LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CLT EMI ELT Communicative Language Teaching English Medium Instruction English Language Teaching IELTS International English Language Testing System L2 Foreign L
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
Internationalization in higher education aims to attract a diverse student body and promote global, regional, and domestic competition among institutions (Wallitsch, 2014) As English continues to emerge as the dominant international language, it is increasingly used worldwide for various communication purposes across social, academic, and professional contexts (Chen, 2009) The global proliferation of English presents significant challenges for language learning and teaching, leading to a shift in pedagogical approaches Instead of focusing solely on finding the most effective teaching methods, educators now emphasize foundational teaching principles to adapt to the evolving linguistic landscape (Jacobs & Renandya, 2016, p 4).
EFL teachers should focus on developing students' procedural knowledge, which includes negotiation strategies and practical language skills, rather than solely emphasizing propositional knowledge, such as grammar rules and language norms (Canagarajah, 2014, p.767) This pedagogical shift enables students to acquire comprehensive strategies to navigate the language of globalization effectively.
The primary goal of Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) is to develop learners' communicative competence, addressing the increasing global demand for English as an essential tool for communication Oral language skills, including speaking and listening, are vital indicators of students' academic, personal, and professional success, highlighting the importance of fostering proficiency in these areas.
Emanuel (2011) found that college students spend over 75% of their daily academic communication time on oral activities like listening and speaking, with reading and writing accounting for less than 25% This highlights the crucial role of oral communication skills in higher education, emphasizing the need for educators to foster and encourage students to develop more effective speaking and listening abilities.
Language is fundamentally about communication, and effective language teaching aims to facilitate this communication To achieve a balanced approach in classroom practice, Nation (2014) emphasized the importance of integrating the four key strands: meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, language-focused learning, and fluency development, though fluency often receives insufficient attention Ensuring equal time is dedicated to each strand in a language course is vital for comprehensive learning Promoting fluency, particularly speaking skills, requires considering various factors such as temporal, lexical, speaker, and external influences that impact language achievement (Kopnická & Calgary, 2016) Despite assumptions that practice enhances production mechanisms, research indicates that fluency cannot be directly coached or taught; it tends to develop naturally through immersive experiences like living abroad (Chambers, 1997).
Fluency is considered a crucial component of language proficiency, as highlighted by Chambers (1997), who emphasizes its role within overall language skills According to Leonard (2015), developing fluency involves various factors that require appropriate teaching methods and well-structured instruction Therefore, the guidance provided by EFL teachers plays a vital role in helping learners achieve ultimate fluency, supported by research from Segalowitz, Gatbonton, and Trofimovich (2009), as well as Kopnická and Calgary.
Effective language teaching requires teachers to understand the key factors that influence oral fluency, enabling them to implement strategies that significantly improve students' speaking skills Additionally, L2 educators should intentionally reduce their own talking time and design engaging learning activities and tasks that foster abundant interaction among students, thereby enhancing overall communicative competence.
Improving speaking fluency is essential for academic success and effective real-life communication in the target language According to Bygate (2009), "fluency is mainly of interest because it is related to communicative effectiveness" (p 409), highlighting its importance in achieving meaningful interactions Enhancing fluency not only boosts language competence but also prepares learners for successful conversations and academic pursuits.
Research indicates that speaking ability is the most challenging component for EFL learners when acquiring a foreign language To speak effectively, learners must integrate multiple language skills, making spoken communication a complex and demanding task (Young, 1990; Price, 1991; Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1991) Developing strong oral proficiency is essential for successful language mastery and real-life communication.
Speaking skills are highly dependent on contextual factors such as participants, shared experiences, physical surroundings, and the purpose of communication To effectively promote speaking abilities, learners must understand not only linguistic competence—encompassing grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary—but also socio-linguistic competence, which involves knowing when, why, and how to use language appropriately Additionally, effective communication relies on various components, with the affective factors influencing language learning success being particularly significant, as highlighted by Oxford (1990).
Learners face various dominant factors that influence the development of speaking fluency, as highlighted by researchers like Heyun (1999), Bahrani (2011), Davies (2014), Samuel (2020), and Marisca, Venansia, and Norma (2020) In EFL contexts such as Vietnam, students often lack sufficient opportunities to practice speaking fluently because their exposure and usage of the language are primarily confined to the classroom environment This limited practice is further impeded by the scarcity of fluency-focused exercises within the classroom setting, hindering their overall speaking development.
Despite researchers and educators exploring new theories and methods to enhance proficiency and oral fluency in EFL learners since the start of the 21st century, improving English speaking fluency among Vietnamese EFL students remains challenging Teaching English as a foreign language is inherently difficult, and fostering speaking fluency poses even greater obstacles This research was conducted to address these persistent difficulties and explore effective strategies for developing English speaking skills in Vietnamese EFL learners.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO EFL TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’
PERSPECTIVE ON FACTORS INFLUENCING ORAL FLUENCY IN THE CONTEXT OF THE UNIVERSITY IN VIETNAM
Statement of the problem
Vietnam is transitioning towards industrialization and modernization with the goal of becoming a modern industrialized country by 2020, as outlined in the 11th National Party Congress documents in 2011, and aims to deepen its integration into the global community The development of human resources plays a crucial role in this process, emphasizing the importance of education and training Mastery of English as a foreign language (EFL) is essential for Vietnam's successful international integration and active participation in global communities.
