Luận văn AN INVESTIGATION INTO ENGLISH - VIETNAMESE TRANSLATION OF EUPHEMISM ppt

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING UNIVERSITY OF DANANG PHAN THỊ THU THỦY AN INVESTIGATION INTO ENGLISH - VIETNAMESE TRANSLATION OF EUPHEMISM Subject Area : The English Language M.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

UNIVERSITY OF DANANG

PHAN THỊ THU THỦY

AN INVESTIGATION INTO ENGLISH - VIETNAMESE TRANSLATION OF EUPHEMISM

Subject Area : The English Language

M.A THESIS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Supervisor: TRẦN ĐÌNH NGUYÊN, M.A

DANANG - 2011

ABSTRACT

This thesis has been done in an effort to investigate how euphemism is translated from English into Vietnamese in translated works as well as to find out what are the main approaches taken by translators in translating euphemism from English into Vietnamese A collection of samples taken from literary works written in English and their Vietnamese versions have been analyzed to explore ways in which euphemisms are transferred Besides, quantitative analyses have also been carried out to show distribution of ways of translating, on the basis of which to identify preferences The findings, it is hoped, will help to put forward some suggestions for the translation as a profession and for the teaching and learning of English to overcome the misunderstandings and barriers during the cross-cultural communication

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION i

ABSTRACT ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS .iii

LIST OF FIGURES vi

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Signification of the Study 2

1.3 Scope of the Study 2

1.4 Research Questions 2

1.5 Definition of Terms 2

1.6 Organisation of the Study 3

CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 4

2.1 A Review of Previous Studies 4

2.2 Theoretical Background 5

2.2.1 Theory of Translation 5

2.2.1.1 Definitions of Translation 5

2.2.1.2 Language and Culture 7

2.2.1.3 Translation Equivalence 9

2.2.1.4 Translation Methods 11

2.2.1.5 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation 14

2.2.2 Euphemisms 16

2.2.2.1 Concepts and Definitions of Euphemisms 16

2.2.2.2 Characteristic Features of Euphemisms 19

2.2.2.3 Euphemisms and Other Linguistic Units 21

2.2.3 Semantic Characteristics of English Words 25

2.2.3.1 Word Meaning 25

2.2.3.2 Sense Relations 27

2.2.3.3 Componential Analysis in Translation 28

2.2.4 Classification of Euphemisms and Theorists’ Ways for Translation of Euphemisms 29

2.2.4.1 Classification of Euphemisms 29

2.2.4.2 Theorists’ Ways for Translations of Euphemisms 31

CHAPTER 3 - METHOD AND PROCEDURE 34

3.1 Aims and Objectives 34

3.1.1 Aims 34

3.1.2 Objectives 34

3.2 Research Design 34

3.3 Method of Research 35

3.4 Data Collection and Description 35

3.5 Research Procedures 36

CHAPTER 4 - DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS 37

4.1 The Ways of English-Vietnamese Translation of Euphemisms as Manifested in Translated Works 37

4.1.1 Translation of Euphemisms expressing Death 37

4.1.2 Translation of Euphemisms expressing Sex 49

4.1.3 Translation of Euphemisms expressing Pregnancy 63

4.1.4 Translation of Euphemisms expressing Childbirth 71

4.2 Three main Approaches to Translation of Euphemism 79

4.2.1 Translation of Euphemism into an Equivalent Euphemism by Finding the Exact Counterpart in the TL text 79

4.2.2 Translation of Euphemism into a Non-equivalent Euphemism by

Translating the Euphemistic Meaning of the SL text or by

Adding Footnotes and Explanatory Words in the TL text 81

4.2.3 Translation of Euphemism into a direct form in the TL text 82

CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSIONS 83

5.1 Summary of the Findings 83

5.2 Implications for Translation 85

5.3 Implications for Language Teaching and Learning 85

5.4 Some Limitations of the Study 86

5.5 Some Suggestions for Further Research 87

REFERENCES 88

QUYẾT ĐỊNH GIAO ĐỀ TÀI

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1 Proportion of Distribution of Euphemism expressing

