptual structure is embodied

Semantic theories on metaphor is divided into two types; comparison and interaction theory In the comparison theory, ontological metaphors are similes (like

In interaction theory, Levinson (1983) emphasizes that metaphor involves special uses of linguistic expressions where a metaphorical focus is embedded within a literal frame, causing the meanings of both to interact and transform He explains that ontological metaphor plays a crucial role in shifting understanding from literal to metaphorical interpretations, highlighting how meanings evolve through this embedded relationship.

Ullmann (1972) defines meaning as a reciprocal and reversible relationship between a name and its sense, highlighting its fundamental role in language study Despite its importance, the precise definition of “meaning” remains a debated issue among scholars across various disciplines such as linguistics, philosophy, psychology, and anthropology These experts continue to explore and propose theories to better understand this complex and often ambiguous concept.

Conceptual metaphor

Metaphors have traditionally been seen as devices of poetic imagination and rhetorical flourish, primarily associated with language rather than thought or action However, recent understanding reveals that metaphors are a fundamental part of our everyday lives, shaping how we conceptualize the world They are more than mere words; our thoughts and perceptions are deeply embedded in metaphorical frameworks (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) Since our lives are largely conceptualized through metaphors, we are often unaware of how these abstract mental structures influence our behaviors and understanding.

Classical views on metaphor, as noted by Aristotle (cited in Eubanks, 1999), define it as a two-part expression where "something is something else." Aristotle explains that metaphors have two key locations: their original source and their transferred domain He emphasizes that metaphors consist of two components that can be either explicitly expressed or hidden, highlighting that all metaphors can be rephrased as similes, and vice versa.

Conceptual metaphor (CM) was introduced by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in 1980, revolutionizing the understanding of how abstract concepts are understood through more concrete experiences For a comprehensive overview of contemporary theories of metaphor, Gibbs (2008) offers valuable insights, while Kűvecses (2010) provides an in-depth examination of conceptual metaphor theory specifically.

Lakoff and Johnson (1980) emphasize that our conceptual system, which shapes how we think and act, is fundamentally metaphoric in nature They argue that our everyday experiences, perceptions, and behaviors are deeply influenced by metaphorical thinking According to Lakoff and Johnson, metaphor functions at the core of our cognition, serving as a vital cognitive tool that allows us to conceptualize and understand the world around us.

On the other hand, we communicate these metaphorical conceptual construals in expressions that reflect the metaphoric nature of the concept and metaphorical linguistic expressions

Conceptual metaphors involve two key domains: the target domain, typically more abstract, and the source domain, which is more concrete While often associated with poetry, conceptual metaphors are also pervasive in everyday language and thought, shaping how we perceive and interpret the world Unlike mere comparisons or tropes, conceptual metaphors are fundamental to cognition, influencing both our mental processes and actions through conceptualization Recognizing the role of conceptual metaphors reveals their importance beyond language, underlying how we think and communicate daily.

Kửvecses, one of the famous researchers on metaphor, defined the term of

A conceptual metaphor is a way of understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another, serving as a convenient shorthand to capture this relationship According to Kövecses (2002), a conceptual metaphor involves two conceptual domains, where one domain is comprehended through the lens of the other This framework helps explain how abstract concepts are mapped onto more concrete or familiar ideas, facilitating clearer communication and cognitive understanding.

Lakoff and Johnson (1980) explain that metaphor involves understanding one kind of experience in terms of another, such as conceptual metaphors like "ARGUMENT IS WAR," where we interpret arguments through the structure of war They highlight that this metaphorical mapping aligns the structure of war with that of argument, revealing similarities Additionally, Lakoff and Turner (1989) note that this mapping is unidirectional, meaning we use metaphors to project properties from a source domain, like war, onto a target domain, such as argument, creating new conceptual understandings at the metaphor level.

Metaphors at a conceptual level explain why semantically related words often share similar metaphorical uses, such as describing projects through self-propelled motion For example, projects can be referred to as a marathon when challenging or a cakewalk when easy, illustrating how we conceptualize effort and progress This metaphor enables us to talk about moving, picking up speed, or getting back on track, aligning with the idea of a project as a self-propelled journey The fact that multiple related words, like "catwalk," carry metaphorical meanings linked to projects indicates a deeper conceptual connection Overall, a conceptual metaphor underpins our ability to think about and describe projects in terms of self-directed motion, fostering more nuanced understanding and language.

Conceptual metaphors often link self-propelled motion to projects, reflecting how human cognition uses familiar ideas of movement to understand planning and progress For example, we frequently describe projects as "moving forward" or "getting off the ground," illustrating the metaphorical connection between motion and achievement Additionally, morality is commonly conceptualized through cleanliness, where "dirty minds" signify immoral thoughts and "filthy minds" imply even greater moral corruption, highlighting how metaphors shape our understanding of virtue and vice.

A conceptual metaphor is defined as understanding one domain of experience, often abstract, in terms of another, typically concrete, as outlined by Kűvecses (2007) This foundational concept is further explored through Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) categorization, which identifies three types of conceptual metaphors: structural, orientational, and ontological These categories help explain how we comprehend complex and abstract ideas by mapping them onto more familiar, concrete experiences.

