The impact of intrinsic motivation on pro environmental consumption behaviors

Research design...4 Figure 1.1: Goal framing theory model for pro-environmental behaviors...9 Figure 1.2: Theory of Reasoned Action TRA...10 Figure 1.3: Theory of Planned Behavior TPB...

Hanoi – 1/2022

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

NATIONAL ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY



LE THI THU MAI

THE IMPACT OF INTRINSIC MOTIVATION ON PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL CONSUMPTION

BEHAVIORS

SPECIALIZATION: BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

PHD DISSERTATION

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

NATIONAL ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY



LE THI THU MAI

THE IMPACT OF INTRINSIC MOTIVATION ON PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL CONSUMPTION

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is my own work, which I have never submittedfor a degree at this or any other educational institutions I also certify that all of thedissertation's references have been properly credited

I have read and comprehended the University's policy on plagiarism and academicintegrity violations With my own honor, I certify that this research was carried out by

me and that it does not violate regulations of good academic practice

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x

INTRODUCTION 1

1 Reasons for choosing the topic 1

2 Research questions and objectives 2

3 Research method 3

4 Structure of the dissertation 4

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ON FACTORS INFLUENCING PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR 7

1.1 Pro-environmental consumption behavior 7

1.2 Research on pro-environmental consumption behaviors 7

1.2.1 Goal framing theory 8

1.2.2 Theory of Reasoned Action and Theory of Planned Behavior 10

1.2.3 The norm-activation model 14

1.2.4 Values-Beliefs-Norms 15

1.2.5 Theory of consumption value 17

1.2.6 Limitations of these theories in explaining determinants of pro-

environmental consumption behaviors 20

1.3 Research gaps 21

1.4 Research questions 23

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1 25

CHAPTER 2: THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 26

AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT 26

2.1 Self-Determination Theory 26

2.2 Intrinsic motivation 30

2.3 Extrinsic motivation 33

2.5 Prosocial motivation 35

2.5 Research model and hypotheses 37

2.5.1 Intrinsic motivation for pro-environmental consumption behaviors 37

2.5.2 Interaction between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation 38

2.5.3 Interaction between intrinsic motivation and prosocial motivation 39

2.5.4 Antecedents of intrinsic motivation 40

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH MEHODS 49

3.1 The research context 49

3.2 Research method 53

3.2.1 Research process 53

3.2.1.1 Cronbach’s alpha analysis 54

3.2.1.2 Corrected item-total correlation coefficients 54

3.2.1.3 Exploratory Factor Analysis 54

3.2.1.4 Correlation and regression analysis 56

3.2.2 Development of survey questionnaire 56

3.2.3 Measurement scales adopted for the dissertation 57

3.2.4 Data collection 61

3.2.4.1 Research sampling 61

3.2.4.3 Descriptive analysis of the research sample 63

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH 65

4.1 Research sample 65

4.2 Descriptive Statistics 68

4.3 Measure Reliabilities and Validities 70

4.3.1 Assessment of reliability of the measurement scale 70

4.3.2 Exploratory Factor Analysis 75

4.3.3 Confirmatory Factory Analysis 77

4.4 Common method bias 79

4.5 Hypothesis testing 81

4.5.1 Factors affecting pro-environmental consumption behaviors 82

4.5.1.1 Explanatory Model Analysis 82

4.5.1.2 Evaluation of the fitness of the model 83

4.5.1.3 Regression results 84

4.5.2 Factors affecting intrinsic motivation for pro-environmental consumption behaviors 87

4.5.2.1 Explanatory Model Analysis 87

4.5.2.2 Evaluation of the fitness of the model 89

4.5.2.3 Regression results 90

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4 96

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSIONS OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS 97

AND RECOMMENDATIONS 97

5.1 Discussion of the research findings 97

5.2 Theoretical contribution 101

5.3 Practical implications 103

5.3.1 Implications for the moderating impact of extrinsic motivation 103

5.3.2 Implications for the moderating impact of prosocial motivation 104

5.3.3 Implications for enhancing intrinsic motivations 106

5.3.3.1 Satisfying consumers’ need for competence 107

5.3.3.2 Satisfying consumers’ need for autonomy 109

5.3.3.3 Satisfying consumers’ need for relatedness 110

5.3.4 Recommendations for policy makers 111

5.4 Limitations and future research direction 112

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5 113

CONCLUSION 114

LIST OF WORKS THAT THE PHD CANDIDATE HAS PUBLISHED 117

REFERENCE LIST 118 APPENDIX 1: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE (ENGLISH VERSION) 146 APPENDIX 2: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE (VIETNAMESE VERSION) 151 APPENDIX 3: EFA RESULTS FOR ASSESSING MEASUREMENT SCALES 157

APPENDIX 3.1: KMO AND BARTLETT’S TEST 157 APPENDIX 3.2: TOTAL VARIANCE EXPLAINED 158 APPENDIX 3.3: ROTATED COMPONENT MATRIX a 161

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Research design 4

Figure 1.1: Goal framing theory model for pro-environmental behaviors 9

Figure 1.2: Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) 10

Figure 1.3: Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) 11

Figure 1.4: Norm-Activation Theory (Source: Schwartz, 1977) 14

Figure 1.5: Value-Belief-Norm Theory 16

Figure 1.6: Model of the consumption value theory 18

Figure 2.1: The theoretical framework 47

Figure 3.1: Global plastic production from 1950 to 2016 49

Figure 3.2: Plastic consumption in Vietnam compared to other regions 50

Figure 3.3: Steps of developing the survey questionnaire 56

Figure 4.1: The synergistic impact of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation on pro-environmental consumption behavior 85

Figure 4.2 The synergistic impact of intrinsic motivation and prosocial motivation on pro-environmental consumption behavior 87

Figure 4.3: The compensation effect between perceived autonomy and perceived competence on intrinsic motivation 93

Figure 4.4: The compensation effect between perceived autonomy and perceived relatedness on intrinsic motivation 93

Figure 4.5: The compensation effect between perceived competence and perceived relatedness on intrinsic motivation 94

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Positive relationship between TRA and TPB constructs and 12

Table 2.1: Self-Determination Theory’s internalization continuum 28

Table 2.2: The Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic (IM) and Extrinsic Motivation (EM) AM: Amotivation (Vallerand, 1997) 29

Table 3.1: Interpretation of reliability score 54

Table 3.2: Interpretation of factor loadings 55

Table 3.3: Interpretation of KMO 55

Table 3.4: Measurement items for Perceived competence, perceived autonomy and perceived relatedness 57

