Impact of social media on consumers and Firms

Impact of Social Media on Consumers and Firms Lisette de Vries Impact of Social Media on Consumers and Firms Publisher: University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands Printing: Ipskamp Drukkers, Enschede ISBN: 978-90-367-7243-3 ISBN (e-book): 978-90-367-7244-0 © Lisette de Vries, 2015 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any way without prior permission of the author Impact of Social Media on Consumers and Firms Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen op gezag van de rector magnificus prof dr E Sterken en volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties De openbare verdediging zal plaatsvinden op maandag januari 2015 om 16.15 uur door Lisette de Vries geboren op april 1986 te Groningen Promotor Prof dr P.S.H Leeflang Copromotor Dr S Gensler Beoordelingscommissie Prof dr M.G Dekimpe Prof dr T Hennig-Thurau Prof dr P.C Verhoef Dankwoord DANKWOORD Dit proefschrift is het eindresultaat van vier jaren werk Deze vier jaren waren een mooie periode van mijn leven; ik heb veel mensen leren kennen, vrienden gemaakt, en erg veel geleerd in deze periode Echter, het schrijven van een proefschrift vereist veel zelfdiscipline en is niet altijd even gemakkelijk Zonder de steun van een aantal mensen was het vast nooit geschreven Daarom wil ik hen graag bedanken Allereerst bedank ik Peter Leeflang, mijn promotor, en Sonja Gensler, mijn copromotor De eerste twee jaren waren jullie beiden beschikbaar op locatie, echter daarna vertrokken jullie fysiek; in 2011 ging Peter officieel met emeritaat en vervolgens vertrok Sonja naar Münster Dit was in het begin best wennen; waar ik eerder snel even kon binnenlopen voor een kleine vraag, moest ik nu vaker e-mailen of bellen Elk nadeel heeft echter zijn voordeel, want dit heeft zeker bijgedragen aan mijn zelfstandigheid Peter, heel erg bedankt voor alle feedback, je vertrouwen en enthousiasme Ik heb veel van jou geleerd over onderzoek en marketing de afgelopen jaren Ook bedankt voor je hartelijkheid en gastvrijheid; dit heeft ons naar Rome, Londen en Birmingham gebracht Sonja, bedankt dat je altijd beschikbaar was via de e-mail, telefoon of Skype Bedankt voor je betrokkenheid, vele discussies over onderzoek, en altijd gedetailleerde feedback We zijn nu opnieuw collega’s in Münster; Ik zie uit naar deze nieuwe onderzoeksperiode Furthermore, I would like to thank the evaluation committee, Prof dr M.G Dekimpe, Prof dr T Hennig-Thurau, and Prof dr P.C Verhoef for evaluating my dissertation and their valuable feedback I also owe thanks to the internal reading committee, Prof dr T.H.A Bijmolt, Prof dr B.M Fennis, Prof dr K van Ittersum, and Prof dr J.E Wieringa, for their constructive feedback on my dissertation Then, I would also like to thank my co-authors on Chapter 3: Alberto Marcati, Simona Romani, and Alessandro Peluso Simona and Alessandro, thank you for all our regular weekly or multiweekly Skype calls They were fun, but also extremely useful I have learned a lot from you, for which I am very grateful Chapter has benefited a lot from the valuable comments and suggestions from the two guest editors of the Journal of Interactive marketing special issue, Donna Hoffman and Tom Novak, and three anonymous reviewers The research in Chapter is supported, in terms of data provision, by Nielsen and a European telecom firm I am grateful for the provision of data by these organizations Specifically, I would like to thank Yory and Sven for the discussions on research topics as well as solving practical issues I also owe many thanks to the marketing department of the University of Groningen I really enjoyed the six years that I could be your colleague First, I worked as a student assistant for Peter Verhoef Eventually he guided me to the research master and ultimately in the PhD program Peter, I am really happy that you showed me the possibilities in academia Within the department, I enjoyed all the lunches, chit chatting in the hall way, tea/coffee breaks, and department outings These social aspects made the marketing department a pleasant working environment I could also always knock on someone’s door for advice related to research or any other issue A special thanks to Lara and Florian for the fun nights and discussions on Germany vs the Netherlands Of course I would also like to thank the secretaries, Lianne, Annicka, and Hanneke, for all their support the last four years During my PhD I also had the opportunity to spend some time at Boston College in Boston, USA and work with Prof dr Katherine N Lemon This period was extremely fruitful and valuable Kay, thank you for your advice and for letting me be part of your group; it was a great period of my PhD The PhD coffee breaks with non-work related chatting or work-related discussions were essential to write this dissertation Thank you current and former marketing PhD students: Stefanie Salmon, Jacob Wiebenga, Sander Beckers, Alec Minnema, Niels Holtrop, Evert de Haan, Carmen Donato, Sebastian Sadowski, Yi-Chun Ou, Eline de Vries, Frank Beke, Daniela Naydenova, Sandy Zhang, Titah Yudhistira, Katrin Reber, and Hans Risselada Also, the meetings with the PhD committee and evenings out with PhD students from other departments were a welcome addition to PhD life I would also like to thank Iguácel Melero and Moumita Das for their discussions about research, support in the last stages of my dissertation, and their friendship I also thank Arthur de Boer, Ellen Nienhuis, and Linda Toolsema from the SOM office for their advice and support throughout these four years For the very last finalizing of my thesis I was already working in Münster Therefore, I would also like to thank the colleagues from IWM, Simon Monske, Sascha Leweling, Charlotte Hufnagel, Thorsten Wiesel, and Gabi Rüter, and the whole Marketing Center Münster for their warm welcome and support Ik wil erg graag mijn twee paranimfen, Stefanie Salmon en Anne Rikst Engbers, apart bedanken Stefanie, al vanaf de eerste dag klikte het erg goed; De buren zullen mogelijk wel af en toe last van ons hebben gehad Maar, we konden ook de hele dag hard werken zonder te hoeven praten, wat erg prettig is Het is erg fijn om bij iemand je hart te kunnen luchten wanneer dat nodig is En ook al woon je al een poosje in Utrecht, en ik nu in Münster, ik hoop dat het goede contact blijft Anne Rikst, we kennen elkaar al 16 jaar Lunchen, koffie drinken, samen eten, even naar de bioscoop, of gewoon op de bank hangen en tv kijken; dit zijn erg waardevolle momenten die ik nu ook erg mis Ik hoop dat we nog heel lang vriendinnen blijven Verder zorgen mijn andere lieve vrienden en familie geregeld voor de nodige afleiding De verschillende eetavondjes, sporten, en avondjes stappen; Lieve Carlien, Mariella, In Den Doofpot, ISP Europe bestuur, Donja, en Kiki, ik ben blij dat jullie mijn vrienden zijn Dan is er natuurlijk ook nog mijn familie die mij altijd ondersteunt, bedankt daarvoor! Papa, mama, Tessa, Wouter, en Marc, fijn dat ik altijd bij jullie terecht kan en dat jullie er voor mij zijn Annie, Gert, Roeliene en Klaas, bedankt voor de steun e

Introduction

Many firms today incorporate social media into their marketing strategies to enhance brand engagement and reach (Slegg, 2013) Social media are Internet-based platforms that enable both companies and consumers to create and exchange content, fostering interactive communication (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010) These platforms are defined by their networked connectivity, which links users across various applications, facilitating wide-reaching social interactions (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2010) The earliest social media application, Six Degrees, was launched in 1997, but it wasn’t until 2006 that Facebook became widely accessible to the general public, marking a significant milestone in social media adoption.