According to Kövecses (2002), conceptual metaphors can be categorized into three types: ontological, structural, and orientational, based on their function, nature, and level of generality He emphasizes the importance of the cognitive linguistic perspective, which classifies metaphors according to factors such as conventionality, purpose, knowledge-based or image-based origins, and complexity Lakoff and Johnson (1980) originally identified these three types but later argued that this division is somewhat artificial, asserting that all metaphors are fundamentally structural or ontological, with many also being orientational They noted that orientational metaphors are less frequently used compared to the other types, highlighting their varying roles in conceptualization.

Conceptual metaphors are classified into three main types: orientational, ontological, and structural metaphors, as defined by Lakoff and Johnson, along with Kůvecses Among these, structural metaphors are the most commonly used in language, while orientational and ontological metaphors are less frequently applied Understanding these distinctions is essential for analyzing how metaphors shape our conceptual understanding and communication.

A structural metaphor is an abstract system that organizes complex mental concepts by relating them to other concepts, enabling us to understand one idea in terms of another This type of metaphor plays a crucial role in highlighting or concealing specific phenomena, drawing attention to particular aspects while downplaying others Essentially, structural metaphors allow us to frame one experience or activity through the lens of another, enhancing our comprehension of abstract ideas.

Structural metaphors are commonly used in everyday language, where one concept is understood in terms of another, as described by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) They define structural metaphors as those in which a concept is metaphorically structured based on another, making this group the largest among metaphors Complex but abstract experiences are conceptualized through simple, familiar experiences by “imposing part of one gestalt structure upon another” (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980/2003) Kűvecses (2002) explains that a structural metaphor involves a source domain providing a rich knowledge structure that helps understand the target concept, meaning we often understand one concept through the structural mapping of another, facilitating comprehension of abstract ideas.

A structural metaphor is a cognitive framework that maps complex, abstract concepts onto more concrete, familiar ideas, facilitating understanding and communication Unlike organizational metaphors, structural metaphors function subtly, often without explicit definition, guiding meaning and influencing actions within specific discursive contexts This metaphorical system helps shape perception and reasoning by highlighting underlying relationships between abstract notions and tangible experiences Recognizing structural metaphors enhances comprehension of how language influences thought, making them essential in effective communication and discourse analysis.

Novels and life

A novel is a long work of narrative fiction written in prose and published as a book, according to Wikipedia The term "novel" originates from the Italian word "novella," meaning "new" or "news," and refers to a short story of something new This, in turn, derives from Latin "novella," a diminutive form of "novus," meaning "new."

Novels primarily focus on exploring the personal experiences, inner feelings, and complex, often conflicting thoughts of characters, offering a more detailed and nuanced portrait of both individuals and their worlds Unlike epic poetry and earlier storytelling forms intended for public performance, novels are designed to create an intimate reading experience tailored to individual readers This shift emphasizes the personal nature of the narrative, making novels a highly subjective and immersive literary form.

Novels encompass a wide range of styles, each reflecting the unique voice of different authors While numerous genres and inventive mash-ups populate the literary market, some major subgenres dominate readership preferences Among these, mystery novels stand out as a popular and enduring genre, captivating readers with suspenseful storytelling and intriguing plots Understanding these key novel types can help readers discover new favorites and deepen their appreciation for diverse literary styles.

Mystery novels center on solving a compelling crime, typically a murder, with a detective—professional or amateur—leading the investigation These stories feature a cast of characters who assist in uncovering clues or serve as suspects, creating a suspenseful and engaging narrative.

Science fiction and fantasy are popular genres that focus on imaginative world-building, with science fiction exploring worlds transformed by advanced technology and fantasy envisioning magical realms While the boundaries between these genres can sometimes blur, they each offer unique storytelling experiences—science fiction offering speculative visions of the future through technological innovations, and fantasy creating enchanted worlds filled with magic and myth.

Thriller novels are frequently blended with other genres such as mystery, science fiction, and romance to create engaging and layered stories Their defining characteristic is to evoke fear, suspense, or psychological horror, keeping readers on the edge of their seats throughout the narrative This combination of genres enhances the emotional intensity and complexity of thriller stories, making them compelling reads for diverse audiences.

Romance novels of the present day have some things in common with

Modern portrayals of romance have shifted from the traditional "romances" of the past, which emphasized love as an ultimate goal, scandalous moments, and intense emotions Today’s romantic stories are more focused on narrating a compelling and authentic romantic and/or sexual connection between characters This evolution reflects a broader trend in storytelling, especially within genres like historical fiction, where romantic relationships are intricately woven into the narrative to create engaging and relatable love stories.

Historical fiction, as the name indicates, is a genre that features fictional stories set in real historical periods, blending imagination with authentic past events This genre often explores stories about actual historical figures or integrates original characters into real-life settings, providing readers with a vivid glimpse into different eras Realist fiction within historical fiction aims to portray historical events and characters with accuracy and depth, creating immersive narratives that bring the past to life for modern audiences.