Table 3.5: Measurement items for Intrinsic Motivation 58

Table 3.6: Measurement items for Extrinsic Motivation 58

Table 3.7: Measurement items for Prosocial Motivation 59

Table 3.8: Measurement items for Pro-environmental consumption behavior 60

Table 4.1: Sampling profile and comparison to overall population 65

Table 4.2: Demographic profile of research respondents 66

Table 4.3 Descriptive statistics of survey measurements 68

Table 4.4: Reliability of measurement scale 71

Table 4.5: Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 75

Table 4.6: Total Variance Explained 75

Table 4.7: Correlations among variables 77

Table 4.8: Goodness of Fit Indices for Confirmatory Factor Analysis 78

Table 4.9: Average Variance Extracted and discriminant validity test 78

Table 4.10: Correlations (with the addition of Marker Variable) 80

Table 4.11 Model Summary 82

Table 4.12 ANOVA test 83

Table 4.13 Regression Analysis Results (Pro-environmental consumption behavior as a dependent variable) (N = 468) 86

Table 4.14 Model Summary 88Table 4.15 ANOVA test 89Table 4.16 Regression Analysis Results (Intrinsic Motivation as a dependent variable)(N = 468) 92Table 4.17 Hypothesis testing results 95

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

TPB Theory of Planned Behavior

TRA Theory of Reasoned Action

INTRODUCTION

1 Reasons for choosing the topic

Environmental disasters such as dwindling resources, damaged eco-systems,climate change, global warming and emissions of greenhouse gas are largely caused

by human daily behaviors, including consumption behaviors and production activities(United Nation, 2004) Particularly, the use of plastic has been one of the most seriousthreats to the environment worldwide In fact, plastic has gained increasing popularityaround the globe because of its low price, convenience, and even durability However,this has been considered to be harmful to not only the human society but also theocean’s health (Haward, 2018) Being an emerging economy, Vietnam is notexceptional According to Jambeck et al (2015), Vietnam was predicted to stand at thefourth position among countries polluting the ocean with plastic waste ofapproximately 1.83 million metric tons by 2018 It is easy to see plastic being favored

in almost any setting or place in Vietnam, for example at wet markets, supermarkets,restaurants, shops of all types and at home as well As stated by Nguyen Thi HoangYen and Nguyen Vu Hung (2020), consumers’ behaviors in their daily life have beenregarded as the main cause of environmental pollutions in Vietnam As a result, ifindividuals are encouraged to conduct behaviors which can help substantially reducethe damage caused to the nature (de Koning et al., 2015; Vergragt et al., 2014) Suchexpected behaviors are referred to as pro-environmental behaviors (Steg and Vlek,2009) which can be defined as all those environmentally friendly behaviors that aregeared toward the best possible conservation of natural resources and other recyclablematerials (Bonnes and Bonaiuto, 2002) More specifically, pro-environmentalconsumption behaviors denote those that are friendly for the environment and canprotect the nature (Ertz et al., 2016) In terms of reducing single-use plastics, pro-environmental consumption behaviors include but are not limited to buying plastic-free products, bringing refillable coffee mugs or reusable grocery shopping bags,buying products with plastic packaging alternatives, or not taking plastic bags when

offered (Lavelle et al., 2015; Casaló et al., 2019).

Research on pro-environmental consumption behaviours has become a

significant stream in Marketing (Pickett-Baker and Ozaki, 2008; Moser, 2015; Patel et al., 2017) Among previous literature regarding the promotion of pro-environmental

consumption behaviors, investigating motivational factors appears to be a promisingand potential research focus (Abdulrazak and Quoquab, 2018; Nguyen et al., 2017) Ingeneral, motivation is critical to behavior performance research because it explainsindividual choices to (1) initiate an action or a particular task, (2) expend an amount of

effort on the task, and (3) persist in the application of effort over a period of time(Heckhausen, 1991) Motivation refers to the psychological processes that direct,energize, and sustain action (e.g., Latham and Pinder, 2005) or “an inner desire tomake an effort” (Midgley and Dowling, 1978, p 16) Therefore, this research isexpected to contribute to extant literature related to pro-environmental consumptionbehaviors in two main ways First, it will extend the self-determination theory byaccentuating the synergistic impacts of different types of motivations on pro-environmental consumption behaviors Second, it will also contribute to the cognitiveevaluation theory by proposing the compensation effects between the satisfaction ofthree basic psychological needs (i.e perceived competence, perceive autonomy andperceived relatedness) in enhancing intrinsic motivation for pro-environmentalconsumption behaviors, especially in the context of reducing single-use plastic bags.

2 Research questions and objectives

The main purpose of this quantitative survey research is to identify the impact

of intrinsic motivation on pro-environmental consumption behaviors in the context ofreducing single-use plastics Findings of this research would contribute to the body ofliterature regarding how pro-environmental consumption behaviors are promoted bythe synergy of different types of motivations and how the satisfaction of threebasic psychological needs (the need for competence, the need for autonomy and theneed for relatedness) influences intrinsic motivation for pro-environmentalconsumption behaviors

In details, the dissertation aims at achieving the following research objectives:

- Testing the influences of intrinsic motivation on pro-environmentalconsumption behaviors in the context of reducing single-use plastics;

- Investigating the influences of the synergy between intrinsic motivation andextrinsic motivation and the synergy between intrinsic motivation and prosocialmotivation on pro-environmental consumption behaviors in the context of reducingsingle-use plastics; and

- Investigating the interaction effects among basic psychological needs in therelationship with intrinsic motivation for pro-environmental consumption behaviors inthe context of reducing single-use plastics

In order to achieve these above-mentioned objectives, the dissertation aims atanswering three main overarching research questions:

RQ1: What is the relationship between intrinsic motivations and environmental consumption behaviors in the context of reducing single-use plastics?

pro-RQ2: What is the synergistic effect of different types of motivations (intrinsicmotivation, extrinsic motivation, prosocial motivation) on pro-environmentalconsumption behaviors in the context of reducing single-use plastics?

RQ3: What is the relationship between the satisfaction of three basicpsychological needs (perceived autonomy, perceived competence, perceivedrelatedness) and intrinsic motivation for pro-environmental consumption behaviors inthe context of reducing single-use plastics?