(2008), English has likely played the principal role in the foreign language teaching curriculum at Vietnamese higher education institutions for the last few decades
In 2014, the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) adopted the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) to define learning outcomes for tertiary education However, progress has been limited, particularly in developing students' oral speaking fluency, which has not met the expected standards (Huyen & Ha, 2013; Tran, 2013; Tuan & Mai, 2015).
Research by Thi & Diep (2017) highlights a significant scarcity of literature on the factors affecting speaking fluency and effective teaching strategies for this skill, particularly in the context of Vietnamese higher education Understanding these challenges and the contributing factors is essential before focusing on developing students’ oral fluency and communicative competence Addressing this gap requires thorough investigation into teachers’ perspectives and the specific obstacles students face in speaking English fluently in Vietnam.
English proficiency is crucial in the workplace, and understanding the key factors influencing Language Orientation and Focus (LOF) is essential for effective language learning Many students are leaving university without meeting the practical demands of real-life communication and professional environments due to gaps in their English skills Despite official English education starting in third grade and continuing through university in Vietnam, achieving fluency remains a significant challenge for Vietnamese students in both academic and workplace settings According to Stern, addressing these language learning issues is vital to better prepare students for real-world communication.
Despite years of instruction using traditional syllabuses, language learners in 1983 were still able to communicate in a second language (L2) to some extent However, communication failures, particularly Loss of Fluency (LOF), present complex challenges that involve a multifaceted set of problems.
This study aims to identify the key factors that influence speaking fluency among university students in Vietnam Understanding these contributing factors is crucial for developing effective strategies to help students overcome challenges and improve their English speaking skills Given the importance of fluent English communication in academic and real-life situations, assessing the obstacles affecting speaking fluency is essential for enhancing language proficiency in Vietnamese universities.
Purpose of the study
This study aims to review the various factors influencing oral fluency, including affective and external challenges such as the concept of oral fluency, the significance of the Level of Fluency (LOF), and the obstacles hindering progress It emphasizes the importance of developing effective teaching strategies for English majors in Vietnamese universities to enhance speaking skills The research presents insights from teachers and students on the key factors affecting oral fluency outcomes within Vietnamese university contexts, offering practical implications to support EFL learners’ speaking proficiency Ultimately, the findings can help both teachers and students improve their confidence and effectiveness in teaching and learning oral fluency in EFL environments.
Research questions
Fluency can be a vague concept that is difficult to define clearly (Brumfit, 1984) EFL students often face limitations when sharing knowledge, ideas, or sentiments, as speaking involves more than just conveying a message—it requires engaging in extended debates and interactions To understand the factors influencing speaking proficiency among EFL learners at Vietnamese universities, this study aims to gather valuable insights and responses to key questions about their communicative challenges and needs.
1 What are the students' and the teachers' perspectives on oral fluency?
2 What are teachers' and students' perspectives on the factors influencing the oral fluency of tertiary English majors?
This research focuses on exploring teachers' and students’ perspectives on views, attitudes, practices, and beliefs related to research questions, emphasizing a qualitative, interpretive approach rather than traditional positivistic, quantitative methods Given the subjective nature of these concepts, the study employs an exploratory, meaning-centered methodology that captures the context-embedded experiences of participants It combines qualitative analysis with a component of "quasi-statistics" derived from questionnaire responses, providing a nuanced understanding of participants' practices and attitudes grounded in their real-world contexts.
Scope of the study
Effective second language acquisition depends on multiple factors influencing speaking performance, particularly oral fluency, including linguistic, cognitive, social, and affective aspects For Vietnamese EFL students, affective factors such as anxiety, motivation, and attitude significantly impact their ability to speak English fluently and accurately These emotional and psychological elements are crucial in shaping learners' willingness to engage in fluency practice and overall language development (Yang, 2014).
More than that, this research also examines external factors in second language acquisition The external factors include technology, instruction, exposure to English, task type, and environment-class size factors
This study specifically investigates affective and external factors influencing the speaking fluency of EFL students, based on teachers’ and students’ perspectives It focuses solely on speaking skills and does not extend to other language skills Listening and speaking in both formal settings, like classroom instruction, and informal contexts, such as watching movies or reading books, are included under the umbrella of speaking fluency The findings highlight that oral fluency is essential not only within language learning environments but also in broader social communication and interactions.
This study examines the perceptions and responses of key implementers, such as teachers and students, to the factors influencing Level of Fluency (LOF) in university EFL settings It aims to provide insights into the realities of teaching and acquiring speaking skills, identifying challenges faced by teachers and students and how they address these issues The findings are intended to inform effective pedagogical strategies and methodological improvements, ultimately enhancing the EFL learning process and speaking proficiency at the university level.
The implementation process may yield varying results and implications when viewed from the administrators' perspectives This study specifically focuses on language learning for teachers and students, as well as language use and production among students.