Realist fiction is a genre that prioritizes truthful representation by avoiding exaggerated genres or artistic embellishments, aiming to tell stories that “could” happen in the real world This type of fiction emphasizes authentic portrayal of characters and settings, focusing on portraying life without romanticization or unnecessary stylistic flair By closely mirroring everyday experiences, realist fiction offers readers a genuine perspective on human life and society.

A novel truly comes alive when it transforms from mere words on a page into a vivid, immersive experience in the reader’s mind Sometimes, a novel’s influence extends beyond the imagination, making its presence felt in the outside world Ultimately, it is accurate to say that novels originate from real-life experiences, capturing the essence of life within their stories.

Life has long been a source of inspiration and wonder for countless writers, reflecting its complex and multifaceted nature Although frequently discussed in daily conversations, the true meaning of life cannot be confined to a single definition, as it encompasses a blend of moments—happiness and sadness, success and failure, comfort and pain, encouragement and frustration It is a dynamic mixture of opportunities and obstacles, love and hatred, relief and sorrow, struggle and surrender, making it an endlessly intriguing and profound topic.

Understanding the concept of life is challenging without connecting it to tangible ideas or objects Life can be metaphorically viewed as a game where individuals act as players striving to achieve their goals through skill and fairness Alternatively, life can be seen as a journey, with people as travelers overcoming obstacles to reach their final destination This abstract idea is often described using more concrete metaphors that reflect cultural and regional differences, highlighting the unique perspectives on life across the world.

In Lakoff and Turner’s 1989 work, *More Than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor*, the conceptual metaphors related to “life” are primarily analyzed within the context of poetry Their research provides valuable insights into how life is metaphorically represented through poetic language, highlighting the significance of metaphors in shaping our understanding of life's abstract concepts Additionally, other minor studies have explored the concept of life, contributing further to the field of cognitive and linguistic analysis of metaphorical representations.

This article explores the conceptual metaphor "LIFE IS A JOURNEY" through the lens of semantic and episodic memory recall, building on insights from Katz & Taylor (2008) It offers a deeper understanding of how this metaphor shapes our perception of life, referencing foundational work by Lakoff (1994) and Winter (1995) Despite its significance, research on metaphors related to "life" remains limited compared to other domains, motivating further investigation into this abstract yet profoundly influential concept.

CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS OF LIFE IN BRITISH NOVELS

British Novel Presentation

Half Broken Things is a 2003 psychological thriller novel by Scottish writer

Morag Joss It won the CWA Silver Dagger in 2003.

"Half Broken Things is a gripping crime novel that explores moral complexity and psychological suspense, perfect for fans of Minette Walters and Ruth Rendell." "The story delves into the lives of three lost individuals—Jean, a house sitter at the end of her career; Steph, nine months pregnant and on the run; and Michael, a thief—who find an ominous haven at Walden Manor." "Through deceit, luck, and misfortune, these damaged loners come together and discover what they need most: a new beginning, kindness, and love." "This haunting novel offers a thought-provoking reflection on love, the damage caused by its absence, and the acts driven by our longing for connection."

Millennium People is a novel by British writer J G Ballard, published in

2003 The novel is the story of a rebellion in the middle classes in an enclave of Greater London.

"Millennium People," one of the late British author’s final novels, explores a revolutionary wave among Britain’s middle class, highlighting their shift from responsible citizens to active rebels Set against the backdrop of societal upheaval, the story depicts normally secure and affluent individuals engaging in protests, clashes with police, and acts of vandalism against their own possessions The protagonist, David Markham, is central to the narrative as he becomes increasingly obsessed with terrorists and their motives after losing his ex-wife, Laura, in a bombing This novel vividly examines themes of social discontent, terrorism, and the fragile veneer of societal stability, making it a compelling reflection on modern Britain.

"Black Butterfly is the third and final novel in Mark Gatiss's Lucifer Box trilogy, featuring the thrilling adventures of a bisexual British detective and secret agent This captivating series explores themes of espionage, intrigue, and wit, following the success of the earlier books, The Vesuvius Club and The Devil in Amber Fans of historical mystery and British espionage fiction will find this concluding installment a compelling and witty addition to the trilogy."

This is the third outing for that aging rogue (or should that, perhaps, be

Lucifer Box is a daring agent committed to serving the Crown, showcasing his bravery through thrilling adventures Interestingly, some of his most exciting experiences happen while he is asleep, adding to his enigmatic character Despite this, his encounters with enemies while awake also play a significant role in his compelling story.

Wolf Hall is a historical novel written by Hilary Mantel and released by

In 2009, the novel "Wolf Hall" by Hilary Mantel was published, named after the Seymour family's estate in Wiltshire Set between 1500 and 1535, it offers a sympathetic biography of Thomas Cromwell’s rapid rise to power in Henry VIII's court and explores the political and personal intrigues of the period "Wolf Hall" received critical acclaim, winning both the Man Booker Prize and the National Book Critics Circle Award In 2012, it was also recognized as one of "The Ten Best Historical Novels" by The Observer, solidifying its status as a significant work in historical fiction.