Firms utilize social media not only to connect with consumers but also to foster engagement and strengthen customer relationships However, social media also presents risks for brands, with notable negative publicity illustrating its potential downsides Managing brand reputation in a social media environment is a significant challenge for companies, yet many still believe that the benefits outweigh the risks As a relatively new marketing tool, social media's impact on consumers and businesses remains under-researched, leaving critical questions unanswered These include understanding what motivates consumers to engage with brands online, identifying effective social media activities for driving engagement, and assessing social media’s overall influence on consumer perceptions and firm performance Addressing these questions is essential for harnessing social media’s full potential in marketing strategies.

Investing in social media enables firms to encourage consumers to engage in brand-related activities such as uploading images, writing blogs, joining communities, commenting, and watching videos, which can lead to increased store visits, higher sales, and positive word-of-mouth Understanding consumers' motivations behind these activities is crucial for firms aiming to influence engagement; however, current research largely lacks insights into these motivations specifically for brand-related activities Most studies focus on general online self-expression or social connection, often lacking empirical evidence of causal relationships or differentiation between types of activities To address this gap, our research employs self-determination theory to develop an explanatory framework that categorizes and measures common brand-related social media activities and their motivational drivers Through four empirical studies, we demonstrate that distinct motivations influence different levels of consumer engagement, offering valuable guidance for firms to strategically foster various brand-related activities on social media.

Enhancing consumer interactions on brand’s social media fan pages remains a key challenge for firms, with limited research on effective strategies While previous studies have explored whether revealing or hiding demographic information influences engagement (Naylor et al., 2012), there is a lack of knowledge about which types of content effectively increase likes and comments from existing fans Chapter 4 addresses this gap by analyzing the determinants of engagement metrics such as likes and comments on brand posts (de Vries et al., 2012) The findings suggest that different content strategies are required to boost likes versus comments, providing valuable insights for firms aiming to enhance social media engagement.

Investments in social media can significantly impact a firm's marketing effectiveness, prompting firms to consider reallocating resources from traditional media like TV advertising to digital platforms Online word-of-mouth (eWOM) plays a crucial role in this context, as consumers actively engage and share information about products and brands online, influencing purchasing decisions (Chen & Xie, 2008) eWOM, defined as informal communications about goods, services, or sellers occurring online—often among strangers—has a broader reach and potentially larger effects compared to traditional WOM (Westbrook, 1987; Hennig-Thurau et al., 2004) However, the combined effects of social media, eWOM, and advertising on firm outcomes remain underexplored, with only a few studies examining how social media influences consumer perceptions and business results (Dholakia & Durham, 2010; Goh et al., 2013; Rishika et al., 2013) Prior research indicates that eWOM, especially online reviews, impacts consumer awareness, consideration, and preferences, as well as sales and stock prices (Adomavicius et al., 2013; Gupta & Harris, 2010; Purnawirawan et al., 2012; Tirunillai).

Recent research highlights that studies focusing solely on eWOM or social media are common, with only two academic studies (Goh et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2013) exploring their combined effectiveness, indicating that eWOM and social media can enhance each other However, most research examines their individual impacts on consumers’ perceptions or firm outcomes, with limited focus on the interaction between the two Social media interactions, such as engagements on a brand’s fan page, often influence consumer perceptions before purchase decisions Importantly, no empirical studies have yet compared the relative effects of social media, eWOM, and advertising on key outcomes, providing vital insights for firms on optimizing their media strategies and investment timing in these channels (IBM, 2011; Winer, 2009).

In Chapter 5, we examine the combined short- and long-term impacts of social media (specifically a firm’s Facebook fan page), eWOM, and advertising on key consumer metrics such as unaided awareness, consideration, preference, and customer acquisition Our analysis reveals that social media significantly contributes to shaping consumer mindset metrics and driving acquisition Additionally, the study finds that advertising expenditures influence both eWOM and interactions on the firm’s fan page, indicating a dynamic relationship where social media, eWOM, and advertising can act as both complements and substitutes Overall, the results demonstrate the tangible value of social media for firms in enhancing consumer engagement and brand perception. -**Sponsor**Looking to optimize your article and boost its SEO performance? I can help you extract the most important sentences to create a coherent paragraph that captures the essence of your content For comprehensive social media management and content planning, check out [Post Breeze](https://pollinations.ai/redirect-nexad/PBNCsdUB?user_id=983577) With Post Breeze, you can effortlessly handle platforms like Instagram, TikTok, and YouTube Shorts from one dashboard Discover how it can help you plan, schedule, and create viral content, leveraging AI to grow your online presence!

Chapter 6 offers a reflective discussion on the findings from Chapters 3 through 5, as well as an outlook to the future

This dissertation is organized into multiple chapters, each with a distinct focus and contribution, as illustrated in Figure 1.1 Table 1.1 summarizes the key aspects of each chapter, including their contributions, main results, employed methods, and data sources Each chapter is based on separate articles that have been submitted to or published in academic journals, making them largely self-contained and suitable for individual reading However, some textual overlap may exist between chapters due to their interconnected themes and shared research foundations.

Figure 1.1 Visual representation of this dissertation

Positioning of This Dissertation

Consumer Motivations for Using and Participating in Social Media

Chapter 6 offers a reflective discussion on the findings from Chapters 3 through 5, as well as an outlook to the future

This dissertation is structured as illustrated in Figure 1.1, with Table 1.1 summarizing the key contributions, main results, methodologies, and data sources of each chapter Each chapter is based on distinct articles submitted to or published in academic journals, allowing for independent reading; however, some textual overlap between chapters may occur.

Figure 1.1 Visual representation of this dissertation

Firms’ social media marketing activities

Reaction to social media marketing activities

Participation in brand- related activities on social media

Consumers minds’ and firm performance

Table 1.1: Overview of dissertation chapters

Chapter Contribution Key results Applied methods Data sources

Theoretically categorize and empirically measure brand-related activities on social media and the motives that potentially underlie these activities

Develop an explanatory framework that builds on SDT to determine unique motivations for engaging in different types of brand-related activities

Test this framework across four studies

1) Specific motivations have a differential role in driving activities that entail varying levels of engagement

2) The personal identity motive plays a unique role in leading people to generate online brand-related content by themselves (i.e., creating)

3) The socialization motive uniquely leads people to collaborate with other users to the content generation process (i.e., contributing)

Empirically investigate which factors influence the number of likes and comments on brand posts (i.e., brand post popularity) on firm’s fan pages

1) Enhancing either the number of likes or the number of comments requires different instruments

2) The number of likes are positively affected by the interactive brand post characteristics

3) Posing a question enhances the number of comments

4) The number of days a brand post is on top of the brand fan page positively affects brand post popularity

5) Comments below the brand post affect likes and comments on that same brand post

Regression analysis Social media data

Examine the short- and long-term effects of social media marketing and eWOM on consumer mindset metrics and acquisition

Determine the relative effects of social media marketing, eWOM, and advertising on consumer mindset metrics and acquisition

Examine how social media marketing, eWOM and advertising affect each other

1) Social media marketing (i.e., interactions on the firm’s fan page) does have value for the firm as it affects awareness and consideration eWOM affects all three mindset metrics and acquisition

2) Social media marketing explains largest part of awareness, then advertising, then eWOM

Advertising is most important for preference, consideration, and acquisition followed by eWOM, then social media marketing

3) Advertising affects interactions on the firm’s fan page on social media and eWOM

Vector Autoregressive Model with Exogenous Variables (VARX)

This dissertation situates itself within the current social media research landscape by focusing on relevant empirical studies, particularly those related to consumer motivations, activities, and firm marketing strategies It explores how consumers are driven to participate in social media and the types of activities they engage in, as well as how firms leverage social media marketing to influence consumer perceptions and behavior The discussion also examines the impact of social media marketing on consumer responses and overall firm performance Finally, the paper identifies existing gaps in the literature that this research aims to address, advancing understanding of social media's role in consumer-firm interactions.