3 Research method

To complete this dissertation research, consumers’ motivations for environmental consumption behaviors in the context of reducing single-use plasticswere investigated This would generate an objective insight into the relationshipbetween their consumers’ motivations and their pro-environmental consumptionbehaviors To collect data for the research, a quantitative research approach wasadopted with a cross-sectional survey design Measurement scales were adopted andadapted from previous studies in order to generate a survey questionnaire which wasdistributed to consumers in a mall-intercept survey conducted in three cities of Hanoi,Danang, and Hochiminh city in Vietnam in October 2019 Collected data wereanalyzed with statistical software of SPSS and AMOS version 20.0

pro-Research subjects

The main subjects of the research were determinants of consumption behaviorswhich will produce as little harm as possible to the environment or even are beneficialfor the environment such as reducing single-use plastic consumption by not buying orreducing the purchase of products made from plastic or bringing own containers orbags when shopping in their daily lives

Research respondents

Respondents of the research were individual consumers 468 responses werecollected from individual consumers in three cities of Hanoi, Danang and Hochiminh.These cities were chosen to collect data for the research because the situation ofenvironmental pollution, especially related to plastic use, in these cities in Vietnam isseverely increasing (Tay, 2019) They were asked about their consumption behaviors

related to single-use plastic products and their motivations to conduct environmental consumption behaviors, especially reducing single-use plastic.

pro-Research scope

The researcher collected data in a mall-intercept survey based on systematicrandom sampling In details, respondents were selected from customers who visitedmain supermarkets in Hanoi, Da Nang, and Ho Chi Minh city in Vietnam in October2019

Research process

The steps of the research process are illustrated in the following flow chart:

Figure 1 Research design

4 Structure of the dissertation

This dissertation “The impact of intrinsic motivation on pro-environmental consumption behaviors” is conducted based on the Self-Determination theory (Deci,

1980; Deci and Ryan, 1985) Besides the Introduction and Conclusion, there are 5chapters in this dissertation, as follows:

Chapter 1: Literature review on factors influencing pro-environmental consumption

behaviors

Chapter 1 presents an extensive overview of existing body of literature related

to pro-environmental consumption behaviors, the main research problem of thisdissertation research This chapter further discusses relevant theories that are oftenapplied to address the research matter from other perspectives (Goal Framing Theory,Theory of Reasoned Action, Theory of Planned Behavior, Norm-Activation Theory,Value-Beliefs-Norms, Theory of Consumption Values) Based on this systematic review

of extant literature regarding pro-environmental consumption behaviors, severalresearch gaps were identified, establishing the objectives of this present dissertationresearch

Chapter 2: Theoretical framework and hypothesis development

Chapter 2 comprehensively describes the theoretical framework which isdeveloped from the Self-determination Theory to investigate the impact of intrinsicmotivation for pro-environmental consumption behaviors All the relevant key termsand concepts incorporated into the conceptual framework to address the hypothesesproposed of the study were explained in details for clarity and theoretical validity

Chapter 3: Research methods

Chapter 3 clearly describes the research design and methodology applied toinvestigate the research problem It further explains and discusses samples, samplingtechniques, the establishment of the survey questionnaire, the procedure of collectingdata, the method of analyzing collected data

Chapter 4: Results of the research

This chapter is a comprehensive description of the research results,interpretation of key findings of the research First of all, the demographic profiles ofsurvey respondents are illustrated using descriptive statistics Then, with the use ofstatistical tools (SPSS version 20.0 and AMOS version 20.0), Cronbach’s Alpha, EFA,CFA, correlations, multiple regression results analysis, and hypothesis testing resultsare clearly presented and explained to indicate which constructs can internalize andfacilitate intrinsic motivation, how different types of motivations influence pro-environmental consumption behaviors, and how different motivations synergize witheach other to reinforce the impact of intrinsic motivation on pro-environmentalconsumption behaviors

Chapter 5: Discussions of the research findings and Implications

This is the last chapter of the dissertation which discusses the conclusion drawnfrom key findings, theoretical contribution as well as practical implications derived fromthe research findings The limitations of the present research and recommendations forfurther related research are also highlighted.

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ON FACTORS INFLUENCING

PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR

1.1 Pro-environmental consumption behavior

According to Peattie (2010), green consumer refers to every consumer who canchoose to perform green consumption or choose not to do so However, it is notadvisable to consider a specific consumer as green or not green In some cases,although many consumers have an intention to conduct green consumption, they donot have actual behaviors because of other environmental contexts In existingliterature, most research has focused on examining green behaviors rather than greenconsumers More specifically, factors which influence consumers to choose to conductgreen consumption behavior, regardless of whether they are concerned about theenvironment or not, have been examined

Consumer behavior is referred to as the study of processes of selecting, using,

or disposing of products of individuals or groups of people (Hiller-Connell, 2010).Pro- environmental consumption behaviors can be understood as a form of pro-environmental behaviors which can lessen negative influences on the environment(Steg and Vlek, 2009) and can improve both social and environmental performances(Wang et al., 2013) These behaviors may be represented by interchangeable conceptssuch as sustainable consumptions (Cohen, 2001), environmentally significantconsumption (Stern, 2000), conscious consumption (Ellen et al., 1991), sociallyresponsible consumption (Roberts, 1995), mindful consumption (Sheth et al., 2011), orenvironmentally responsible consumer behavior (Taufique et al., 2014) In general,pro- environmental consumption behaviors are closely related to consumers’environmentally friendly practices to protect the environment (Ertz et al., 2016) Inthis present research, the chosen concept is pro-environmental consumption behaviors

in the context of reducing single-use plastics, which will produce as little harm aspossible to the environment Therefore, pro-environmental consumption behaviors inthis context include but are not limited to frequently buying products with eco-friendlypackaging, habitual recycling, frequently bringing containers for purchasing, or nottaking plastic bags whenever offered

1.2 Research on pro-environmental consumption behaviors

Existing literature has identified factors which can influence consumers’engagement in pro-environmental consumption behaviors (Nguyen et al., 2017;Nguyen et al., 2019a; Sun and Wang, 2020) Researchers have discussed differentfactors that

may influence pro-environmental consumption behaviors from the perspective ofseveral main theories Generally, the Goal framing theory has identified that pro-environmental consumption behaviors can be encouraged through three main goalsincluding hedonic goals, gain goals and normative goals The Theory of ReasonedAction (TRA) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) tend to explain pro-environmental consumption behaviors from rational choice perspective while theNormative Activation Model (NAM) focuses on explaining pro-environmentalconsumption behaviors can be mainly motivated by moral or norm-based beliefs TheValue-Belief-Norms (VBN) incorporated values and belief to examine pro-environmental behaviors Last but not least, the consumption value theory explains theconsumption of pro-environmental products in the relationship with values of theproducts.