"Me Before You" is a heartfelt romance novel by Jojo Moyes, first published in the UK on January 5, 2012, capturing readers with its emotional storytelling The book's popularity led to a sequel, "After You," released on September 24, 2015, through Pamela Dorman Books, continuing the compelling story.

"Me Before You" follows the story of Louisa Clark, a quirky woman who faces unemployment and searches for a new job, leading her to a life-changing encounter She meets Will Traynor, a man who became paralyzed after a motorcycle accident and has lost his zest for life, spending his days without purpose When Louisa becomes Will's caregiver, she introduces hope and new perspectives into his life The novel explores their evolving relationship, highlighting themes of love, life, and finding joy amid adversity.

"Oblivion is the final installment in Anthony Horowitz's acclaimed The Power of Five series, a compelling fantasy novel by the British author Set across diverse locations including England, New York City, Giza, Dubai, Brazil, Italy, and Antarctica, the book takes readers on an adventurous journey around the world As the concluding chapter of the series, Oblivion showcases Horowitz's storytelling mastery, weaving a captivating narrative that spans multiple continents and landscapes The author's writing process for Oblivion began with careful planning and a vivid imagination, ensuring a thrilling and immersive experience for fans of fantasy literature."

2009 and finished it in 2012, when it was then released in the United Kingdom on 4 October 2012.

Best-selling author Anthony Horowitz delivers a thrilling addition to his supernatural Power of Five series, offering fans an exciting roller coaster ride In this installment, the world is broken and the Five have been separated, with the Old Ones in control, threatening humanity's future The story centers on the Five—Matt, Scott, Jamie, Pedro, and Scarlett—who must reunite to confront Chaos and stand a chance against ultimate darkness Having survived extreme dangers, they are called upon by Chaos to rally together for one last battle, highlighting themes of unity, bravery, and the fight against evil.

Set in the icy depths of Antarctica, this gripping story follows characters facing the ultimate challenge to save mankind Horowitz's masterful storytelling and tension-building skills make the novel a compelling read from start to finish With its intense suspense and vivid setting, this book keeps readers on the edge of their seats throughout its length.

Life after Life, Kate Atkinson’s acclaimed 2013 novel that’s now a four-part

BBC drama highlights the harsh reality that life is incredibly fragile, portraying a dangerous world filled with obstacles The story centers on Ursula, a character born in 1910 who repeatedly dies and is reborn in a never-ending cycle, each time without memory of her past lives Her past deaths influence her instincts—such as avoiding certain places or people—that help her extend her life and protect her loved ones Kate Atkinson's new novel masterfully explores these themes, offering a captivating narrative that invites readers to participate in a clever deception, emphasizing life's delicate balance and the resilience needed to navigate it.

3.1.8 The Unexpected Consequences of Love

The Unexpected Consequences of Love is a romantic comedy from author Jill

Jill Mansell's latest novel explores the interconnected lives of residents in a charming coastal town in Cornwall The story centers around Sophie Wells, a beautiful and successful photographer who has vowed to stay single, only to be pursued by the irresistibly handsome hotel owner, Josh Strachan Tension arises as Josh struggles to understand Sophie’s reluctance, adding depth to the romantic plot Alongside their evolving relationship, the narrative features Sophie’s witty best friend Tula, known for her sarcasm and vibrant personality, and Riley, a charming yet lazy serial womanizer whose flirtations create unpredictable twists This engaging story combines romance, humor, and heartfelt moments set against the picturesque backdrop of St Carys.

3.1.9 The Girl on the Train

The Girl on the Train is a 2015 psychological thriller novel by British author

Paula Hawkins' "The Girl on the Train" is a gripping mystery novel that explores the intertwined lives of three women—Rachel, Anna, and Megan—each facing relationship struggles caused by controlling and coercive men The novel delves into themes of abuse, manipulation, and trauma, with the protagonist Rachel battling alcoholism as she navigates the complex aftermath of Megan’s murder Through compelling narratives, Hawkins highlights the impact of toxic relationships and the ways in which these women’s lives become unexpectedly connected.

Structural metaphors of life in the selected British novels

A journey, as defined by Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, is the act of traveling from one place to another, often covering significant distances Travelers rely on various modes of transport to reach their destinations quickly, but they also face numerous obstacles along the way Similarly, life can be seen as a traveler’s journey, with personal goals representing the destinations we strive to achieve The journey is seldom smooth and often involves challenges and difficult decisions about which path to follow or whether to continue traveling together Hardships and unpredictable ups and downs are inevitable in life, making resilience, bravery, and determination essential for overcoming obstacles and reaching our goals.

The metaphor "Life is a journey" illustrates how the domain of life is understood through the concept of a journey By using "journey" as a source domain, this metaphor helps convey that life involves progressing through various stages, facing challenges, and experiencing growth, much like traveling along a path This conceptual framework emphasizes that life's experiences are akin to a journey, highlighting themes of exploration, transformation, and ongoing movement toward goals.