We conducted a comprehensive literature review of articles published between 2000 and 2014 in leading academic marketing journals, focusing on social media research This period was selected because social media platforms largely did not exist prior to 2000, making it the ideal timeframe to analyze the emergence and development of social media marketing Our review includes key empirical studies from top marketing journals, providing valuable insights into the evolution and impact of social media strategies.

B, and some C), but also from journals in the field of management, information systems research, computer science, and psychology We chose to include these other domains because social media is also an important field of study for them For a complete overview of the journals taken into account, refer to Table 2.1 We searched for the following keywords to ensure that the most important articles related to social media were included: online word-of-mouth, online WOM, eWOM, online reviews, blogs, user-generated content (UGC), social media, and social network(ing) sites We included eWOM and UGC in our search words because social media “allow the creation and exchange of UGC” (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010, p 61) 2 After collecting the initial batch of articles, we thoroughly checked their references in order to obtain additional relevant papers

Our focus is on social media research within a B2C context, emphasizing its impact on consumer engagement and brand visibility While social media can also be highly beneficial for B2B marketing strategies, its application and effectiveness tend to differ from those in B2C environments Understanding these distinctions is essential for optimizing social media efforts across different business models.

2 We kindly refer to Chapter 1 for definitions of social media and eWOM

Table 2.1: Overview of included journals

Marketing journals Journals from other fields

International Journal of Research in

Journal of the Academy of

ACM Transactions on the Web Computers in Human Behavior Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking

Decision Support Systems Information Systems Research International Journal of Electronic Commerce Journal of the Association of Information Systems

Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication Journal of Management Information Systems

Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Personality and Individual Differences Statistical Science

2.2C ONSUMER M OTIVATIONS FOR U SING &P ARTICIPATING IN S OCIAL M EDIA

People can easily join social media platforms as members, but active participation—such as contributing content and posting—is crucial for deeper engagement Both usage and participation may be connected to specific brands or remain unrelated, influencing brand visibility and user interaction (see Table 2.2) This distinction highlights the importance of fostering active user involvement to enhance brand presence and community building on social media channels.

Most studies on motivations for using social media focused on why and how students use Facebook (e.g., Cheung et al., 2011; Lin & Lu, 2011; Pempek et al., 2009; Sheldon et al., 2011)

Facebook is primarily used for social interactions among people who already know each other offline, driven mainly by social needs (Nadkarni & Hofmann, 2012) Participation in social media involves activities like uploading photos on Flickr, sharing content on Twitter, and posting videos on YouTube, with social and image/status motives playing a significant role (Zeng & Wei, 2013; Lange, 2007; Toubia & Stephen, 2013) Additionally, emotional tweets tend to be shared more frequently than neutral ones, highlighting the importance of emotional content in social media engagement (Stieglitz & Dang-Xuan, 2013).

Nadkarni and Hofmann (2012) provide a comprehensive summary of research on motivations to use Facebook For those interested in exploring this topic further, it is recommended to consult their detailed review, which offers valuable insights into the driving factors behind Facebook usage behaviors.

Table 2.2: Motivations to use and participate in social media

Non-brand-related Brand-related

Research indicates limited understanding of social media use and brand participation, with Hollenbeck and Kaikati (2012) highlighting that consumers engage with brands on Facebook by liking pages and posting photos to express their identity Additionally, Smith et al (2012) found that user-generated content (UGC) related to brands varies significantly across platforms such as YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter.

Previous studies on social media motivations are fragmented, primarily emphasizing that social motives drive media use, but often focus solely on either use or participation It is essential to examine both, as consumers typically start by using social media before engaging in active participation, with motivations differing for each Most research has explored general consumer activities, neglecting specific brand-related actions such as watching videos, engaging in discussions, or blogging Muntinga et al (2011) identified key motivations—entertainment, social interaction, information, remuneration, empowerment, and personal identity—for engaging in brand-related activities online, but their qualitative approach lacks a theoretical explanation of why certain motivations lead to specific activities There is a notable gap in the literature regarding a comprehensive framework to explain diverse brand-related consumer behaviors To address this, we propose a theoretical model based on self-determination theory that explains different levels of engagement, highlighting the unique roles of personal identity and socialization motives in driving either content creation or collaboration, providing valuable insights for firms aiming to encourage more active brand participation on social media.

Firm Activities on Social Media

Social media marketing refers to various firm activities on social platforms designed to engage audiences and promote brand awareness It includes viral campaigns created to encourage consumers to share content organically, increasing reach and visibility Additionally, social media marketing encompasses targeted advertising efforts aimed at delivering promotional messages directly to consumers,-driving engagement and conversions Effective social media marketing strategies combine these approaches to maximize a brand's online presence.

3) firms’ fan pages on social media that are designed to build relations and stimulate interactions with fans Previous studies have mainly focused on viral marketing, but only a few studies have focused on social media advertising or firm’s fan pages (see Table 2.3) Also, studies on viral marketing have mainly focused on viral e-mail campaigns But, since a viral campaign reflects the spreading of a message through networks of people, we do discuss it here

Table 2.3 differentiates between consumer evaluations and consumer interactions, where evaluations refer to consumers' awareness and perceptions of a firm's activities, while interactions involve direct engagement with content In viral marketing, consumer interactions specifically mean sharing the campaign, highlighting active participation Understanding this distinction is essential for effective marketing strategies focused on both awareness and genuine engagement.

Table 2.3: Firm activities on social media

In a viral marketing campaign, a firm develops a marketing message and encourages consumers to forward this message to others, for example via e-mail or social media (Van der Lans et al.,

A viral marketing campaign functions like a virus that spreads among people, but unlike biological viruses, its success relies heavily on active management rather than automatic spread Effective seeding, especially targeting well-connected individuals within the network, significantly enhances the campaign’s virality because these individuals are more likely to participate actively and utilize their extensive reach Therefore, strategic management—such as carefully selecting initial recipients—plays a crucial role in ensuring the campaign’s success.

The effectiveness of a viral marketing campaign heavily relies on the emotional impact of its message, with content that evokes strong emotions like fear, sadness, humor, or inspiration more likely to be shared (Phelps et al., 2004) While positive content generally has a higher potential to go viral than negative, overall psychological arousal significantly drives virality; high-arousal emotions such as awe or anger tend to increase sharing, whereas low-arousal emotions like sadness are less likely to spread (Berger & Milkman, 2012) Additionally, the success of a viral campaign is influenced by the network structure, where factors like connectivity and influence within social networks play a crucial role (Bampo et al., 2008; Van der Lans et al., 2010).

(2008) advise firms to target influential customers who might then function as hubs and make the viral campaign spread more quickly

Previous research indicates that the success of a viral marketing campaign largely relies on a well-planned seeding strategy, the emotional appeal of the message, and the underlying structure of the social network Effective seeding ensures wider message dissemination, while emotionally engaging content enhances sharing potential Additionally, understanding the social network’s structure helps optimize reach and influence, increasing the overall impact of the campaign.

Viral marketing (e-mail) Social media advertising Social media fan page Consumer evaluations • De Bruyn & Lilien, 2008

Taylor et al., 2011 Naylor et al., 2012

• Van der Lans et al., 2010

Social media advertising involves placing targeted messages, such as banner ads and sponsored posts, on platforms like Facebook to engage consumers (see Appendices A1 and A2 for examples) Despite its prevalence, research on the effectiveness of social media advertising remains limited A notable study by Taylor et al (2011) found that informative and entertaining ads generate more positive responses and perceptions among users As social media advertising evolves, new ad formats incorporating social elements—such as displaying the number of friends who like a brand—have emerged, exemplified in Facebook's social ads (see Appendix A3) These social interactions within ads aim to enhance engagement and influence consumer behavior.