Third, the study focuses on English-major university students who have different goals and linguistic skills than non-English-major university students
Students primarily spend their learning time in an L2 environment, using the language almost exclusively The curriculum, teaching materials, assessments, and activities are all specifically tailored to this immersive setting Consequently, these findings may not be applicable to other students at the same university who are not majoring in English.
This study highlights the perspectives of university teachers as active agents and producers of educational knowledge, emphasizing their vital role in shaping effective teaching practices The research specifically explores teacher effectiveness, demonstrating how educators contribute to the creation and dissemination of quality education Understanding teachers' viewpoints offers valuable insights into enhancing overall instructional effectiveness and improving student learning outcomes.
This study was conducted at universities in Central Vietnam, where student admission requires passing an entrance exam Therefore, the findings are relevant to similar universities in the region but should not be generalized to institutions outside Vietnam.
Significance of the study
Previous research on L2 fluency has largely overlooked teachers' perspectives on speaking fluency, particularly concerning Vietnamese EFL learners There is a notable gap in understanding the specific factors influencing L2 learners’ speaking skills, and academic studies focusing on teachers’ insights remain scarce As fluency is a core component of language proficiency that most L2 learners strive to master, examining EFL teachers' views is crucial for enhancing teaching practices and language acquisition strategies This research aims to fill this gap, offering valuable contributions to both the theoretical framework and practical approaches within language education.
This research focuses on fluency in oral English among Vietnamese EFL students in tertiary education, highlighting key components of speaking proficiency It considers learners’ backgrounds and learning characteristics, which influence oral fluency outcomes The study aims to identify factors affecting students’ spoken communication and increase awareness of the main elements contributing to fluency in Vietnam's EFL context.
Higher education often represents the final stage of formal learning, especially in EFL courses where English language skills are formally taught This study aims to identify the key factors influencing the Level of Fluency (LOF) among L2 learners, helping students understand the elements that affect their spoken English proficiency By highlighting these factors, the research provides insights into how learners are impacted during the process of acquiring spoken English Ultimately, the findings can support students in improving their English speaking fluency and enhance their overall language learning experience.
This research explores the pedagogical effectiveness of speaking fluency in foreign language communication among Vietnamese EFL learners in higher education It focuses on identifying key variables that influence spoken English fluency and diagnosing the factors affecting EFL learning outcomes By providing new insights into the elements that impact students' speaking abilities, the study aims to help teachers and learners develop greater awareness and improve language proficiency The findings are expected to inform the development of effective teaching practices for speaking skills, address barriers to fluency, and encourage adaptive pedagogical methods Additionally, supporting teacher professional development programs is crucial, offering ongoing opportunities to stay updated on the latest research, resources, and innovative approaches in language teaching.
Definitions of key terms
Fluency is commonly defined as the ability to process language with ease and accuracy, and the Oxford English Dictionary describes it as "the ability to speak or write a particular foreign language easily and accurately." In research contexts, language proficiency is understood as a complex construct that exists within societal literacies and is intertwined with issues of power and social dynamics (Montero-Sieburth, 2014) Additionally, TESOL emphasizes that language proficiency involves the ability to effectively communicate information, ideas, and concepts across various content areas, highlighting its multifaceted nature.
Language fluency is generally understood within communities of practice and research as the contextualized use of language, emphasizing communicative competence over mere grammar and pronunciation skills (Montero-Sieburth, 2014) However, it is often used without a clear definition or with definitions that lack a solid theoretical foundation, highlighting the need for more precise conceptualizations of fluency.
Besides, in this research, the terms "oral fluency" and "speaking fluency" are used interchangeably to refer to different aspects of language
Perspectives are about individual ways in which people consider a situation per se while being impacted by personal experiences or considerations (Nkwe &
Teachers' beliefs about their work, their students, and their roles are fundamental, as they strongly influence classroom practices and decision-making According to Pajares (1992), these beliefs are more influential than knowledge in shaping how teachers organize tasks and address challenges, serving as key predictors of their behavior Additionally, teachers' and students’ perspectives are interconnected through their attitudes, values, and beliefs, which help justify and shape their educational approaches and classroom interactions.
A teacher's beliefs significantly influence their knowledge, attitudes, and methods of teaching and learning, which evolve over time through their experiences (Marungudzi, 2015; Richards, 1998) These beliefs shape their understanding of the purpose and practices of second language speaking, ultimately impacting how they perceive and interpret teaching practices in this area.
Research shows that teacher perspectives and beliefs play a vital role in shaping instructional decisions and classroom practices (Borg, 2003, 2013; Borg & Burns, 2009; Tsui, 2003) Engaging teachers in research can serve as a powerful catalyst for professional growth, with the potential to transform their teaching methods (Borg, 2013) Existing studies indicate that teacher research participation has at least a moderate impact on teaching effectiveness, highlighting its importance in language teacher development (Borg, 2013).