1.2.1 Goal framing theory

Goals that are indicated to guide pro-environmental behaviors include hedonicgoals, gain goals, and normative goals (Lindenberg and Steg, 2007) Hedonic goalexpresses the desire how one feels and is linked with positive emotions such ashappiness, joy, comfort and negative ones as guilt, anger, shame or discomfort(Lindenberg, 2008; Etienne, 2011) Individuals with hedonic goals tend to improvetheir feelings such as seeking excitement or pleasure or avoiding effort when they are

in a specific situation Gain goal is defined as making the most of utility and benefits

by securing, preserving or increasing one’s resources (Etienne, 2011) Those with gaingoals are prompted to respond to changes in their personal resources such as loss ofmoney or threat to their social status Others than hedonic and gain goals, normativegoal denotes doing the right thing (Etienne, 2011) and is referred to as considerationabout preserving collective resources, social group norms (Lindenberg, 2008).Therefore, normative goals will direct individuals to choose appropriate actions whichthey think they should do In general, these goals will guide or direct people to

“frame” what they should pay attention to, what type of information or knowledge iscognitively accessible, how they perceive and evaluate and various alternatives, andhow they choose to act in a certain situation

Generally, pro-environmental behaviors may be influenced if people havehedonic goals, gain goals or normative goals Firstly, people may engage in a certainpro-environmental behavior because it is enjoyable and pleasant to do so (hedonicgoals) For example, people derive pleasure from purchasing and usingenvironmentally-friendly products (Gatersleben, 2007) Secondly, gain goals may

pro-However, many pro-environmental behaviors are appropriate things to do butare less profitable, less enjoyable, less convenient, more expensive, and take moretime and more effort than so-called environmentally-harmful behaviors For example,using plastic bags or packages is more convenient and cheaper for bothproducers and consumers (Hawkins, 2001; Lithner et al., 2011), organic products aremore expensive than regular ones or travelling by public transport is less convenientand slower than travelling by individual cars (Steg, 2003) Therefore, in order topromote pro- environmental behaviors, it is essential to study relationships amongvariables which can make hedonic and gain goals compatible with normative goalsand can strengthen normative goals For example, Figure 1.1 below represents thetheoretical model to explain pro-environmental behavior from the perspective of the

goal framing theory

Figure 1.1: Goal framing theory model for pro-environmental behaviors

(Source: Chakraborty et al., 2017)

Attitude

BehavioralIntention BehaviorsSocial Norms

1.2.2 Theory of Reasoned Action and Theory of Planned Behavior

Generally, the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1977)proposed that behavioral intentions could be explained by “attitudes” towards aparticular behavior and “subjective norms” As explained by TRA, individuals’behavioral intention will increase if their attitudes toward the behavior becomes morefavorable Subjective norms denote the perceived social pressure to perform abehavior or not Accordingly, individuals’ intention to perform a certain behavior willincrease if their subjective norms toward that behavior becomes more favorable Therelationship among core concepts of TRA is shown in Figure 1.2 below

Figure 1.2: Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)

(Source: Fishbein and Aijen, 1977)Extending from TRA, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991)explains that consumers are supposed to behave in a rational manner and adds

“perceived behavioral control” into the theoretical model First, individuals may have

a positive or negative attitude toward behavioral options As explained by Ajzen(1991), attitude is defined to reflect the overall evaluation of being engaged in abehavior, based on the likely costs incurred and benefits gained from conducting thatspecific behavior Therefore, attitude is regarded as a direct predictor of behavioralintention, which will shape individuals’ intentions toward specific issues Second,social norms denote the social pressure that individuals perceive to have to engage in abehavior, mostly based on beliefs about expectations of relevant reference groupsrelated to the behavior Therefore, they perceive themselves to be expected to behave

in a certain manner Finally, perceived behavioral control is referred to as theperceived ease or difficulty to perform a specific behavior (Ajzen, 1991) As a result,perceived behavioral control is reliant on beliefs about the existence of those factorswhich are likely to encourage or discourage the behavior From the perspective ofTPB, individuals are supposed to be typically motivated by weighting expected costsand benefits of alternatives More specifically, attitudes, social norms andperceived behavioral control will shape

to investigate the relationship between these constructs and numerous environmental consumption behaviors Particularly, awareness of environmentalproblems is found to play a vital role in forming attitudes towards hotel guests’ pro-environmental behavior, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control, whichshape their intention to visit green hotels (Chen and Tung, 2014) Other studies alsoshow that pro-environmental consumption behavioral intention and behaviors areinfluenced by main constructs of the TPB Examples include travel mode choice(Bamberg and Schmidt, 2003), food consumption (Vermeir and Verbeke, 2008),household recycling (Kaiser and Gutscher, 2003;

pro-Mannetti et al., 2004), or general green consumption in China (Wu and Chen, 2014);buying energy-efficient home appliances in Pakistan (Waris and Ahmed, 2020); or greenapparel purchase intention in Vietnam (Nguyen et al., 2019b) More importantly, TPB

is also extended when the positive association between attitudes, subjective norms,perceived behavioral control and green consumption is tested and two factors whichcan close the gap between favorable environmental attitude and green consumptionbehaviors in Vietnam are proposed, namely green product availability and perceivedconsumer effectiveness (Nguyen et al., 2019a)

More specifically, the positive association between constructs of the TRA andTPB and pro-environmental behavioral intention has been well-established in previousliterature, as illustrated in the following table

Table 1.1: Positive relationship between TRA and TPB constructs and

pro-environmental behavioral intention TRA and TPB

premium for green products, such as organic food or green electricity tariffs

Diamantopoulos et al.(2003)

Krystallis and Chryssohoidis (2005)consumers’ willingness to engage in

recycling electronic waste

Nixon et al (2009)

Social norms

clothing resale and donation behaviors Joung and Park-Poaps

(2013)

decisions of buying and usingsustainable products

McBride et al (2020)Liobikiene et al.,2016)

consumption of green products, Griskevicius et al.