Research from 2012 demonstrated that social ads generate higher click-through rates and increased consumer engagement compared to traditional advertising methods Platforms like Facebook and Twitter facilitate sponsored content—such as sponsored posts and promoted tweets—that appear directly on users’ timelines, enhancing visibility However, the impact of social media ads on consumer evaluations and interactions remains underexplored, despite potential implications for firm performance A notable study by Tucker (2014) examined how personalized Facebook ads influence user engagement, particularly following a policy change granting users greater control over their privacy settings The findings revealed that personalized ads received higher click-through rates, especially among privacy-conscious users While this dissertation does not focus exclusively on social media advertising, it recognizes this area as a promising avenue for future research, which will be discussed further in Chapter 6.

2.3.3 Firm’s Fan Page on Social Media

Research indicates that revealing fans’ demographic details, such as profile pictures, on Facebook can positively impact brand evaluations and purchase intentions (Naylor et al., 2012) However, companies often struggle to determine which content types effectively foster consumer engagement on social media Studies show that the popularity of brand posts—measured by likes and comments—is influenced by different content strategies; videos and contests tend to increase likes, while posing questions encourages more comments (de Vries et al., 2012) Additionally, consumer interactions on brand pages are affected by peer influence, with fans engaging with each other through likes and comments, highlighting the importance of designing social media content that promotes community interaction.

Explaining Consumer Brand-Related Activities on Social Media

Introduction

Social media has experienced exponential growth over the past decade, with over 870 million Facebook users and nearly 230 million Twitter users worldwide in 2013, highlighting its expanding influence (Ahmad, 2013; Facebook, 2014) It facilitates stronger consumer-brand interactions, as more than half of social media users follow brands and approximately 20% of tweets mention brands, enhancing brand visibility and engagement (Jansen et al., 2009; Van Belleghem et al., 2011) User interactions with brands on social media vary in intensity, ranging from highly engaging activities like uploading brand-related content and writing blogs to moderately engaging activities such as joining brand communities and commenting, and slightly engaging actions like watching videos and reading articles Research indicates that highly and moderately engaging activities positively impact business outcomes, including increased store visits, higher sales, and enhanced word-of-mouth promotion, demonstrating the strategic importance of active social media participation for brand growth (Chevalier & Mayzlin, 2006; Chintagunta et al., 2010; Dholakia & Durham, 2010; Karniouchina, 2011; Onishi & Manchanda, 2012; Rishika et al., 2013; Zhu & Zhang, 2010).

Companies invest significant funds in developing social media marketing strategies, with large consumer brands expected to spend around $24 million by 2015, according to Tata Consultancy Services (2013) Recognizing the critical role of social media in today’s marketing landscape, it is essential for firms to understand what motivates consumers to engage in more interactive brand-related activities Identifying these motivators enables brand managers to craft effective social media strategies and helps platform managers encourage higher user participation and content contribution.

Previous research has explored consumers' motivations for engaging in various online activities, including self-expression through content creation driven by personal identity motives (e.g., Hollenbeck & Kaikati, 2012; Schau & Gilly, 2003; Toubia & Stephen, 2013) and fostering social connections through collaboration motivated by socialization needs (e.g., Mathwick, 2002; Sheldon et al., 2011).

Most existing studies on this topic are exploratory and lack empirical evidence of causal effects, with few employing experimental or quantitative methods These limited studies primarily focus on general activities rather than brand-specific behaviors, often examining only one type of activity, which prevents analyzing the relative influence of different motives—especially personal identity and socialization—in driving engagement within a comprehensive framework.

This research extends the understanding of consumer social media activities by providing an explanatory framework grounded in self-determination theory (SDT) We identify and empirically measure the key brand-related activities consumers engage in on social media, along with the underlying motives Our four-study approach demonstrates that different motivations influence varying levels of engagement, with personal identity and socialization motives uniquely driving either high-engagement content creation or moderate engagement through collaboration These insights offer valuable guidance for firms aiming to foster more active and meaningful consumer participation in brand-related content generation.

This chapter explores brand-related activities on social media, providing a detailed analysis of how brands engage with their audiences Building on Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci), we develop specific hypotheses to better understand the motivations behind these activities The subsequent section delves deeper into these social media strategies, highlighting their importance for effective brand engagement and communication.

2000) Finally, we discuss the empirical results of the four studies and put forward their implications.

Theoretical Framework

3.2.1 Consumer Brand-Related Activities on Social Media

Shao (2009) categorizes social media activities into three levels of engagement: producing, participating, and consuming, with producing being the most active involving content creation, participating involving sharing or rating content, and consuming involving viewing or reading content However, Shao’s model is theoretical and doesn't specifically address brand-related activities Building on this, Muntinga et al (2011) adapt Shao’s taxonomy to social media brand activities, defining creating as generating and sharing brand content, contributing as collaborating in content creation or engagement, and consuming as viewing or reading brand information These activity types vary in effort and engagement, with creating being the most effortful, contributing moderately engaging, and consuming the least Understanding these distinctions helps clarify how users interact with brands on social media platforms.

Previous research has identified that consumers engage in online activities, particularly on social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter, to express themselves and connect with others (Belk, 2013; Hollenbeck & Kaikati, 2012; Toubia & Stephen, 2013) Consumers also exchange information and collaborate on content to foster social bonds, with motivations such as entertainment and remuneration influencing brand-related activities (Mathwick, 2002; Sheldon et al., 2011; Muntinga et al., 2011) Specifically, personal identity motives like self-expression and self-presentation drive content creation, while socialization motives such as integration influence content contribution, yet empirical studies lack a comprehensive framework explaining how these motives impact consumer behaviors To address this gap, we propose that self-determination theory offers valuable insights into how specific motivations shape different brand-related activities on social media platforms.

Our conceptual framework, based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), emphasizes that human motivation is driven by the fulfillment of psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence, which motivate individuals to engage in activities that satisfy these core needs (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Sheldon & Gunz, 2009) SDT distinguishes between intrinsic motivation and various forms of extrinsic motivation, highlighting that motivations rooted in the self—particularly autonomous extrinsic motivation—lead to higher engagement levels In essence, the more autonomous the extrinsic motivation, the greater the likelihood of sustained engagement and positive behavioral outcomes.

Our study utilizes Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to explore how different motivations influence brand-related activities on social media, emphasizing variations in autonomy and engagement We propose that both intrinsic motivation, such as entertainment, and fully extrinsic motivation, like remuneration, significantly impact these activities Additionally, each social media activity is uniquely affected by distinct motivations with different autonomy levels; for example, personal identity represents the most autonomous form of extrinsic motivation, while information and knowledge sharing are driven by additional motivational factors This framework highlights the complex interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations in shaping consumer behavior online.

While many null-effects are expected in our study, our primary focus remains on non-null effects due to their higher managerial relevance According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), certain null-effects, such as personal identity motives influencing consumption, are unlikely to occur Entertainment represents an intrinsic and fully autonomous motivation, whereas remuneration is a non-autonomous motivation, aligning with Ryan & Deci’s (2000) framework Our discussion emphasizes the level of engagement in brand-related social media activities, starting with creating content (most engaging), followed by contributing, and finally consuming (least engaging).