Research on higher education in Vietnam highlights the importance of understanding teachers’ perspectives on factors influencing Language of Learning and Teaching (LOF), shedding light on how they perceive and manage these influences to enhance language education It emphasizes that teachers' beliefs, knowledge, and practices are vital sources for developing practical strategies for improving oral fluency in higher education Additionally, studying students’ attitudes towards LOF is essential for adapting educational paradigms and fostering collaboration among academic staff to create effective resources for teaching speaking skills The qualitative data collected provides a comprehensive understanding of the complex attitudes and perspectives surrounding LOF, which significantly impact teaching and learning practices for both EFL teachers and students Ultimately, integrating both teachers’ and students’ viewpoints offers a holistic view of role boundaries and supports the development of optimal teaching and learning processes.
Organization of the thesis
This thesis consists of five chapters The first chapter provides an overview of the study's background and clearly states the research problems It outlines the main purposes of the research and presents the key research questions guiding the study Additionally, this chapter defines the scope of the research area and highlights the significance of the study Finally, it details the organization and structure of the thesis, setting the foundation for the subsequent chapters.
The second chapter reviews existing research on oral fluency among language learners and teachers across various educational contexts, highlighting key factors that influence Level of Fluency (LOF) It explores both speaker-related and external factors impacting LOF, providing a comprehensive understanding of the elements shaping oral proficiency The chapter also introduces theoretical frameworks, including Gardner's socio-educational model and Krashen's Monitor Theory, which guide the analysis of research findings These theories are applied within pragmatist and positivist paradigms to interpret how academic and social practices affect LOF in language learning.
The third chapter details the research methodology, covering the research paradigm and design, participant selection, data collection procedures, and the instruments used It also explains the data analysis methods, as well as measures taken to ensure reliability and validity Additionally, the chapter addresses ethical considerations to maintain research integrity It concludes with a comprehensive summary of the methodology employed in the study.
Chapter four presents a comprehensive analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data, highlighting key factors that influence oral fluency The section discusses findings related to students' and teachers' perspectives on these influencing factors, providing valuable insights into the elements affecting oral fluency development.
The fifth chapter provides a comprehensive conclusion to the study, highlighting its significant research contributions It summarizes the key findings and acknowledges the study's limitations The chapter discusses the implications and valuable contributions of the research, offering recommendations for future studies Overall, it encapsulates the study's conclusions and offers insights for ongoing research in the field.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Overview of teaching speaking and speaking Fluency in Vietnam
This study was conducted at Vietnamese universities, focusing on English-major students, to explore their language learning experiences While the research context shares similarities with other Asian countries where spoken English is a compulsory subject from grades 1 to 12, differences in educational settings require careful consideration Recognizing both commonalities and unique aspects of the Vietnamese context ensures the findings are relevant and applicable Therefore, the study emphasizes the importance of tailoring research to specific educational environments, particularly in Vietnamese higher education institutions.
Vietnam’s recognition of English as a necessary foreign language stems from its open-door policy in 1986 and the global prominence of English in the early 1990s English has become a fundamental and compulsory subject across all educational levels, from primary school to higher education Despite the emergence of other foreign languages such as Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and French, English remains the most significant foreign language in Vietnam's K-12, college, and tertiary education systems (Nguyen, 2002) In response to the rapid growth of English learning, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has implemented frameworks for the pilot EFL primary curriculum, making English a compulsory subject starting from Grade 3.
Vietnam's rich cultural, socio-economic, historical, and political context significantly influences students' speaking fluency and motivation in English learning (Truong, 2016) English is integrated into higher education both as a discipline and as a required subject, especially for students pursuing bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degrees in English.
English is a mandatory subject throughout Vietnam's higher education system, highlighting its importance for students' academic and professional success Tertiary students show greater motivation to learn English compared to secondary and high school students, driven by the potential to secure excellent jobs domestically or abroad (Hoang, 2010) The increasing reliance on computer-based learning environments, facilitated by Vietnam's expanding international relations and technological advancements, further enhances English education (Dang, 2011a) As a result, Vietnamese students are motivated to improve their English language skills to communicate effectively internationally and meet diverse personal and professional needs.
Many students study English solely because it is a requirement of the curriculum, not because they recognize its practical importance, which explains the low language proficiency levels among undergraduates at the start of university courses They often view learning English as a potential asset for future career opportunities rather than an immediate necessity, leading to a lack of motivation and engagement in language acquisition.
From the standpoint of second language acquisition, the learning environment should be considered while learning a language after learning the mother tongue
Vietnamese students typically learn English as a foreign or second language within classroom settings, making the social context crucial for language acquisition Unlike informal, naturalistic language learning, EFL (English as a Foreign Language) environments limit exposure to real-life usage, as English is primarily confined to classroom instruction In these "poor-acquisition" conditions, students rely heavily on teachers, textbooks, and learning aids, which often leads to limited practical experience with the language Consequently, this restricted exposure hinders the development of oral proficiency and fluent communication skills in English.
The primary cause of language learning challenges is often linked to flaws in real-life learning materials When these issues are present, students may struggle to develop speaking fluency effectively Conversely, learners who access high-quality resources focusing on grammar and vocabulary acquisition are more likely to enhance their language skills Addressing these material-related flaws is essential for improving overall speaking proficiency in language learners.