(2010)

Energy saving behaviors

Gadenne et al (2011)Testa et al (2016) Niemeyer (2010)Allcott (2011)

(1995)

organic food consumption Tarkiainen and

Sundqvist (2005)conservation behavior Albayrak et al (2013)purchase of general green products Moser (2015)

consumer’s intention to reduce energyconsumption through the usage of energy-saving appliances

Tan et al (2017)

1.2.3 The norm-activation model

Besides stemming from an individual’s self-interest and volitional intentions,consumer behavior also results from moral or norm-based beliefs Based on the Norm-Activation Model (NAM) proposed by Schwartz (1977), personal beliefs and personalnorms can fulfill a potential role as determinants of intent and behavior NAMindicates that personal norms or moral norms are triggered by awareness ofconsequences and ascription of responsibility Firstly, awareness of consequencesdeals with whether individuals are aware of negative consequences for others or otherthings they value when not taking pro-social behaviors (De Groot and Steg, 2009;Schwartz, 1977) Secondly, ascription of responsibility is denoted as “feelings ofresponsibility for the negative consequences of not acting pro-socially” (De Groot andSteg, 2009, p 426) Finally, personal norm is referred to as “moral obligation toperform or refrain from specific actions” (Schwartz and Howard, 1981, p 191) Ifindividuals are not aware of the consequences arising from a specific behavior, theywould not feel obliged to behave in an expected way NAM’s core theoreticalframework is illustrated in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Norm-Activation Theory (Source: Schwartz, 1977)

The NAM is a vested model that explains altruistic behavior andenvironmentally friendly behavior As explained by NAM, norm activation starts withindividuals’ awareness of potentially negative consequences and their ascription ofresponsibility for not conducting pro-environmental behaviors If consumers are notaware of the consequences of their daily consumption practices, they would not feelthat they are obliged to behave in such a way that could reduce or minimize damage

to the

Aw

environment Several primary previous studies have applied NAM to explain energyconservation (Black et al., 1985), recycling (Guagnano et al., 1995), pro-environmental packaging choice (Thøgersen, 1999) In general, from the perspective

of NAM, purchase of environmentally friendly products and travelling inenvironmentally friendly modes (Onwezen et al., 2013), sustainable transportbehaviors (Bamberg and Schmidt, 2003; Van der Werff and Steg, 2015; Jakovcevicand Steg, 2013) and car transport reduction (Liu et al., 2017) have also been examined.More specifically, in a research about college students’ pro-environmental behavior, ithas been found that individuals’ concerns about negative consequences ofenvironmental problems directly influence subjective norms, perceived behavioralcontrol and belief constructs, including normative, behavioral and control beliefs(Bamberg, 2003) Consistently, customers’ awareness of consequences ofenvironmental problems is likely to result in their favorable attitudes toward pro-environmental consumption behaviors; social pressure under which they feel obliged

to engage in pro-environmental consumption behaviors; and perceived ease ofpurchasing a pro-environmental product (Kim and Han, 2010) These research findingshave all indicated that pro-environmental behaviors can be mainly motivated by moral ornorm-based beliefs

1.2.4 Values-Beliefs-Norms

Value-belief-norm (VBN) was developed, linking value theory and the newenvironmental paradigm to the NAM (Stern et al., 1999) While NAM only focuses onaltruistic values to explain individuals’ behaviors, other values are included in theVBN which is a better version to account for pro-environmental intention and behaviors.VBN postulates that prosocial behaviors are stimulated by activating norms of helping(Stern et al., 1999) According to VBN, three main constructs are personal values,beliefs that these values are under attack, and beliefs that individuals can take actions

to minimize threats and restore those values The main constructs of VBN areillustrated in Figure

1.5 as follows

Egoistic values

Altruistic

Ecological Paradigm

Traditional

values

Ascription of Responsibility

Awareness of Consequences

environmental Personal Norm

Pro-Environmental Activism

Environmental Citizenship Policy Support

Private-Sphere BehaviorsFigure 1.5: Value-Belief-Norm Theory

(Source: Stern et al., 1999)From the Figure 1.5, it can be seen that pro-environmental intention andbehaviors, including environmental activism, environmental citizenship, policysupport, and private sphere behaviors are activated by personal norms which in turnresult from awareness of consequences and ascription of responsibilities Theawareness of consequences and ascription of responsibilities are generated by the newecological paradigm (i.e “the propensity to take actions with pro-environmentalintent”, Stern, 2000, p.411) which is a result of values (“a desirable trans-situationalgoal varying in importance, which serves as a guiding principle in the life of a person

or other social entity” (Schwartz, 1992, p.21) There are three types of values, namelyaltruistic, egoistic and traditional ones

Many studies have been conducted and proved the adequacy of the sequentialprocess in which pro-environmental intention or behavior is generated (values ecological worldview  adverse consequences  ascribed responsibility  sense ofobligation to conduct pro-environmental behaviors or pro-environmental intention).For example, the significant positive association between awareness of consequences,ascription of responsibilities, personal norms and pro-social intention has beenempirically evidenced in the social and environmental contexts (De Groot and Steg,2009) Similarly, Stern (2000), Poortinga et al (2004), De Groot and Steg (2008) allasserted altruistic and biospheric personal values as strong motivators of pro-environmental behaviors, especially energy saving measures It is recommended thatsuch personal values are likely to increase consciousness and activate the consumers’responsibility for protecting the environment which in turn will maximize theirimpacts

on solving environmental problems by recognizing and conforming to energy polices

or using energy efficient household appliances (Steg et al., 2005; Poortinga et al.,2004) or on conducting energy conservation behavior (Ibtissem, 2010) Additionally,whose who have a higher level of awareness of consequences, social pressure andmoral norms are indicated to be more likely to intend to choose an eco-friendlylodging hotel (Hans, 2015) Moreover, as stated in Oikonomou et al (2009),environmental comfort and quality of future generations as an important moralresponsibility can be considered as strong determinants of reinforced pro-environmental behaviors of the actual consumers from the lens of VBN Likewise,previous research in the setting of general pro- environmental behaviors, values areindicated to lead to ecological worldview, flow through awareness of consequencesand ascribed responsibility, and then generate personal norms as antecedents of pro-environmental behavioral intention or behaviors (Diet et al., 2005; Dunlap et al.,2000)