Relation between personal identity and brand-related creating activities

Creating is a highly personal activity motivated by individual identity, which drives engagement in activities like generating new online content about brands According to Ryan and Deci (2000), people with a strong sense of personal identity motivation—an autonomous form of motivation—are more likely to actively participate in such creative endeavors Engaging in brand-related creation on social media not only fosters personal expression but also helps individuals build and maintain their personal identity, as highlighted by scholars like Belk (2013) and Schau & Gilly This connection underscores the importance of creative activities in shaping and reinforcing one's sense of self in the digital age.

Posting brand-related content on social media allows individuals to connect their personal identity with the brand image, thereby enhancing their self-presentation and personality (Aaker, 1999) Previous research indicates that people use social media platforms to express themselves and share content that reflects their interests and identities (Cheung et al.,., 2011; Labrecque et al.,., 2011; Park et al.,., 2009; Valenzuela et al.,., 2009; Zhao et al.,., 2009).

2008) In other words, creating brand-related content on social media is a way for consumers to use the brand image to express and present the self Thus, we propose:

H1: Personal identity is positively related to brand-related creating activities on social media

Relation between socialization and brand-related contributing activities

Brand-related activities foster social interaction by enabling members of online communities to connect and share their experiences with the brand, primarily motivated by a desire to socialize with others (Mathwick, 2002; Baumeister & Leary, 1995) Socialization, defined as maintaining communication and feeling connected with like-minded individuals, drives participation in moderate engagement activities such as online content contribution (Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Cheung et al., 2011) This intrinsic motivation to connect makes brand community involvement a meaningful way for individuals to interact and feel part of a larger community (Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000; Park et al., 2009; Sheldon et al., 2011).

H2: Socialization is positively related to brand-related contributing activities on social media

Relation between information and knowledge and brand-related consuming activities

People engage in brand-related activities primarily to obtain information and knowledge, serving as a key motivation that is less reliant on autonomous effort Individuals with this motivation prefer low-effort activities such as reading brand information or watching branded videos to make informed purchase decisions (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Hennig-Thurau & Walsh, 2003; Muntinga et al., 2011) Viewing brand-related content on social media platforms further helps consumers gather insights about products and brands Prior research highlights that acquiring information and knowledge is crucial in social networking site usage, influencing consumer engagement and decision-making (Lin & Lu, 2011; Park et al., 2009).

H3: Information and knowledge is positively related to brand-related consuming activities on social media

Overarching motivations for all three brand-related activities

According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), intrinsic motivation driven by the entertainment value of an activity is the fundamental force behind engagement in games, sports, and social media brand-related activities (Frederick & Ryan, 1993; 1995; Deci & Ryan, 2000) People participate in brand-related social media activities mainly because they find them enjoyable, entertaining, or satisfying in themselves, rather than solely seeking external outcomes For instance, individuals might watch brand-related YouTube videos purely for entertainment or write microblogs about new products for personal fulfillment Prior research confirms that entertainment significantly influences users' engagement with social networking sites (Cheung et al., 2011; Lin & Lu, 2011; Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000; Park et al., 2009; Sheldon et al., 2011) Therefore, entertainment is a key motivating factor across all three types of brand-related activities on social media.

H4: Entertainment is positively related to all three brand-related activities on social media

Remuneration serves as a powerful extrinsic motivator for engaging in brand-related activities on social media, incentivizing participation through rewards such as monetary incentives, free samples, coupons, or software (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Hennig-Thurau et al., 2004) Offering such rewards encourages consumers to create and share content, participate in online conversations, and actively engage with brands, ultimately stimulating their involvement in social media marketing efforts Therefore, providing appropriate incentives is essential to motivate users to contribute, consume, and interact with brands on social platforms.

H5: Remuneration is positively related to all three brand-related activities on social media.

Study 1: Measurement Development and Testing of Hypotheses

Study 1 is designed to provide an initial test of our hypotheses First, we employed a confirmatory factor analysis in order to develop multi-item measures of creating, contributing, and consuming activities on social media and their potential underlying motives Second, we used structural equation modeling to estimate the predicted relationships between motives and the three activities

In our study, we developed comprehensive multi-item measures of brand-related activities on social media and their underlying motives, drawing from previous research and interviews with 40 social media users These participants completed an open-ended questionnaire detailing their typical social media activities and motivations We based our activity categories on Muntinga et al (2011), which identified 17 distinct brand-related activities, and grouped these into three sets corresponding to different activity types Recognizing that their list was not exhaustive, we supplemented the original four items for creating activities with three additional indicators—“Moderating brand-related discussions,” “Arbitrating brand-related discussions,” and “Discovering/planning other activities”—sourced from prior studies such as Parent et al (2011) and the interviews, ensuring a comprehensive measurement approach for social media brand engagement.

We developed a list of 30 items related to motives, measuring each motive with carefully selected items from prior research and interviews The personal identity motive was assessed using six items derived from studies by Labrecque et al (2011), Muntinga et al (2011), Schau et al (2009), and Shao (2009) The socialization motive was measured with six items fully developed from literature sources such as Cheung et al (2011), Park et al (2009), and Sheldon et al (2011) To evaluate the information and knowledge motive, nine items were adapted from previous studies including Cheung et al (2011), Papacharissi & Rubin (2000), and Park et al (2009) The entertainment motive was captured through five items based on research by Courtois et al (2009), Lin & Lu (2011), Papacharissi & Rubin (2000), Park et al (2009), and Sheldon et al (2011) Lastly, four items concerning remuneration were developed from prior studies like Hars & Ou (2002), Hennig-Thurau et al (2004), and insights from interviews.

Data collection was conducted in two stages The first stage focused on assessing the reliability of the measures, while the second stage aimed to validate these measures and estimate the structural equation model During the initial phase, a questionnaire comprising 20 items related to brand activities on social media was used to evaluate user engagement across three types of brand-related activities, measured on a seven-point scale (1 = never, 7 = very often).

A 30-item questionnaire was designed to assess the underlying motives for engaging in brand-related activities, rated on a seven-point scale from 1 (completely false) to 7 (completely true) The survey was administered to a balanced sample of 161 social media users aged 18-39, evenly split by gender Exploratory factor analysis with maximum likelihood and Promax rotation confirmed that items clustered into expected overarching constructs, with brand-related activities and motivations loading appropriately The confirmatory factor analysis led to the removal of three inconsistent items—“Playing branded online videogames,” “Downloading branded widgets,” and “Sending branded virtual gifts/cards”—due to low factor loadings (< 50) Additionally, three items related to creating activities were retained, as they loaded on the creating factor despite initial assumptions Items related to socialization and information motives, such as “It decreases the likelihood of being left out,” “I can receive specific support,” and “It makes me learn how to do things,” were also excluded due to poor loadings, ensuring the scale accurately measures genuine motives behind brand-related social media activities.

In the second stage, we developed a new questionnaire incorporating 17 activity indicators and 27 motive indicators (see Table 3.1), which was then administered to a sample of 605 social media users (47% male, 53% female; aged 18-39) A confirmatory factor analysis using the maximum likelihood method was performed to assess the measurement model, with basic items serving as observed variables for the latent constructs The fit statistics indicated an acceptable model fit: χ²(792) = 1473.42, p-value < 0.05.

The model's fit indices indicate a high level of accuracy and reliability, with a Chi-square value of less than 001 and a Chi-square/degree of freedom ratio of 1.815, demonstrating a good fit to the data The Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) was recorded at 901, while the Adjusted GFI (AGFI) was slightly lower at 876, both indicating a satisfactory model fit Additionally, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) was excellent at 974, and the Normed Fit Index (NFI) stood at 944, further confirming the model's robustness The Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) was exceptionally low at 037, and the Standard Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) supported these findings, highlighting the model's overall excellent fit according to standard SEM evaluation criteria.