The exam-oriented education system significantly hinders communicative language teaching and learning, posing challenges for both teachers and students In this system, language learning often focuses solely on grades and exams, leading learners to adopt a passive approach—attending classes, listening to teachers, completing assignments, and aiming to pass final exams Consequently, students tend to view English as just an academic requirement or exam exercise rather than a practical tool for communication Despite this, many Vietnamese students possess an innate desire to learn beyond the minimum requirements necessary to succeed in exams.
According to 2016, Vietnamese and Asian students generally face challenges in developing communicative competence compared to their Western counterparts Unlike progressive education philosophies that emphasize holistic development, traditional Asian education often focuses more on rote learning and academic achievement To address this gap, it's essential to integrate communicative language teaching methods that promote active participation and real-world language use Enhancing communicative skills can help Asian students better engage in global contexts and improve their overall educational outcomes.
Learning by doing and engaging with real-world environments are essential for student development, fostering interaction with classmates and broader communities beyond the classroom By actively participating in meaningful experiences, students can apply their knowledge to improve the lives of others, making learning more relevant and impactful This hands-on approach promotes collaboration, real-world relevance, and social responsibility, aligning with key educational goals to prepare students for future challenges (Jacobs & Renandya, 2016, p.15)
The Vietnamese MOET has approved the national plan for "Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Formal Educational System between
The 2008 and 2020 strategic plans (Decision No 1400, 2008) emphasize adopting a practical approach over purely theoretical strategies These plans aim to enhance proficiency in English as a key component to stay competitive with other regional and global nations By focusing on practical implementation, the strategies seek to improve language skills and strengthen international competitiveness.
In 2014, MOET launched Vietnam’s foreign language program, encouraging institutions to adopt English as the medium of instruction (EMI) to enhance academic teaching and learning in response to globalization and internationalization (MOET, 2014; Manh, 2012; Nguyen, Hamid, & Moni, 2016; Ngo & Hendricks, 2018) While EMI faces implementation challenges, it is initially being tested in select colleges before nationwide adoption Furthermore, Nguyen et al (2016) examined the influence of institutional autonomy on the success of EMI programs, finding that many autonomous universities faced conditions such as limited lecturer English proficiency, inadequate teaching resources, and insufficient teacher training, which hindered effective content and language learning outcomes.
Globalization has driven significant changes in English language instruction in Vietnam, influenced by evolving policies on English and foreign language education (Ngo, 2015) Consequently, there have been major transformations in teaching procedures, curriculum design, instructional materials, and the competencies of Vietnamese ELT teachers (P Le & Ngan, 2016) These shifts reflect Vietnam's adaptation to global educational standards and the growing importance of English proficiency in the country.
Vietnam's English teaching methodology primarily integrates a communicative approach, focusing on enhancing real-life communication skills However, this approach is often underutilized, with a predominant emphasis on grammar, writing, and reading skills to prepare students for academic exams Despite its potential, the full benefits of the communicative method have yet to be fully exploited in Vietnamese English education This reliance on exam-oriented teaching influences the development of communicative competence among learners, highlighting the need for a more balanced and effective integration of the communicative approach in language instruction.
Research by Pham (2014) and Bui (2016), along with the scholastic approach outlined by Erlenawati (2005), emphasizes a focus on written English This emphasis often leads to challenges in verbal communication, as learners primarily develop their skills in reading and writing rather than speaking Consequently, many learners find it difficult to converse fluently in English due to this disproportionate emphasis on written language skills.
Theoretical background
This study explores the perspectives of teachers and students regarding their current educational situations and conditions Given the lack of a specific theoretical framework for the research on LOF (Level of Functioning), establishing clear definitions for LOF and related concepts is essential for understanding the key factors that influence classroom engagement and learning outcomes Clarifying these concepts will enhance the overall comprehension of the dynamics impacting both teaching and student performance.
LOF (Level of Fluency) has multiple definitions, making it challenging to distinguish between different aspects of speaking fluency This complexity often leaves learners confused about what constitutes genuine oral fluency (Préfontaine, 2010) To address this, experts advocate for considering fluency as a multi-dimensional construct that encompasses various interconnected skills Understanding these diverse aspects is essential for accurately assessing and improving speaking fluency in language learners.
The concept of Loss of Fluency (LOF) remains contested within research due to the complexity and varying phenomena related to fluency Definitions of LOF are often influenced by the theoretical frameworks adopted for understanding oral fluency In this study, the construct of fluency is based on Segalowitz’s (2010) model, which identifies three key aspects of L2 fluency: utterance fluency, cognitive fluency, and perceived fluency These components reflect the multifaceted nature of LOF, each presenting unique challenges in measurement.
Recent Second Language Acquisition research highlights the significant impact of affective, cognitive, and social factors on learning success This study integrates Gardner's socio-educational model (1979, 1990, 1997, 2001, 2004) and Krashen's Monitor Theory (Krashen 1987; McGroarty 1988; Larsen-Freeman & Long 1991; Richards & Rodgers 2001) to evaluate the key influences on developing speaking fluency among Vietnamese higher education students Understanding these models helps identify the psychological and social determinants that facilitate or hinder second language speaking proficiency By applying these theoretical frameworks, the research aims to provide comprehensive insights into effective strategies for enhancing L2 speaking skills in Vietnamese learners.