The concept of "life" as a target domain reveals various cognitive mappings, many of which incorporate widely used metaphors that influence everyday thought These metaphorical references play a crucial role in shaping our understanding and perception of life's complex experiences Exploring how these mappings operate offers valuable insights into the way we conceptualize abstract ideas through familiar physical or experiential domains Incorporating these metaphorical frameworks can enhance communication and deepen our comprehension of human cognition related to "life."

A number of metaphorical expressions manifested from the conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY have been found in British novels during the period of time from 2003 to 2015 as shown below:

- Suicide had been mentioned, but no one had died

Had Sophie been the one who'd attempted to end her own life? p.25

- It had felt like the longest journey of her life, from sunny Montmartre to the cardiac surgery intensive care unit in gray, rain-soaked Plymouth. p.29

The Train - He’s the big hole in my life, in the middle of my soul Or maybe he was just the beginning of it. p.6

- I wonder whether they are there, whether he knows, whether he’s left, or whether he’s still living a life he’s yet to discover is a lie p.9

Meeting Kamal is a thrilling prospect, as he is the catalyst for a significant turn in my life The moment I saw him kiss Megan, everything shifted, marking a pivotal point in my personal journey.

This quote highlights a straightforward, no-nonsense attitude towards employment, emphasizing that the speaker’s loyalty depends on the person who pays them—in this case, the mother They make it clear that their stay is solely driven by financial necessity, rather than personal care or interest in the work or the individual involved Ultimately, their primary motivation is income security, stating, “I really need the money,” which underscores the importance of financial stability over personal connections in this context.

- You never know, this might be the start of a whole new independent life for Will. p.88

- Sylvie said they mustn’t be scared of the influenza

‘Life must go on,’ she said. p.57

- ‘Thirteen is quite grown-up nowadays And life can be very short, you know,’ Izzie added, taking out a long ebony and ivory cigarette holder. p.94

- ‘Why is everything an “adventure” with you?’ Sylvie said irritably to Izzie.

‘Because life is an adventure, of course.’

‘I would say it was more of an endurance race,’

Sylvie said ‘Or an obstacle course.’ p.114

A bereft Teddy carried emotional wounds deep within, with a heart scar from losing little Nancy Shawcross He felt as though entering a room could feel like the end of his world, yet he continued to live despite the heartbreak This poignant image highlights the enduring pain of loss and the resilience of the human spirit, resonating deeply with readers who understand the lasting impact of grief.

"You are an old soul," he said, emphasizing that despite life's challenges, your future remains full of potential and opportunities to be lived fully Although he was no longer her doctor—having retired—his words offered comfort and wisdom about embracing life ahead.

- Ursula was not intending to spend long in Munich.

Germany was no more than a detour in her life, part of her adventurous year in Europe. p.207

I was surprised to realize how far my life had strayed, leading me to spend an unexpected Friday night in this situation Despite this, I found myself not entirely upset, which only made me feel more conflicted and guilty about my choices.

- And even if he did, how could he allow Reynolds to end his life, to enslave him eternally to the demon

Isobel had fought so hard to save him from? p.92

Life is often compared to a journey, taking us on unexpected paths that introduce new people and teach us valuable lessons Along this voyage, we may encounter roadblocks that cause us to veer off course, leading to moments of uncertainty and change Sometimes, unavoidable detours appear, redirecting us through difficulties and challenges, ultimately inspiring a fresh start and new opportunities for growth and fulfillment.

To sum up, the more abstract notion of life can be comprehended through the more concrete one, a journey with various metaphorical linguistic expressions analyzed above.

MAPPING BETWEEN TWO CONCEPTUAL DOMAINS

- Suicide had been mentioned, but no one had died.

Had Sophie been the one who'd attempted to end her own life?

The journey will come to an end, that's when life stops

- It had felt like the longest journey of her life, from sunny Montmartre to the cardiac surgery intensive care unit in gray, rain-soaked Plymouth.

Every journey can be a long trip but it can also be a short trip, so is everyone's life

- He’s the big hole in my life, in the middle of my soul Or maybe he was just the beginning of it

There are obstacles along the way, just like life there are difficult barriers

- I wonder whether they are there, whether he knows, whether he’s left, or whether he’s still living a life he’s yet to discover is a lie

Explore each trip, just like explore the nature of the life

The idea of meeting Kamal is undeniably exciting for me, as he is the catalyst of this story; a mere glimpse of him changed my life forever Witnessing him kiss Megan was a pivotal moment that transformed everything, altering the course of my life.

We take a different path from the one we initially chose, deviating from the path before

I'm not employed by you; I'm employed by your mother, and I will stay unless she tells me otherwise My presence here is primarily for financial reasons, not because I care about you or enjoy this job, but because I really need the money.

The journey of changing the road affects us in many ways, choice of path is choice of life

- You never know, this might be the start of a whole new independent life for Will Life has a beginning point

- Sylvie said they mustn’t be scared of the influenza ‘Life must go on,’ she said.