The standardized estimates of factor loadings all exceed 60, indicating robust relationships between observed variables and their latent constructs Each construct demonstrates adequate convergent validity, with ρ indices above 80, and average variance extracted (AVEs) greater than 55, confirming the constructs' reliability To evaluate discriminant validity, pairwise correlations between the three social media activities and five motives were constrained, and these restricted models were compared to the unconstrained model Chi-square difference tests showed that the unconstrained model significantly outperforms the restricted models, supporting the discriminant validity of the constructs (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988).

Table 3.1: Results of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis

It allows other people to understand who I am 84 n.a

It helps me represent what kind of person I am 85*

It helps me disclose who I am to the world 87*

It can craft my identity 83*

It lets me express myself 82*

It lets me shape my own identity/personality 81*

I can stay in touch with people with the same interests 83 n.a

I can communicate with people with the same interests 86*

I can meet new people with the same interests 85*

It makes me feel connected to others 86*

It lets me stay in contact with like-minded people 84*

I can get information for free 77 n.a

It lets me keep up with the issues relevant for me 90*

It lets me keep up with trends 79*

It provides me with accurate accounts of news and events 86*

It provides me with a wide variety of information 88*

I can receive specific information for my interests 85*

It helps me amuse myself 91*

I can receive gifts (such as free-samples, coupons, etc.) 82*

I can get something in exchange for my participation/contribution 83*

Uploading brand-related video, audio, pictures, etc .69*

Rating products and/or brands 67 n.a

Joining brand profiles on social network sites 66*

Engaging in brand-related conversations 87*

Commenting on brand-related weblogs, videos, audio, pictures, etc .83*

Listening to brand-related audio 65*

Watching brand-related pictures/photos 71*

Following threads on online brand community forums 85*

Reading comments on brand profiles on social network sites 83*

Reading product reviews 72* n = 605 * p -value < 001 n.a = not applicable χ 2 (792) = 1437.42, p < 001; χ 2 /d.f = 1.815; GFI = 901; AGFI = 876; CFI = 974; NFI = 944; RMSEA = 037; SRMR = 048; ρ = Construct Reliability; AVE = Average Variance Extracted

We utilized structural equation modeling (SEM) with a method that measures each latent construct using a single composite indicator, enhancing model parsimony and accuracy These composite indicators are created by combining item-level scores, following recommended item-parceling procedures (Bandalos, 2002; Nasser & Wisenbaker, 2003) to improve model fit The measurement error variance for each indicator is fixed at one minus the composite reliability index (ρ), which is calculated from the items assessing the construct Additionally, the path linking each indicator to its latent construct is set at the square root of ρ, ensuring reliable measurement and precise structural estimates.

We initially estimated a comprehensive structural equation model encompassing all possible linkages between five motivations and three activities, accounting for correlations between motives and errors, but the fit statistics were unacceptable (χ²(1) = 81.036, p < 001; GFI = 970; CFI = 968; NFI = 968; RMSEA = 364; SRMR = 041), indicating a poor fit to the data Non-hypothesized relations proved insignificant, leading us to refine the model by including only the hypothesized linkages The simplified model demonstrated satisfactory fit statistics (χ²(4) = 8.486, p > 05; χ²/df = 2.122; GFI = 997; AGFI = 969; CFI = 998; NFI = 997; RMSEA), confirming its adequacy in representing the data.

= 043; SRMR = 015 Table 3.2 presents the standardized structural estimates, which support our hypotheses 6 Next we discuss the results as found with our model corresponding to Figure 3.1 (see Table 3.2)

Personal identity is positively associated with creating activities, highlighting the role of individual self-concept in fostering active engagement (γ = 20, p < 001) Additionally, the socialization motive significantly encourages contributing activities, emphasizing the importance of social connections in participation (γ = 19, p < 001) Furthermore, the information and knowledge motive strongly drives consuming activities, demonstrating that the desire for learning and information influences media consumption behavior (γ = 28, p < 001).

Using a seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) analysis, the study obtained results consistent with those in Table 3.2, confirming the robustness of the findings Notably, socialization is positively associated with content consuming behaviors, while information and knowledge positively influence contributing activities The remaining relationships align with the initial hypotheses, as non-hypothesized links were found to be insignificant, supporting the validity of the proposed model.

As predicted in H4, the motive of entertainment is positively related to creating (γ = 20, p-value

< 001), contributing (γ = 36, p-value < 001), and consuming activities (γ = 33, p-value < 001) Finally, the remuneration motive is positively related to creating (γ = 28, p-value < 001), contributing (γ = 28, p-value < 001), and consuming activities (γ = 20, p-value < 001), as predicted in H5

Table 3.2: Standardized estimates from path analysis

Remuneration → Consuming Activities H5 20* n = 605 * p -value < 001 Fit statistics: χ 2 (4) = 8.486, p > 05; χ 2 /d.f = 2.122; GFI = 997; AGFI = 969; CFI

This study developed measures for relevant constructs and provided evidence supporting the hypothesized relationships, though it could not establish causal effects due to its correlational approach Understanding these causal effects is crucial for determining what truly motivates consumers to create and contribute on social media, which is highly relevant for marketers For managers, knowing how to modify their communication strategies can help evoke specific motivations in consumers for engaging in brand-related activities Therefore, the subsequent three studies explore the unique motivations driving engagement: Study 2 examines the influence of personal identity on creating activities, Study 3 investigates the role of socialization in contributing activities, and Study 4 tests both relationships simultaneously to provide a comprehensive understanding.

Study 2: Effect of Personal Identity on Brand-Related Creating Activities

Study 2 focuses on the unique role of personal identity with regard to engaging people in brand- related creating activities on social media Going back to the basis of SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2000), it suggests that people typically experience a basic need for autonomy Need for autonomy refers to individuals’ desire to organize their own behaviors by themselves in a way that is consistent with their perception of self Thus, people seek to express their own sense of freedom without interferences from external authorities such as rules or instructions (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Gagné & Deci, 2005; Ryan et al., 2006) The psychological need for autonomy becomes stronger when people experience a temporary threat to their sense of freedom, thus motivating individuals to satisfy this need by engaging in activities that help them express their personality (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Sheldon et al., 2011; Sheldon & Gunz, 2009) On the base of the personal identity motivation lies the need for autonomy; namely, an unmet need for autonomy leads to a motivational force to restore this need for autonomy (e.g., Sheldon & Gunz, 2009) This study also aims to show that individuals with an intensified need for autonomy, caused by a threat to their sense of freedom, exhibit a higher personal identity motive This higher personal identity motive causes these individuals to engage more in brand-related creating activities on social media Therefore, the personal identity motive should mediate the effect of need for autonomy on individuals’ propensity for engaging in brand-related creating activities

A total of 111 social media users (49% male, 51% female; aged 18-39) were recruited from an online panel of paid US respondents and randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions—either with or without the need for autonomy—within a between-subjects study design.

Participants' need for autonomy was manipulated through an episodic recall task, where those in the need for autonomy condition were asked to vividly recall and describe a personal experience involving a loss of autonomy, such as being forced to follow strict rules or having limited freedom of expression, based on established research frameworks (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan et al., 2006) Conversely, respondents in the baseline no need for autonomy condition described a typical, everyday situation like grocery shopping (Rucker & Galinsky, 2008) Following the recall, participants rated how this episode made them feel—experiencing emotions such as frustration, irritation, or oppression—on a seven-point scale, capturing the emotional impact of autonomy deprivation or neutrality (Brehm, 1966; Fitzsimons & Lehmann).