This article explores key theoretical frameworks that explain second language acquisition, including Gardner's (1985) socio-educational model, Krashen's Monitor Theory, and Segalowitz's (2010) insights on oral fluency Gardner's model emphasizes the role of affective factors and individual differences in language learning success Krashen's input hypothesis explains how comprehensible input facilitates language acquisition, highlighting the importance of exposure The discussion also focuses on oral fluency, examining significant factors influencing speaking proficiency within these three frameworks to provide a comprehensive understanding of effective language learning strategies.
In discussions of speaking Fluency, drawing on earlier work by Fillmore (1979), he classified oral Fluency into four essential characteristics The first characteristic is
"the ability to talk at length with few pauses, the ability to fill time with talk" (2000, p
Fluency involves the automatic processing of language, the ability to produce coherent sentences using appropriate semantic and syntactic resources, and having relevant and meaningful content across diverse contexts It also encompasses creativity and imagination in language use, emphasizing the quality and complexity of speech rather than speed Fluency can vary depending on different situational and contextual factors, reflecting both the speaker's adaptability and language proficiency Although his detailed definition highlights multiple dimensions of Fluency, it closely aligns with broader concepts of global oral proficiency, making distinctions between them subtle.
Lennon (1990, 2000) offers an alternative perspective on Fluency, identifying it with two key concepts The broad concept views Fluency as overall oral proficiency, reflecting a speaker’s strong command of a foreign or second language, aligning closely with Chambers (1997), who describes it as effective spoken language use by a fluent individual Lennon emphasizes that in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), Fluency assesses how well learners utilize their knowledge to achieve linguistic and communicative goals This interpretation of Fluency aligns with Fillmore’s (1979) second aspect, highlighting its role in evaluating practical language use and communicative competence.
Fluency, in its narrow sense, refers primarily to a key component of oral proficiency, focusing on how easily and smoothly speech is delivered, aligning with oral exam criteria such as correctness, idiomatic expression, relevance, appropriateness, pronunciation, and lexical range (Lennon, 1990) However, this study adopts a broader understanding of Fluency, encompassing more than just these aspects of oral communication.
Segalowitz (2004, 2010, 2016, 2016b) offers valuable insights into L2 speaking fluency by emphasizing the importance of cognitive fluency and utterance fluency Recognized as a leading researcher in the field of speaking fluency, Segalowitz has contributed extensively to understanding various aspects of fluency through numerous studies over the past decade His reviews frequently highlight the significance of both cognitive and utterance fluency in enhancing second language speaking proficiency.
L2 utterance fluency, L2 cognitive fluency, and L2 perceived fluency are interconnected aspects that contribute to overall language proficiency The pragmatic and sociolinguistic nature of communication plays a crucial role in shaping L2 fluency development by influencing how learners generate and express language in social contexts Segalowitz (2010) highlights the importance of the social environment as a key factor underpinning both fluency and comprehension, emphasizing that effective communication is deeply rooted in social and pragmatic skills.
Cognitive fluency is recognized as the most complex process in language production, as it relies on the coordinated mobilization and temporal integration of various mental functions to generate an utterance This intricate mechanism underscores the importance of understanding how mental processes work together in speech, highlighting cognitive fluency's role in effective communication (Goldman-Eisler, 1968)
Recent research highlights that fluency attainment in language learning is influenced by a range of factors, including age, aptitude, ethnolinguistic identity, intelligence, learning style, and personality (S Segalowitz & Segalowitz, 2016) Additionally, key determinants such as speech rate, pauses, repetitions, self-corrections, exposure, practice, interaction, proficiency, immersion experiences, and external factors like task type and environment significantly impact speaker fluency (Simona Kopnická, 2016) Fluency is often characterized through temporal variables like speech amount, speech rate, repair phenomena, pauses, and the length of fluent speech segments (Wood, 2006) Understanding these diverse factors is essential for improving language fluency and designing effective language learning strategies.
In a foreign working environment, fluency in the foreign language is essential for effective communication Language teachers often emphasize the importance of developing speaking fluency, as Herder and Sholdt highlight that "you must work on your speaking fluency in order to get better understood by others." According to Nation (2014), fluency involves using the best of what learners already know and is considered a critical component of language output that facilitates successful communication for EFL and ESL learners However, Kirk (2014) notes that while teachers recognize fluency as necessary, they also view it as a complex phenomenon within the classroom context Van Patten’s talk show, "Tea with BVP," emphasizes that fluency is highly context-dependent, underscoring the nuanced nature of developing this skill.