Death in the SL Text Transferred into the TL Text

Figure 4.2 Proportion of Distribution of Euphemism expressing

Sex in the SL Text Transferred into the TL Text

Figure 4.3 Proportion of Distribution of Euphemism expressing

Pregnancy in the SL Text Transferred into the TL Text

Figure 4.4 Proportion of Distribution of Euphemism expressing

Childbirth in the SL Text Transferred into the TL Text

49

62

70

78

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION 1.1 RATIONALE

It is well known that human culture, social behavior and thinking cannot exist without languages Being a social and national identity and a means of human communication, languages cannot help bearing imprints of ethnic and cultural values as well as the norms of behavior of a given language community Obviously, ideas, notions and feelings are actually universal but the way we describe them in different languages is very unique Therefore, translation plays a crucial role in enhancing better understanding each other, transmitting information, exchanging experiences and getting knowledge However, translating from one language into another is no easytask Translation must take into account a number of constraints, including the context, the rules of grammar of the two languages, their writing conventions, and their idioms The most important idea is that translators have to be honest

in relaying the meaning, especially from one culture to another It can be said that one of the greatest difficulties that challenges translators are translating figures of speech in general and euphemism in particular Euphemism, a very important culture-loaded figure of speech, is often employed in communication and reflects the historical, political, economic and ideological situations of a nation with its own characteristics The translation of euphemism has become more and more important with the development of the inter-cultural communication

This thesis attempts to study the figures of speech on the aspect of translation to give some considerations and propose methods in translating these figures of speech in general and euphemism in particular

1.2 SIGNIFICATION OF THE STUDY

We hope this study will offer some help to the translators when doing the translation of euphemism and assist them to overcome the misunderstandings and barriers during the cross-cultural communication

1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study investigates the ways used in translating euphemism from English into Vietnamese The investigation will focus on works of English literature and their Vietnamese versions

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The research has attempted to answer the following questions:

1 How euphemism is translated from English into Vietnamese as seen

in examples taken from works of literature?

2 What are the main approaches taken by translators in translating euphemism from English into Vietnamese?

1.5 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

- “Source language” is the language in which a text was originally written

- “Target language” is the language in which a text is translated

- “Euphemism” is a figure of speech It is used as an alternative to an expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either one’s own face or through giving offense, that of the audience, or of some third party

- “Semantic approach” is an approach to translation which has these features:

Keeping effect as closely as possible

Second reader-centered

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

This research paper consists of five chapters:

Chapter one: Introduction

In this chapter we would present the statements of the problem, the justification for the study, the scope of the study, the organization, as well as definitions of terms

Chapter two: Literature Review

The chapter covers a review of literature on translation of euphemism Prior studies on the problems are reviewed for the groundwork of the research This chapter also introduces some theoretical preliminaries on the translation theory, the definitions and classification of euphemism and the area of semantics

Chapter three: Method and Procedures

This chapter provides the aims and objectives of the study, the research methods used in order to achieve these aims Next comes the research procedures which include the research questions, the hypothesis, data collection and analysis

Chapter four: Finding and Discussions

This chapter presents the findings and discussion of ways used in translating euphemism from English into Vietnamese The discussion also covers the main approaches taken by translators in translating euphemism from English into Vietnamese

Chapter five: Conclusions

This chapter consists of the conclusion of the whole study, the implications for the translation and for the teaching and learning Limitations

in doing the research and suggestions for further studies are also mentioned in this chapter

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL

BACKGROUND 2.1 A REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES

Translation is a complex process where fragile balance is achieved between the equivalence of the text translated and the linguistic means chosen In reality, translation of euphemism from one language into another language is a complex work which poses great difficulties to the translator so there are many researchers dealing with euphemism translation in different aspects They can be seen in the following studies:

In “Introduction to Semantics and Translation” (1990), Barnwell [23,

p 62-64] introduces some features of euphemism and also presents some notes on translating euphemisms

In “Euphemism and Dysphemism - Language Used as Shield and

Weapon” (1990), Allan and Burridge [21] mentions about the development,

the classification of English euphemisms and the differences among euphemism, slang, dysphemism and taboo