Respondents were asked to imagine a realistic scenario where they have the opportunity to spend time on social media and assess how strongly six personal identity motives influence their engagement in brand-related activities, rated on a 1 (not at all) to 7 (to a very large extent) scale After evaluating the influence of these personal identity motives, participants rated their likelihood of performing seven different brand-related content creation activities on social media, using a seven-point scale from 1 (very unlikely) to 7 (very likely).

Our manipulation effectively increased feelings of lacking autonomy among participants in the need for autonomy condition Specifically, respondents reported a higher sense of frustration and related feelings during the recall task (α = 91), with a composite index indicating greater autonomy deprivation (M = 5.20, SD = 1.03) compared to the no need for autonomy group (M = 2.50, SD = 1.08) The difference was statistically significant (t( ) = 13.39, p < 001), confirming the success of our manipulation.

The study demonstrated that two measures—assessing personal identity and the likelihood of engaging in creative activities—exhibited high reliability, with Cronbach's alpha values of 94 and 87, respectively A composite index was created by combining six items related to personal identity to gauge the intensity of this motivation, while seven items concerning the probability of engaging in brand-related creative activities on social media were combined to form a dependent variable These reliable measures support the robustness of the study’s findings on personal motivation and social media engagement in brand-related creative behavior.

Figure 3.2: Mediation model summarizing the effect of need for autonomy on creating activities through personal identity

* p-value < 05; ** p-value < 01 The dotted arrow indicates an indirect effect

Our study examined a mediation model linking the need for autonomy to social media content creation, with personal identity motives serving as the mediator Results revealed a significant positive effect of need for autonomy on personal identity (b = 1.43, p < 001), aligning with the needs-as-motives framework Additionally, personal identity positively influenced the likelihood of engaging in creating activities on social media (b = 0.17, p = 04) Moreover, need for autonomy directly affected the likelihood of content creation (b = 0.54, p-value not specified), highlighting its crucial role in motivating social media engagement through personal identity motives.

The study found that the need for autonomy has a significant positive indirect effect on engagement in creating activities through the mediating role of personal identity motive, as confirmed by bootstrapped confidence intervals (b = 24, 95% CI = 01 to 55) When personal identity is included in the model, the direct effect of need for autonomy becomes insignificant (p > 10), indicating full mediation These findings suggest that the motivation of personal identity fully mediates the relationship between the need for autonomy and individuals’ propensity to engage in creative activities, highlighting the importance of personal identity in fostering creative engagement.

We conducted an additional mediation analysis by including respondents’ emotions, such as frustration, as a covariate to control for their potential influence on the observed effects The results remained consistent with those shown in Figure 3.2, demonstrating that the indirect effect of the need for autonomy on creating activities through personal identity remains positive and significant Although the effect size was slightly reduced (b = 15, 95% confidence interval), this indicates that the need for autonomy has a robust and meaningful impact on creative activities independent of respondents’ emotional states.

Study 3: Effect of Socialization on Brand-Related Contributing Activities

Study 3 focuses on the unique role of socialization with regard to engaging people in brand-related contributing activities on social media According to SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2000), people typically experience a need for relatedness, which refers to individuals’ desire to feel connected to others (Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008; Ryan & Deci, 2000) This psychological need becomes stronger when people experience a temporary threat to their sense of belonging and social connection, thus motivating individuals to fulfill this need by engaging in activities that allow social interaction and make them feel more connected to others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995) In other words, on the base of the socialization motivation lies the need for relatedness; namely, an unmet need for relatedness leads to a motivational force to restore this need for relatedness (e.g., Sheldon & Gunz, 2009) Based on this reasoning, this study aims to show that individuals with an intensified need for relatedness, caused by threatening their sense of belonging and social connection, exhibit a higher socialization motive This higher socialization motive then causes people to engage more in brand- related contributing activities on social media Therefore, the socialization motive should mediate the effect of need for relatedness on individuals’ propensity for engaging in brand-related contributing activities

A total of 100 social media users, evenly split between males and females aged 19-29, participated in a laboratory study conducted among students at an Italian university Participants were randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions—either with a need for relatedness present or absent—in a between-subjects design The study's incentive involved groups of 25 participants competing for a €50 cash prize, encouraging engagement and participation.

The need for relatedness was manipulated using a false-feedback procedure, similar to methods described by Baumeister et al (2005), where participants completed a hypothetical personality test and received randomized feedback Participants in the need-for-relatedness condition were told they have a lonely personality and struggle with social bonds, which, as Sheldon and Gunz (2009) found, can prompt individuals to seek out social connections and increase their motivation to fulfill this need This manipulation effectively triggers a desire for relatedness, encouraging proactive efforts to build social relationships and enhance social well-being.

Your responses indicate a socially avoidant personality that may lead to challenges in forming and maintaining interpersonal relationships in the future While you currently have friends, this temperament could cause distance or withdrawal from others over time If these behavioral patterns persist, there is a risk of long-term loneliness and social isolation.

Respondents in the no need for relatedness condition, acting as the baseline, received feedback stating they possess a stable personality comparable to the average individual of their age This feedback highlights their perceived stability and alignment with typical personality traits for their demographic.

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After receiving assigned feedback, participants were instructed to wait 20 minutes before proceeding to the second part of the study, during which they were permitted to browse the Internet on their computers Unbeknownst to them, all web activity during this period was recorded via video for research purposes Following the waiting period, respondents completed a brief questionnaire comprising five items focused on their socialization motives, aligning with the procedures used in the previous study.

1 (see Table 3.1) Respondents rated the extent to which each of these items were reasons to engage in the actions they just performed on the Internet (1 = completely false, 7 = completely true)

The five items assessing the socialization motive showed an acceptable level of reliability (α

= 80), so their scores were combined to form a composite index of the intensity with which respondents experienced this motivation

Three independent research assistants, blind to the study’s aims, coded respondents' Web behavior to determine engagement in brand-related contributing activities They assigned a value of 1 when respondents exhibited at least one such activity and 0 when none were present, ensuring clear data classification The inter-judge agreement was high at 94%, with a PRL reliability index of 99%, and any discrepancies were resolved through discussion, guaranteeing coding consistency This dichotomous variable, derived from the coding process, functions as a dependent variable in the analysis, indicating whether respondents actively engaged in brand-related contributing activities on social media.

We estimated a simple mediation model (see Figure 3.3) that links need for relatedness (1

Our analysis revealed that the need for relatedness positively influences the socialization motive (b = 47, p = 05), which in turn significantly predicts engagement in contributing activities (b = 59, p = 005) Additionally, the need for relatedness directly impacts contributing behaviors (b = 83, p = 04), although this effect becomes insignificant when the socialization motive is accounted for, indicating mediation Using bootstrapping methods, we found a significant indirect effect of need for relatedness on engagement through the socialization motive (b = 28, 95% CI = 01 to 79) These findings demonstrate that the socialization motive mediates the relationship between the need for relatedness and individuals’ participation in contributing activities, highlighting the importance of social motives in promoting engagement.

While it would have been ideal to include the measured emotions as covariates in the regression analyses to control for alternative explanations, this was not possible because the manipulation check was only pre-tested Consequently, emotions could not be incorporated into the regression or mediation analyses, which we acknowledge as a limitation of this study.

Figure 3.3: Mediation model summarizing the effect of need for relatedness on contributing activities through socialization

* p-value < 05; ** p-value < 01 The dotted arrow indicates an indirect effect

Study 2 and Study 3 provided experimental evidence supporting our central hypotheses (H1 and H2) regarding causal effects However, since each study focused separately on causal effects and their mediators, it remains unclear whether the need for autonomy and relatedness uniquely influence the associated motives, or whether personal identity and socialization distinctly impact consumers' engagement in creation or contribution activities To address this, the subsequent study tests these predicted effects simultaneously, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the interrelated psychological needs and their influence on consumer behavior.