Remarkably, he describes it as the intersection of speaking and listening, and the context determines accuracy and the role of each
Within this paradigm, there is research on factors influencing learners' speaking fluency regarding English as a second or foreign language, particularly in Asian countries
Shaules (1994) conducted pioneering research on hidden barriers to fluent communication, emphasizing that cultural differences are the most significant obstacles in cross-language interactions He argued that these cultural barriers often outweigh linguistic challenges, as foreign-language speakers are frequently unaware of the diverse attitudes and communication styles within their own culture Consequently, they tend to overlook the importance of teaching essential socio-cultural skills to language learners, which are crucial for achieving true fluency.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is widely regarded as the most effective approach for enhancing communicative competence among second language (L2) learners Many educators believe that CLT should be the primary method for teaching English due to its focus on real-life communication skills However, critics argue that implementing CLT is not always feasible, especially in certain Asian countries where specific contextual challenges may hinder its adoption.
Previous studies
In recent years, L2 oral fluency (LOF) has received a lot of attention and research (Ascione, 1993; Kormos & Dénes, 2004; N Segalowitz & Freed, 2004; Wood, 2006;
Segalowitz, 2010; Parish, 2011; Préfontaine, 2013; Yahaya & Kheirzadeh, 2015;
Research by Segalowitz (2016a) highlights the influence of various factors on speaking fluency Some language experts emphasize that both speaker-specific factors and external influences significantly impact language production (Kopnická & Calgary, 2016; Milli) Most studies have concentrated on the effects of Loss of Focus (LOF) in second language acquisition and their role in enhancing language fluency during immersive studies abroad (Préfontaine & Kormos, 2015; Huensch & Tracy-Ventura, 2017; Hall & Burgess, 2000).
Savicki, Arre, & Binder, 2013; Son, 2013; Kim et al., 2015; Leonard, 2015; Leonard &
Research indicates that students and teachers often hold differing perspectives on L2 oral fluency (LOF) in English (Shea, 2017; He, 2013) However, the specific factors that influence the development of LOF among Vietnamese higher education students remain underexplored, particularly regarding their learning processes in speaking fluency This gap in research is concerning, as oral language competence is a critical aspect of Western educational standards and highly valued in language proficiency.
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Effective speaking teaching for EFL students requires understanding the key factors that influence speaking fluency and adopting plausible classroom strategies Utilizing technology and fostering strong motivation are essential for enhancing English speaking skills Vietnamese students often find English speaking fluency challenging due to its status as a foreign language, requiring time and effective learning methods (Tung, 2019) Addressing the reasons behind unsuccessful efforts to improve fluency is crucial, as well as proposing practical approaches that can better support students' oral development By focusing on these factors, teachers can create more effective methods to boost English speaking proficiency.
Research by De Jong, Groenhout, Schoonen, and Hulstijn (2015) explores how personality and speaking style influence L2 fluency, questioning the validity of fluency assessments as true indicators of language proficiency Their study involved 24 native English speakers and 24 native Turkish speakers and focused on L2 utterance fluency, one of the three components of fluency identified by Segalowitz (2010) The findings suggest that corrected measures of fluency may better reflect L2 cognitive fluency and serve as more accurate markers of speaking proficiency.
The study categorized fluency measures into uncorrected and corrected types, finding that both significantly predicted L2 proficiency Notably, corrected fluency measures demonstrated a stronger correlation with language skills, while silent pause time did not serve as a reliable predictor These results highlight the importance of using corrected fluency assessments to accurately evaluate second language proficiency.
Research by Anderson-Hsieh and Venkatagiri (1994) revealed that language competence significantly influences fluency in Chinese EFL speakers Their study showed that intermediate proficiency speakers exhibited a pause rate three times higher than highly proficient speakers, indicating lower fluency levels These findings suggest that higher language proficiency is closely associated with enhanced fluency and smoother speech production in EFL learners.
Baker-Smemoe et al (2014) investigated the relationship between overall second language (L2) proficiency and utterance fluency measures across different L2s Their study aimed to determine whether fluency metrics could serve as reliable indicators for estimating L2 proficiency levels.
This study involved 86 native English speakers who spoke L2 French, German, Japanese, Arabic, or Russian It analyzed speech features such as speech rate, hesitations, pauses, runs, and false starts using excerpts from 126 ACTFL Oral Proficiency Interviews The findings indicated that certain L2 utterance fluency measures are positively correlated with overall L2 proficiency across all languages studied The results suggest that specific fluency metrics could potentially be used to predict L2 proficiency, especially at advanced levels.
Academic experts and researchers have explored various methods to measure L2 perceived fluency, considering diverse listener perspectives such as teachers' assessments (Riggenbach, 1991; Freed, 2000; Kormos & Denes, 2004).
Research by Rossiter (2009), Freed (2000), Derwing et al (2009), and Bosker et al (2013) highlights the use of native and non-native speakers to evaluate speech samples These rating methods can lead to inconsistencies, as raters often apply different criteria when assessing speech quality (Leonard, 2015) Importantly, fluency is generally perceived as a listener’s judgment rather than an attribute evaluated by the speaker.