Life, even if it is sometimes delayed, will still have to continue to the destination

- ‘Thirteen is quite grown-up nowadays And life can be very short, you know,’ Izzie added, taking out a long ebony and ivory cigarette holder

Life's distance can be very short like a shortcut

- ‘Why is everything an “adventure” with you?’

Sylvie said irritably to Izzie.

‘Because life is an adventure, of course.’

‘I would say it was more of an endurance race,’

Sylvie said ‘Or an obstacle course.’

Life is full of miracles like adventure

- A bereft Teddy carried his wounds on the inside, a scar across his heart where little Nancy Shawcross

The end of life is where the journey ends had been ripped away ‘It’s as if,’ he said to Ursula,

‘you walk into a room and your life ends but you keep on living.’

- ‘You are an old soul,’ he said ‘It can’t be easy

But your life is still ahead of you It must be lived.’ He was not her doctor, he had retired, he said, he was ‘merely a visitor’

Life, despite its ups and downs, is always ahead waiting for you

- Ursula was not intending to spend long in Munich.

Germany was no more than a detour in her life, part of her adventurous year in Europe

Difficulties in life are impediments to travel

I never imagined my life would take such a unexpected turn, ending up doing this on a Friday night Surprisingly, I wasn't completely upset about it, though that realization only made me feel worse.

We take a different path from the one we initially chose, deviating from the path before

Even if he had the power to do so, how could he permit Reynolds to end his life and become eternally enslaved to the demon Isobel fought so hard to save him from?

3.2.2 LIFETIME IS PASSING OF TIME

Time can be measured using units such as minutes, hours, and years, providing a concrete way to understand its passage A day is defined as the interval between dawn and dusk, illustrating how we segment time into familiar periods The concept of a "lifetime" relates to the total duration humans live, encompassing birth, living, and ultimately death Understanding the relationship between lifetime and the passage of time helps us appreciate the finite nature of human existence within the broader framework of time measurement.

METAPHORS LIFETIME IS PASSING OF TIME

- She glanced over at her father ‘I can’t put my whole life on hold just because of Will’s mental state.’ p.38

- I would have to fill those little white rectangles with a lifetime of things that could generate happiness, contentment, satisfaction or pleasure. p.41

- He told them that watching other people live even half the life he had planned for himself was unbearable, a kind of torture. p.56

- You’ve got to get away from here, Clark Promise me you won’t spend the rest of your life stuck around this bloody parody of a place mat. p.58

- “This isn’t much of a life, Clark But when I think about how much worse it could get – some nights I lie in my bed and I can’t actually breathe.” p.74

I reminded myself that, for most of his life, Will's world extended beyond the small annex near the castle to encompass the entire globe and expansive shores.

- I’ve done more, lived more, in the last six months than in the last twenty-seven years of my life p.105

- ‘It has been,’ I told him, ‘the best six months of my entire life.’ p.107

- He’s waiting for me to start, but it’s hard, harder than

I thought it was going to be I’ve kept this secret for so long – a decade, more than a third of my life p.42

- Pamela sighed the sigh of someone with a lifetime behind them already and sat at the table p.42

- ‘Looked at you?’ Ursula said Teddy in the last moments of his life, knowing he was going to die p.283

Ontological metaphors of life in the selected British novels

Understanding our experiences as entities or substances enables us to refer to, categorize, group, and quantify them, facilitating reasoned analysis (Lakoff, 1980) Viewing life as an entity allows us to identify specific aspects, measure its significance, recognize its causes, and act accordingly, fostering a deeper sense of understanding For example, the conceptual metaphor "LIFE IS AN ENTITY" is frequently reflected in British novels, illustrating how literature employs this perspective to deepen themes and character development.

METAPHORS LIFE IS AN ENTITY

In a pivotal moment, I emphasized to her, "It’s my life—our lives—you’re holding in your hands," highlighting the gravity of her choices I acknowledged that she might not fully care about sacrificing me, but I pointed out that such actions would also impact Dee, emphasizing the interconnectedness of our lives and the importance of making responsible decisions.

- “It is my life.” Dee swung her purse at me but missed “And you took it from me.” p.63

- Not when her life was in my hands p.88

My mother had another baby with my second stepfather, highlighting the complex family dynamics Meanwhile, my grandmother chose not to take on a caregiving role, emphasizing her independent nature This reflects the personal boundaries and individual choices within our family's relationships.

- ‘I have a life too, you know.’ It came out like a protest p.38

- ‘You only get one life It’s actually your duty to live it as fully as possible.’ p.58

- ‘I’m not talking about physically,’ she said ‘I’m talking about learning to embrace a new life.’ p.79

4 Life After Life - That would have been a quite different life, perhaps a better one. p.84

- He had grown rather remorseful over the clandestine p.162 nature of their relationship She had brought a little excitement into what had become a rather tedious life, he said

- Eva would have been happier back in Munich, in the little bourgeois house that the Führer had bought for her, where she could lead a normal social life p.222

- I love him more now because I feel so damn sorry for him He’ll never marry, never have children, never have the wonderful life that was his birthright p.282

- You probably wouldn’t look at me twice An ordinary girl, leading an ordinary life It actually suited me fine p.06

- ‘Come on, man I know it must be terribly hard … all this But if you care for Lissa at all, you must want her to have a good life.’ p.15

- And I cannot for the life of me see how you can be content to live this tiny life p.61

An entity is defined by Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2000) as "something that exists separately from other things and has its own identity," highlighting its distinctiveness This allows for the classification of entities into various groups based on their unique features Additionally, the abstract concept of life can be understood in relation to tangible entities, enabling us to categorize different types of life, such as a better life, a precious life, a tedious life, or a normal social life These classifications help to better understand the diverse experiences and meanings associated with different forms of life.