1.2.5 Theory of consumption value

Motivation for consumption in general is reliant on consumption values Thetheory of consumption value (Sheth et al., 1991) is able to explain consumer choicebehavior in general and pro-environmental consumption behaviors in particular.According to this theory, a certain behavior of an individual is influenced by fivevalues, namely functional, social, emotional, conditional, and epistemic values.Generally, a number of empirical studies have applied the consumption value theory toexplain pro- environmental consumption behaviors One example that should bementioned is the study of factors that would influence consumer choice behaviorrelated to buying green products in Taiwan (Lin and Huang, 2012) In another study,functional value – quality, price, social value, emotional value, conditional value, andepistemic value are significant predictors of choice behavior toward green products(Lin et al., 2010) However, each consumption value does not have equal impacts onpro-environmental consumption behaviors Kao and Tu (2015) have proved thepositive relationship between all five green consumption values and pro-environmentalconsumption with the highest level of impact of functional value and epistemic value,followed by emotional value, conditional values and social values (Kao and Tu, 2015).Figure 1.6 below demonstrates the theoretical model of the theory of consumptionvalue

Figure 1.6: Model of the consumption value theory

(Source: Sheth et al., 1991)First, functional value is defined as the “perceived utility acquired from analternative’s capacity for functional, utilitarian or physical performance and wasthought to be generated by a product’s salient attributes” (Sheth et al., 1991, p 162) Inother words, functional value denotes consumers’ perception of utility of specificproducts, including reliability, price, quality and durability of the products This value

is assessed as the main driver of consumer choice With regards to pro-environmentalconsumption behaviors, the functional value of pro-environmental consumptionproducts is influenced by such factors as durability, price and reliability which wouldgenerate functional benefits for consumers For example, the price and quality ofrecycled products tend to influence consumers’ willingness to buy recycled products(Bei and Simpson, 1995) In another research about purchase of ecological products,consumers are attracted by cosmetics products that are made from natural ingredients,wood products made from trees grown in sustainable forests, organic vegetables orozone- friendly aerosols (Norazah, 2013) Furthermore, high price of pro-environmental consumption products tends to result in consumers’ unwillingness topay premium price for those products (D’Souza et al., 2007) Similarly, the functionalprice (price) influences the purchase of green products (Finch, 2005)

Secondly, social value is the “perceived utility acquired from an alternative’sassociation with one or more specific social groups” (Sheth et al., 1991, p 162) Inother

words, social value measures the effect of peer opinion on consumers’ behaviorchoice In that way, consumers choose conduct pro-environmental consumptionbehaviors both to reduce harm to the environment and preserve the naturalenvironment on their own and to motivate others to do the same (Perrin and Barton,2001) Sometimes, consumers purchase products in order to show off their socialstatus, meet social norms, or display self-image However, still consumers heavily rely

on expert opinion to lessen their perceptions of risk (Aqueveque, 2006)

Thirdly, emotional value represents the feelings or affective states consumersmay have toward the pro-environmental products (Sheth et al., 1991) Differing fromfunctional and social values, the emotional value may be generated from bothutilitarian and hedonistic components (Sweeney and Soutar, 2001) If a product canevoke emotions, they tend to have emotional value However, different consumersmay have their own personal and emotional experiences, for example positive ornegative or mixed feelings If consumers have positive emotional values, they tend tomake enjoyable and receptive purchase of green products because this will help thembelieve that they are behaving pro-environmentally (Lin and Huang, 2012) Thiscorroborates findings of another research in which consumer assess themselves to beenvironmentally friendly when they purchase recyclable products as they may thinkthey are helping to protect the nature (Bei and Simpson, 1995)

Fourthly, conditional value is defined as the “perceived utility acquired by analternative as the result of a specific set of circumstances facing the choice maker”(Sheth et al., 1991, p 162) When a product has conditional value, it can temporarilyprovide functional or social value in certain circumstances When external situationfactors lead to a product's external utility, it may change customers' daily behavior, andthe consumption value of a product may decrease when the situation factor disappears.Past research has confirmed that pro-environmental consumption behaviors areassociated with situations, times, places and product features (Lin and Huang, 2012;Laaksonen, 1993) Finch (2005) also confirms the influence of conditional value ongreen consumers’ behavior

Finally, epistemic value is defined as the “perceived utility acquired from analternative’s capacity to arouse curiosity, provide novelty, or satisfy a desire forknowledge” (Sheth et al., 1991, p 162) Epistemic value also denotes consumerinclinations to desire knowledge and seek novelty Knowledge is recognized as acharacteristic which has an influence on all phases in consumer decision process Withregards to pro-environmental consumption behaviors, the epistemic value, i.e product

characteristics and product design, has a significant influence on consumer behavior(Lin and Huang, 2012) In addition, knowledge of the consumer behavior, for exampleknowledge of the recycling process, influences consumers’ behavior (Hanyu et al.,2000) Besides knowledge, epistemic value also includes environmental attitude,values and practices which can motivate them to conduct green consumption behavior(Steg and Vlek, 2009; Zsoka et al., 2013)

1.2.6 Limitations of these theories in explaining determinants of environmental consumption behaviors

pro-Although those mentioned above theories have been applied to successfullyexamine determinants of pro-environmental behaviors, there are still at least twolimitations that this study would like to overcome

Firstly, pro-environmental behavior can be jointly determined by cognitive andpsychological processes (Takahashi et al., 2021) and can be influenced by bothindividuals’ internal factors and other surrounding external contexts However, theseabove-mentioned theories just separately explained the effects of either internal orexternal factors on pro-environmental behaviors from a social cognitive perspective inthree main categories The first category of theories looks into pro-environmentalbehaviors from the perspective of rational choice in which individuals tend to weighpersonal benefits over costs of behaviors (theory of reasoned action, theory of plannedbehavior and theory of consumption value) The second group of theories tend toregard pro-environmental behaviors as altruistic or normative behavior from the pro-social behavioral perspective (goal framing theory, the norm activation model, thevalue- belief-norm theory) The third group may be an integration of differentframeworks which combine the rational choice and pro-social behavioral models toexamine pro- environmental behaviors While contextual factors may hinder orreinforce the impacts of internal factors on behaviors, the interaction effects betweenthese contextual and internal factors on pro-environmental consumption behavior havenot been explored Therefore, it is essential to apply another relevant theoreticalframework that can examine these interaction effects to generate more understandingabout how more pro- environmental behaviors could be promoted

Secondly, scholars have suggested that a very promising approach to examineinfluencing factors of pro-environmental consumption behavior is the motivationperspective (Abdulrazak and Quoquab, 2018; Grønhøj and Thøgersen, 2017).Nevertheless, what those above mentioned theories in extant literature tend to neglectis

that pro-environmental behaviors can be promoted by internalized motivation in whichpeople act either because the behaviors themselves are enjoyable or challenging orbecause they endorse the values that underlie Furthermore, if behaviors are notinternalized, they tend to stop as soon as the reinforcement contingencies stop (Ryanand Deci, 2017) Therefore, it is essential to apply another theoretical perspective thatcould provide an understanding of the internalization of motivation for pro-environmental consumption behaviors