According to second language acquisition, Gardner's socio-educational model has been used in a number of motivational studies (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993;
Oxford & Shearin, 1994; Oxford, 1996; Gardner, 2004, 2010; Dửrnyei, 2005; Deci &
Ryan, 2012) There are a number of studies (Dửrnyei, 2001; Brown, 2001; Irie, 2003;
Bernaus, Masgoret, Gardner, & Reyes, 2004; Rothstein, Sutton, & Borenstein, 2005;
Gardner, 2009; Yashima, 2009) that illustrate how students' motivation affects their ability to learn a second language In addition, a large number of studies (Yang, 2014;
Research by Ahmadi & Mohamadi (2017) and Muhammad (2019) highlights a positive correlation between attitude and speaking proficiency, especially fluency Affective factors, including attitudes, motivation, orientations, and anxiety, play a crucial role in enhancing foreign language learning success These emotional and motivational variables significantly influence learners' ability to speak fluently and effectively in a new language.
In the Vietnamese educational context, English is taught as a foreign language within classroom settings According to Hoang (2010), Vietnamese learners often struggle to meet the demand for proficient English speakers due to limited opportunities to practice English in real-life situations As Hoang notes, English is primarily used as a medium for international communication and professional advancement in Vietnam, which affects learners' ability to develop fluency outside the classroom.
The Gaps in the Literature
In the previous sections, the researcher provided an overview of current research into the teaching approaches related to oral fluency(e.g., Gavran, 2013; Kustati, 2013;
Research by Yang (2014), Huang (2016), and Albino (2017) highlights the impact of affective factors such as motivation, attitude, and anxiety on second language learning, particularly influencing oral fluency Key studies by Horwitz et al (1986), Heyun (1999), Bailey, Onwuegbuzie, and Daley (2003), Rand (2007), Loukriz (2013), Dore (2015), and Nzanana (2016) emphasize the critical role of these psychological factors in language acquisition and speaking proficiency Addressing affective elements can significantly enhance learners' oral communication skills in second language contexts.
N Segalowitz, 2016a), and external factors such as class size, task types, exposure to English, in relation to oral production with a focus on oral fluency (e.g., Ngoc & Iwashita, 2012; Son, 2013a; Davies, 2014; H T Nguyen, Warren, & Fehring, 2014; H T Nguyen, Fehring, & Warren, 2015; Tavakoli, 2016; Thai & Boers, 2016; De Wolf et al., 2017a;
Karpovich, Sheredekina, Krepkaia, and Voronova (2021) highlight how key insights into speaking performance have been integrated into Vietnamese higher education classrooms This integration has contributed to a gradual shift toward communicative language teaching, enhancing students' speaking skills and overall language proficiency.
There is also evidence concerning the effectiveness of oral fluency (e.g., Khong, 2019;
Dung and Ngoc, 2020) However, there are still research gaps to be addressed in order for such insights to influence EFL learners in higher education in Vietnam
Research on perspectives regarding L2 fluency in oral production remains limited within the Vietnam context Given the importance of speaking skills and the necessity to enhance oral production among Vietnamese students, this area warrants further investigation.
There has been no research specifically examining the factors affecting oral fluency among Vietnamese students in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context in Vietnam This study aims to fill this significant research gap Existing studies on oral fluency development have primarily focused on L2 learning in study abroad environments or the impact of repeated practice, but these may not fully apply to the EFL setting In Vietnam's EFL context, where achieving native-like fluency is often unrealistic, it is important to explore other contributing factors that influence students’ speaking development and oral fluency.
Limited research has been conducted on the relationship between internal and external factors influencing oral fluency within the Vietnam context Existing studies primarily focus on fluency development through memorized formulas in study abroad environments (e.g., Wood, 2010) or the impact of repeated practice on improving fluency (e.g., Arevart & Nation) Understanding these factors is essential for developing effective language teaching strategies tailored to Vietnamese learners Further investigation is needed to explore how internal motivations and external learning conditions interact to shape oral fluency in Vietnam.
In an EFL environment, achieving native-like fluency may not be a realistic goal; however, understanding the key factors influencing students' oral fluency is crucial Exploring these factors offers valuable insights into English speaking performance and provides important avenues for developing effective language teaching strategies aimed at enhancing oral fluency.
Despite the increasing use of technology in English language learning and its role in enhancing oral fluency (e.g., Blake, 2009; Bahrani, 2011; Razagifard, 2013; Son, 2013; Wang, 2014; Nakaya & Murota, 2016), there is limited research focusing on how EFL learners in Vietnam utilize technology to develop fluency skills within specific EFL contexts.
Summary
This chapter provides an overview of oral English instruction at Vietnamese universities and examines key factors influencing Learner Oral Fluency (LOF) in Vietnam and other educational contexts It explores a theoretical framework rooted in Gardner's socio-educational model and Krashen's monitor theory, highlighting both internal and external factors that impact LOF Additionally, the chapter incorporates perspectives from teachers and students to offer a comprehensive understanding of the influences on oral English proficiency.
Existing studies by both international and Vietnamese scholars have identified research gaps regarding the factors influencing learners' language development in the Vietnamese educational context This study aims to address these gaps by exploring EFL fluency speaking skills among Vietnamese students It investigates key factors such as learners' behavior and attitude, motivation, anxiety, task types, instructional methods, environment, exposure, and technology that impact speaking fluency Overall, this research not only fills existing literature gaps but also makes a significant contribution to understanding effective strategies for enhancing EFL speaking skills in Vietnam.