MAPPING BETWEEN TWO CONCEPTUAL DOMAINS

SOURCE: AN ENTITY TARGET: LIFE

"This is my life—our lives—you're holding in your hands," I told her "While I understand you may not care about risking my safety, consider that your actions could also endanger Dee’s life."

Life is something that can be held in the palm of your hand

- “It is my life.” Dee swung her purse at me but missed Life exists

“And you took it from me.” concretely, so it can be taken away

- Not when her life was in my hands Life is a concrete thing and can be held in the palm of hand

My mother had a baby with my second stepfather, highlighting the complex family dynamics My grandmother also chose not to get involved, as she has her own life to lead and isn't the type of Nan to interfere.

Life can be led and directed like a tangible thing

- ‘I have a life too, you know.’ It came out like a protest

- ‘You only get one life It’s actually your duty to live it as fully as possible.’

- ‘I’m not talking about physically,’ she said ‘I’m talking about learning to embrace a new life.’

Holding life tight like a tangible physical object

- That would have been a quite different life, perhaps a better one

Life has a specific quality like a valuable tangible object

- He had grown rather remorseful over the clandestine nature of their relationship She had brought a little excitement into what had become a rather tedious life, he said

- Eva would have been happier back in Munich, in the little bourgeois house that the Führer had bought for her, where she could lead a normal social life

- I love him more now because I feel so damn sorry for him He’ll never marry, never have children, and never have the wonderful life that was his birthright

- You probably wouldn’t look at me twice An ordinary girl, leading an ordinary life It actually suited me fine

- ‘Come on, man I know it must be terribly hard … all this But if you care for Lissa at all, you must want her to have a good life.’

- And I cannot for the life of me see how you can be content to live this tiny life

According to Lakoff and Johnson, human self-reflection shapes our understanding of ourselves as physical beings bounded by our skin, which separates us from the outside world We naturally view ourselves as containers with an inside and outside, projecting this in-out orientation onto external objects This concept explains how we interpret the world through metaphorical lenses, often reflected in British literature, where everyday objects and environments are depicted using container metaphors These metaphors play a crucial role in illustrating human perception, emphasizing the importance of understanding our innate tendency to see ourselves and our surroundings as enclosed containers with distinct inner and outer realms.

- And the baby came back to life It was that simple p.91

- Hugh had been there, he had held on to her hand and kept her in this life p.150

- She fed the meter and the little Radiant popped back into life She hadn’t gassed herself after all then p.285

- Hanne crossed her hands over her chest, looking like a rather constipated saint ‘My life is fulfilled,’ she laughed. p.206

- Inside the marquee huge fans had been kicked into life, whirring lazily over our heads. p.78

- Out at sea a storm had exploded into life p.95

- I don’t want you to be tied to me, to my hospital appointments, to the restrictions on my life p.97

- Though she had attended only two funerals in her life, she had learned through both experiences that observances like this were intended for the living, not the dead. p.19

In British culture, the abstract concept of life is often understood through the concrete imagery of a container, emphasizing their shared understanding of containment People view life as a container because it holds everything—memories, love, friendship, sadness, joy, failures, and successes—representing the richness and complexity of human experiences This analogy highlights how life is perceived as a vessel that encompasses all aspects of existence, making the abstract idea more tangible and relatable.

MAPPING BETWEEN TWO CONCEPTUAL DOMAINS

The baby came back to life, demonstrating that life has tangible form and shape Life exists as a concrete object that can be placed on, in, or around various surfaces and containers We can enter, leave, reenter, or stand above life, highlighting its physical and navigable nature as something that can contain and encompass other elements.

- Hugh had been there, he had held on to her hand and kept her in this life

- She fed the meter and the little Radiant popped back into life She hadn’t gassed herself after all then

- Hanne crossed her hands over her chest, looking like a rather constipated saint ‘My life is fulfilled,’ she laughed

- Inside the marquee huge fans had been kicked into life, whirring lazily over our heads

- Out at sea a storm had exploded into life

- I don’t want you to be tied to me, to my hospital appointments, to the restrictions on my life

- Though she had attended only two funerals in her life, she had learned through both experiences that observances like this were intended for the living, not the dead.

Life is often conceptualized as a personal possession, with people frequently using language such as "my life" or "your life" to emphasize this perspective These metaphorical expressions, though subtle, are among the most common ways we talk about life, highlighting its perception as an object or asset This linguistic tendency to refer to life as a possession appears frequently in literature, including numerous examples from British novels, illustrating how deeply ingrained this conceptual metaphor is in our understanding of existence.