In fact, as self-determination theory focuses on the interplay between individuals’growth orientation and the social environment (Ryan and Deci, 2000), it would be awell-established theoretical framework to examine how the coexistence of internal andcontextual factors affect behaviors, especially in the pro-environmental consumptionbehavior context Besides, the self-determination theory provides specific predictionsabout both internal and social factors that can influence motivation and “addresses theenergization and the direction of behavior” (Deci and Ryan, 1985, p.7) Therefore, itseems to be a relevant theoretical framework to explore the internalization ofmotivation for pro-environmental consumption behaviors Additionally, self-determination theory has also been widely applied to examine pro-environmentalbehaviors in extant literature (eg.: de Groot and Steg, 2010; Lavergne et al., 2010;Ryan and Deci, 2000a; Tagkaloglou, 2018; Allen, 2016) Accordingly, this researchwould like to overcome these two limitations of existing research by examiningmotivational factors that can influence pro-environmental consumption behaviors,especially in the context of reducing single-use plastics from the perspective of self-determination theory

1.3 Research gaps

From the perspective of self-determination theory, this research aims at filling

in two major research gaps regarding determinants of pro-environmental consumptionbehaviors Firstly, most research only focus on the direct effects of intrinsic motivation

on pro-environmental behaviors (Bamberg and Möser, 2007; Afsar et al., 2016;Sierzchula et al., 2014) Intrinsic motivation involves engaging in an activity for thepleasure and satisfaction derived from it and may involve personal or intrinsic desireswhich would drive specific consumption behaviors In other words, a desired behavior

is strongly motivated on the ground of the development of intrinsic motivation (Deciand Ryan, 1985; Ryan and Deci, 2000a) Extant literature has fully supported thepositive association between intrinsic motivation and pro-environmental consumption

behaviors (Pham et al., 2021; Cooke and Fielding, 2010; Aitken et al., 2016; Steg et

al., 2016; Afsar et al., 2016) If individuals are intrinsically motivated to participate

in an

activity primarily for the enjoyment brought about by the activity itself, they are morelikely to engage in that behavior Nevertheless, although it has been proposed thatintrinsic and extrinsic motivations may interact with each other to encourage desiredbehaviors (Deci, 1980), this potential interaction effect on the promotion of pro-environmental consumption behaviors has remained quite silent in current literature.Besides, in previous literature, prosocial motivation, which is referred to as the desire

to help others (Grant, 2008), is claimed to be associated with pro-environmentalbehaviors (Saleem et al., 2018; Afsar et al., 2016; Cheung et al., 2017; Nolan andSchultz, 2015) Additionally, while the interplay between intrinsic motivation andprosocial motivation has been reported in a variety of settings as organizationalbehaviors (Grant and Berry, 2011), employees’ citizenship (Lazauskaite-Zabielske etal., 2015), research about this interaction in pro-environmental consumption behaviors

is rather scare Furthermore, a call for research related to a potential synergy effectbetween different motivations in this context has been announced by Fischer andassociates (2019) Accordingly, this current research aims at investigating whether thecoexistence of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and prosocial motivation canhave synergistic effects on pro- environmental consumption behaviors, especially inthe context of reducing single-use plastics

Second, although it is widely accepted that intrinsic motivation is significantlyassociated with pro-environmental behaviors, current literature tends to overlook thenext important question of how intrinsic pro-environmental motivation emerges or can

be fostered (Schwarts et al., 2019), especially in the context of reducing single-useplastics is unexplored As self-determination theory has proposed that intrinsicmotivation is the highest level of self-determined motivation (Deci and Ryan, 1985);and that interventions leveraged by intrinsic motivation can be stronger and moreinfluential predictors of pro-environmental consumption behaviors than thoseleveraged by extrinsic motivation (Van der Linden, 2015; 2018), it is now essential tounderstand how to develop individuals’ pro-environmental intrinsic motivation Underthe cognitive evaluation theory, a mini theory of self-determination theory, intrinsicmotivation can be enhanced by the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs,including the need for autonomy, competence and relatedness (Deci and Ryan, 1985).Previous literature has also supported this proposition (Ryan et al., 2017; Goldman etal., 2017; Ryan and Deci, 2020; Gunnell et al., 2010) However, firstly, how thesatisfaction of these psychological needs brings enjoyment to consumers in their pro-environmental consumption behaviors has been inconclusive On the one hand,

perceived competence was found to be the most influential predictor of intrinsicmotivation for voluntary simplistic clothing consumption practices while therelationship between perceived autonomy and intrinsic motivation is concluded to benegative, weak and not significant (Taljaard and Sonnenberg, 2019) On the otherhand, perceived autonomy and perceived competence were reported to play a limitedrole in enhancing motivations for sustainable consumption compared to the prominentrole played by perceived relatedness, especially in an Asian cultural context(Abdulrazak and Quoquab, 2018) Secondly, while the independent effects of theneeds have been studied, how the needs interact with each other in enhancing intrinsicmotivation in the domain of pro-environmental consumption behavior has also beenlargely unexplored In fact, existing literature has evidenced different types ofinteractions among these basic psychological needs in some other contexts (e.g.:

Dysvik et al., 2013; Kluwer et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020; 2021) However, in the

context of reducing single-use plastic consumption as a type of PECB, theinteraction between the fulfillment of basic psychological needs has not beenexplored Therefore, to address this literature gap, the next focus of this presentresearch is to investigate how perceived autonomy, perceived competence, andperceived relatedness, and their interaction affect intrinsic motivation in the context ofreducing single-use plastics as one type of pro-environmental consumption behaviors

In order to bridge these gaps in existing literature related to motivations for environmental consumption behaviors, this research applies the self-determinationtheory to investigate whether intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and prosocialmotivation can synergize with each other to promote pro-environmental consumptionbehaviors and establish how the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs canenhance intrinsic motivation for pro-environmental consumption behaviors

pro-1.4 Research questions

In conclusion, from extensive review of existing literature regarding environmental consumption behaviors, in response to the above research gaps, thisresearch aims at focusing on the relationship among motivational factors and pro-environmental consumption behaviors by incorporating types of motivations under theSDT perspective and the concept of pro-social motivation In this way, the researchhas extended the SDT by focusing on the mechanism in which pro-environmentalconsumption behaviors can be promoted with the synergistic impacts of different types

pro-of motivations

The following research questions were proposed to achieve all major objectives

RQ3: What is the relationship between the satisfaction of three basicpsychological needs (perceived autonomy, perceived competence, perceivedrelatedness) and intrinsic motivation for pro-environmental consumption behaviors inthe context of reducing single-use plastics?