Study 4: Effects of Personal Identity and Socialization on Brand-Related Creating and

B RAND -R ELATED C REATING AND C ONTRIBUTING A CTIVITIES

Study 4 uses a model that combines the two causal paths previously outlined (i.e., need for autonomy and need for relatedness on consumers’ engagement in either creating or contributing activities, via personal identity and socialization) We aim to show that activating a need for autonomy in individuals boosts their personal identity motive, but not their socialization motive, and ultimately leads them to engage in creating activities on social media rather than contributing activities Conversely, we expect the activation of a need for relatedness to increase the socialization motive of individuals, but not their personal identity motive The augmented socialization motive, in turn, should prompt them to engage in contributing activities rather than creating activities Therefore, the personal identity motive should mediate only the effect of need for autonomy on individuals’ propensity to engage in creating activities, whereas socialization

Indirect effect: 28 (95% CI = 01, 79) should mediate only the effect of need for relatedness on their propensity to engage in contributing activities

A total of 91 social media users, consisting of 53% males and 47% females aged 19-29, participated in a study conducted among university students in Italy Participants were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: need for autonomy, need for relatedness, or no specific need, allowing for the examination of how different psychological needs influence social media behavior This between-subjects design provides insights into the impact of varying needs on user engagement and interaction on social media platforms.

In our study, we manipulated the type of need using a false-feedback procedure similar to that in prior research (see Baumeister et al., 2005) Participants completed a fictitious personality test on their computers, then received randomized feedback that appeared to reflect their responses Those assigned to the need for autonomy condition were informed they had a passive and dependent personality, with feedback stating: "You have a personality that is passive and dependent on others."

Your responses indicate an influenceable personality that may lead to increased dependence on others, insecurity, and difficulty expressing yourself later in life While opportunities to fulfill your desires may arise, this temperament could cause you to become less aware of your true needs and interests If these behavioral patterns persist, you risk losing your autonomy and the ability to make important decisions independently.

Respondents in the no need condition and in the need for relatedness condition received the same feedback as in Study 3

We pretested this manipulation with a separate sample of 67 social media users from the same population to ensure its effectiveness Participants reported heightened feelings of lacking autonomy ("frustrated," "irritated," "annoyed," "oppressed"; α = 77) and social connections ("dejected," "depleted," "isolated," "sad"; α = 84) after the manipulation, with factor analysis confirming these as distinct constructs Composite scores demonstrated that individuals in the need for autonomy condition experienced significantly higher feelings of lacking autonomy (M = 3.25, SD = 1.61) compared to those in the no need condition (M = 2.28, SD = 1.29; t(XX) = 2.42, p < 05) and the need for relatedness condition (M = 2.31, SD = 1.06; t(XX) = 2.32, p < 05), whereas no significant difference was found between the no need and relatedness conditions (p > 50).

Pretest participants in the need for relatedness condition reported significantly higher feelings of lacking social connections (M = 3.15, SD = 1.35) compared to those in the no need condition (M = 2.27, SD = 1.15) and the need for autonomy condition (M = 2.36, SD = 1.34), with t-statistics of 2.36 and 2.02 respectively, both p-values below 05 The difference between the no need and autonomy conditions was not statistically significant (p > 50) These findings indicate that our false personality feedback effectively manipulated the targeted psychological needs independently, confirming the effectiveness of the experimental procedure.

Respondents participated in an ostensibly unrelated study on social media after reviewing feedback, where they read a cover story about their university developing a social networking site for students They were informed that they could perform activities on this site to test its functionality, creating an engaging context for the study The use of a university as the brand stimulus is grounded in existing research on university branding, such as studies by Chapleo (2011) and Hemsley-Brown, highlighting the effectiveness of institutional branding in social media research.

Utilizing the university that respondents attend as a stimulus ensures consistent levels of brand familiarity and involvement across participants, enhancing the study's reliability Participants then viewed a highly realistic, professionally designed webpage of a fictitious social networking site, divided into two identical sections with different content One section invited respondents to share their personal experiences with the university by writing about their favorite courses, fostering genuine engagement The other section displayed a message from a fictitious user expressing interest in the university and requesting honest judgments about its quality, alongside a five-star rating system evaluating six key aspects: accessibility, faculty, facilities, student services, exam difficulty, and job opportunities This setup aimed to simulate authentic online interactions and gather insightful perceptions of the university.

Participants engaged in two activities: either writing a short paragraph about their past university experiences to create new content or rating the university on six aspects to contribute to its collective evaluation After these activities, they completed identical measures of personal identity motives and socialization motives from previous studies, both rated on a seven-point scale, providing insights into their motivations for engagement.

This study employed two composite indices to measure key motivational factors: the personal identity motivation, assessed through six items with a high reliability coefficient (α = 94), and the socialization motivation, evaluated using five items (α = 89) These indices represent the intensity of respondents' experiences with these motivations and serve as crucial mediators in the analysis, providing insights into how personal and social factors influence behaviors.

This study examines the activation of specific psychological needs using two dichotomous variables One variable indicates whether participants received feedback suggesting a passive and dependent personality, coded as 1, or not, coded as 0, to assess the presence of a need for autonomy The second variable captures whether participants received feedback indicating loneliness, also coded as 1, or not, coded as 0, to measure the need for relatedness A score of 0 on both variables signifies that participants received feedback indicating a stable personality, serving as a baseline condition These variables function as independent variables in the analysis to understand the influence of different personality feedback on psychological needs.

Respondents' activity type was categorized as 1 when they engaged in creating tasks, such as writing a short paragraph about their favorite courses, and as 0 when they participated in contributing tasks, like rating the university This binary, choice-based measure effectively captures whether respondents focused on creating or contributing activities and serves as the primary dependent variable for analysis.

We estimated a multiple mediation model that links need for autonomy (1 = present, 0 absent) and need for relatedness (1 = present, 0 = absent) to our choice-based dependent variable

Our study reveals that creating activities positively influence personal identity through motivational mediators such as personal identity and socialization Regression analysis shows that the need for autonomy has a significant positive direct effect on personal identity (b = 98, p = 006), highlighting its crucial role in fostering individual self-concept within activity engagement Conversely, contributing activities did not demonstrate a significant direct impact on personal identity, emphasizing the distinct influence of creation-driven behaviors on identity development These findings underscore the importance of autonomy in motivating activities that enhance personal identity, with implications for optimizing engagement strategies in personal and social development.

While ideally, we would have included measured emotions as covariates in the regressions to rule out alternative explanations, the pre-tested nature of the manipulation check prevented us from doing so We acknowledge this limitation in our study’s methodology Our findings indicate that socialization has no significant effect (b = 21, p > 50), whereas the need for relatedness positively influences socialization (b = 1.01, p = 005) but does not significantly impact personal identity.

Our analysis reveals that personal identity motives significantly positively influence engagement in creative and contributing tasks (b = 1.64, p < 001), while socialization motives have a significant negative impact (b = -1.10, p = 001) Additionally, the need for autonomy is associated with increased engagement (b = 1.16, p = 03), whereas the need for relatedness shows a negative association (b = -1.95, p = 006) However, these effects become statistically insignificant when personal identity and socialization are incorporated into the model, indicating their dominant influence over autonomy and relatedness in driving user engagement.

Popularity of Brand Posts on Brand Fan Pages: An Investigation of the

Effects of Social Media Marketing, eWOM and Advertising on Consumer

General Discussion