METAPHORS LIFE IS A PERSONAL POSSESSION

- The Führer took up so much room in Eva’s life that when he wasn’t here she was an empty vessel p.221

- It reminded her of something but for the life of her she couldn’t think what p.242

- ‘You’re such a bright young woman,’ Miss Woolf said ‘Don’t waste your life, will you? If you’re spared.’ p.254

- This, Ursula thought, would remain the best moment of her life, no matter what else happened to her p.306

- Letting her fingertips trail over the numbers, she wondered what could have ended the boy’s life at just seventeen p.20

- If she hadn’t intervened when she did, I don’t know if I would’ve broken Baruck’s hold I owed her my life p.78

This study analyzes common expressions from British novels, such as "his life," "her life," "my life," "your life," and "their lives," highlighting how each individual's life is regarded as a precious possession The concept of life is often perceived as a personal possession, emphasizing its value and significance in literary narratives Understanding these expressions enhances comprehension of how personal identity and ownership are portrayed in British literature, making this analysis valuable for SEO-focused content related to literary themes and personal identity.

MAPPING BETWEEN TWO CONCEPTUAL DOMAINS LIFE IS A PERSONAL POSSESSION

SOURCE: A PERSONAL POSSESSION TARGET: LIFE

- The Führer took up so much room in Eva’s life that when he wasn’t here she was an empty vessel

Life is a tangible, condensed material that can be owned, so it

- It reminded her of something but for the life of her she couldn’t think what

- ‘You’re such a bright young woman,’ Miss Woolf said

‘Don’t waste your life, will you? If you’re spared.’

- This, Ursula thought, would remain the best moment of her life, no matter what else happened to her can belong to a person like him, her, mine, a guy, etc.

- Letting her fingertips trail over the numbers, she wondered what could have ended the boy’s life at just seventeen

- If she hadn’t intervened when she did, I don’t know if I would’ve broken Baruck’s hold I owed her my life

Personification is prevalent not only in literature but also in everyday communication, helping us understand non-human entities through human motivations and characteristics As Lakoff (1980) explains, this cognitive process enables us to interpret a wide range of experiences by projecting human qualities onto non-human elements In British novels, metaphorical expressions that embody the conceptual metaphor "LIFE IS A PERSON" are frequently used, illustrating how personification enriches language and storytelling.

- ‘I don’t want my job back,’ he said gruffly ‘My days as some rich nob’s servant are over I miss the garden, not the life The garden was a thing of beauty.’ p.54

Bridget's decision to acknowledge the suit by saying, “That’s a good suit, someone will be grateful for it,” highlights her resilience in challenging moments Without her positive comment, she might have felt overwhelmed and considered collapsing into despair This small act of appreciation underscores the importance of hopeful outlooks even in difficult circumstances, as reflected on page 258.

- ‘No point in thinking,’ she said briskly, ‘you just have to get on with life.’ p.275

- Not even draining the darkness from his dead world and replacing it with light and life had been able to convince him that she’d returned for him yet again p.39

- Life had become more modest; an air of quiet waiting descended, befitting a household that is observing a period of formal mourning p.235

I witnessed the full spectrum of human relationships unfold across those tables—from children moving between divorced parents to parents experiencing guilty relief for avoiding meal preparation I also observed pensioners finding secret pleasure in simple fried breakfasts These interactions revealed the richness of human life, with most people sharing a few words with me and creating a vibrant, interconnected community.

You jokes or comments over the mugs of steaming tea

- My life had become strange and disconnected from everyone I knew – Will’s plight and his secrets had swamped me p.86

- ‘But it does define me, Clark You don’t know me, not really You never saw me before this thing I loved my life, Clark Really loved it p.97

Life is best understood through human characteristics, embodying qualities like love, remembrance, and connection It often reflects diverse personalities such as modesty, silliness, complexity, strangeness, and disconnection British novels frequently use human expressions to symbolize different facets of this abstract concept of life Ultimately, life is personalized and plays a crucial role in our relationships within society.

MAPPING BETWEEN TWO CONCEPTUAL DOMAINS

- ‘I don’t want my job back,’ he said gruffly ‘My days as some rich nob’s servant are over I miss the garden, not the life The garden was a thing of beauty.’

The act of missing out on life is like not wanting to miss a person

- If Bridget hadn’t taken it from her and said,

‘That’s a good suit, someone will be grateful for it,’ she might have crawled into the wardrobe and given up on life

Giving up life is like giving up someone

- ‘No point in thinking,’ she said briskly, ‘you just have to get on with life.’

Life needs to be treated well

- Not even draining the darkness from his dead world and replacing it with light and life had been able to convince him that she’d returned for him yet again

Life is a living individual that acts like a human, like persuading others

- Life had become more modest; an air of quiet waiting descended, befitting a household that is

The personal quality of observing a period of formal mourning humility exists in life

CONCLUSION