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1

This chapter has offered a comprehensive review of existing literature on factorsimpacting pro-environmental consumption behavior in order to identify potentialresearch gaps that this dissertation could fill In general, several major research gapshave been identified To begin with, the impact of intrinsic motivation on maintaining

or repeating PECB is not as substantial as expected Second, the mechanism by whichthe satisfaction of the need for perceived autonomy, perceived competence, andperceived relatedness facilitates intrinsic motivation is not explained explicitly Third,there is no empirical evidence as to whether or the satisfaction of each of these threebasic psychological needs will interact with each other or not in the facilitation ofintrinsic motivation Finally, most existing research has focused on how different types

of motivation influence the initial engagement of pro-environmental consumptionbehavior rather than the long-term maintenance of these behaviors To fill in theseresearch gaps and to expand from recommendations of other scholars, the authoremploys the Self Determination Theory to investigate factors that can help motivate pro-environmental consumption behaviors

CHAPTER 2: THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT

Existing body of literature has developed a number of theoretical modelsexplaining factors affecting pro-environmental consumption behaviors However, veryfew of them have focused on the synergy effects of motivational factors like intrinsicmotivation, extrinsic motivation and prosocial motivation on pro-environmentalconsumption behaviors Furthermore, how intrinsic motivation can be facilitated isalso unexplored in extant literature To investigate these relationships morecomprehensively, the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is applied as the mainstreamtheoretical basis to achieve all objectives proposed by the research Constructsincorporated in the conceptual framework developed from this theory are relevant toaddress the proposed hypotheses

2.1 Self-Determination Theory

Self Determination Theory (SDT), a broad framework of human motivation, aims

at explaining a variety of phenomena regarding human motivation underlying thegrowth and development of a person (Ryan and Deci, 2000a, 2000b) Proposed byDeci and Ryan (1985), this theory highlights the importance of human resources forpersonality development and self-regulated behavior Being a motivational theory ofpersonality, development, social processes and self-regulation behavior, SDT examineshow numerous types of motivation are facilitated or undermined by different factorslike social context and individual differences These factors could be either beinginternally motivated (for example, valuing an activity) or being externally pressured(for example, there being a strong external coercion) Each type of motivations hasdistinct effects on learning, performance, personal experience or well-being From theperspective of human motivation, SDT has been applied to both predict a wide range

of psychological and developmental outcomes and investigate contextual situations inwhich humans’ interest and passions are enhanced or reduced Taken together, SDT is awell-established theory to provide researchers with insightful views into such topics aseducation, physical exercise, health and medicine, organizational behaviors, or pro-environmental behaviors, pro-social behaviors and sustainable consumption behaviorsfrom the motivation perspective

SDT also denotes different motivational types with their regulatory styles (Ryanand Deci, 2000a) In this continuum (Table 2.1), these motivational types are arrangedfrom left to right, progressing from the nonregulation of nonintentional behaviors to

external regulation of behaviors based on compliance or external rewards orpunishment; to introjected regulation of behaviors based on self-control or internalrewards; to identified regulation of behaviors based on personal importance; tointegrated regulation through congruence or awareness; and finally to intrinsicregulation of behaviors based on interest, enjoyment and inherent satisfaction, thebasis for true self-determination.

As can be seen from Table 2.1, the self-determination continuum starts withamotivation At this state, people may not conduct any behavior at all or may conduct

a specific behavior without an intent This is probably because they do not value theactivity itself, or they feel incompetent to do it, or even they lack control in doing theactivity (Ryan, 1995; Bandura, 1986) In the middle of the self-determination continuum

is extrinsic motivation, which is divided into different forms, based on the level ofautonomous regulation At the lowest level of autonomous regulation, externalregulation, an individual conducts a behavior to satisfy an external demand Whenmotivated by the second type of extrinsic motivation, introjected regulation, anindividual performs a specific behavior to achieve ego-involvement or to avoid guilt orpunishment A higher level of autonomous form of extrinsic motivation is identifiedregulation in which the behavior is performed because it is regarded as beingimportant or valued by the performer The highest level of autonomous form ofextrinsic motivation, integrated regulation, occurs when the evaluations of thebehavior are synthesized with one’s other values and needs The final point of the self-determination continuum is intrinsic motivation, which is referred to as doing anactivity because of the interest, enjoyment or inherent satisfaction experienced fromthe activity itself Although the integrated motivation and intrinsic motivation sharesome similar characteristics, actions performed based on the integrated motivation isstill regarded as being extrinsically motivated because they are still performed because

of achieving separable outcomes rather than because of the inherent satisfactionexperienced from the action itself

Table 2.1: Self-Determination Theory’s internalization continuum

Source: (Deci and Ryan, 1985)

Extending from the SDT’s internalization continuum, Vallerand (1997)develops the Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation This modelgives a deep and critical insight into the relationship and process of intrinsicmotivation (engaging in a specific behavior because of the interest, pleasure andinherent satisfaction gained from the behavior itself), and extrinsic motivation(engaging in a specific behavior because of other external motives outside thebehavior) and amotivation (the state of a lack of motivation for a specific behavior)(see Table 2.2.)

Table 2.2: The Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic (IM) and Extrinsic Motivation (EM)

AM: Amotivation (Vallerand, 1997)

As can be seen from Table 2.2., intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, andamotivation exist at the global level (personality), contextual level (life domain) andsituational level (state) and can greatly explain individuals’ behaviors Determinants ofmotivations for behaviors are social factors at each of those three levels However, theinfluence of social factors on different types of motivations at each level is mediated

by perceived autonomy (the feeling of having freedom to do the activity), perceivedcompetence (the feeling of being able to do the activity) and perceived relatedness (thefeeling of being connected to others in the community) Furthermore, what theHierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation of Vallerand (1997) alsoconcerns is the top-down effect of the motivation at the next higher level on themotivation at a next lower level and the recursive relationship between different types

of motivation at different levels (the double arrows in the middle of Table 2.2) It isalso apparent that different types of motivational outcomes can derive from thesemotivation types, including cognitive, affective and behavioral outcomes Oneoutstanding feature