D.J Enright [30] in “Fair of Speech” (1986), introduces euphemisms

and sex, death, politics, the media, the law and many others as well as mentioned about the uses of euphemism

In “Stylistics” (1977), Galperin [31] gives a definition of euphemism

and also divides them into several groups according to their spheres of application: 1) religious, 2) moral, 3) medical, 4) parliamentary

In Vietnamese, euphemisms have been discussed by some linguists:

Bằng Giang [1] in “Tiếng Việt phong phú” (1997), investigates over

1,000 variants of the word death with illustrations

In “Phong cách học Tiếng Việt” (2001), Đinh Trọng Lạc [4, p.126]

puts forward the basic theoretical background of euphemisms in the Vietnamese language He assumes that euphemism is the delicate expression

in communicative situation in which the addresser feels uncomfortable to talk about taboo topics because he is afraid that it will hurt or offend the addressee

“Uyển ngữ là phương thức diễn ñạt tế nhị trong hoàn cảnh giao tiếp mà người nói không tiện nói ra vì sợ quá phũ phàng hoặc sợ xúc phạm ñến người nghe”

Trương Viên [19] (2003; Ph.D Thesis) focuses on the linguistic

features of euphemisms by analyzing their formation by syntactic, phonetic, lexical and stylistic means With the contrastive analysis, the author also pointes out some features related to the method of translation

Nguyễn Thị Lê [15] (2006; M.A thesis) focuses on the study on

commonly-used euphemisms in English and Vietnamese newspapers in three aspects: syntax, semantics and pragmatics

On doing this research, we have followed the viewpoint of linguistics

in doing an investigation into common ways for translating euphemism from English into Vietnamese and found out the main approaches taken by translators in translating euphemism from English into Vietnamese

2.2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.2.1 Theory of Translation

2.2.1.1 Definitions of Translation

Translation, by dictionary definition, consists of changing from one

form to another, to turn into one 'own or another' language (The Merriam - Webster Dictionary, 1974) Some authors have given the following different

definitions of translation:

In the book “A Linguistic Theory of Translation”, Catford [25] defines

that translation is not a dangerous technique in itself provided its nature is understood, and its use is carefully controlled and translation is in itself a valuable skill to be imparted to students Furthermore, translation is an operation performed in languages and also a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in another More specifically, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)

Benjamin [61] states that translation goes beyond enriching the

language and culture of a country which it contributes to, beyond renewing and maturing the life of the original text, beyond expressing and analyzing the most intimate relationships of languages with each other and becomes a way

of entry into a universal language

Other researchers, Meetham and Hudsan [45, p.53] mention that

translation is the replacement of a presentation of a text in one language by a presentation of equivalent text in a second language

According to B Hatim & I Mason [32, p.3], translation is a process,

involving the negotiation of meaning between producers and receivers of texts In other words, the resulting translated text is to be seen as the evidence

of a transaction, a means of retracting the pathways of the translator’s decision-makings

Another author, Nguyễn Hồng Cổn [11] mentions that the activity of

translation is still a language activity and language plays core and basic roles However, he says that together with the attention to linguistic problem, translators also need to pay attention to the problems relating to the SL and

TL such as social environment, culture and religion

Furthermore, Vũ Văn Đại [20] claims that there is an unequivalence in

culture of translators and original texts, so in order to become good translators, it is very necessary to enrich the cultural and national knowledge

of the TL

Peter Newmark’s theory [48] is different from the point of view of

above mentioned authors He defines that translation is rendering the meaning

of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text

Briefly, the starting point of translation is a message This message is expressed in a specific language, which is called the SL When doing translation, we aim to re-express that message in another language (TL) We have already known that the form of each language is unique Thus, translation will involve some changes of form This does not matter provided that that the meaning of the message is retained unchanged Moreover, translation not only involves understanding the general meaning of the communication but also calls upon the ability to understand the culture of the communication Before we can translate a message, we must understand the

total meaning of the message within its own cultural context

2.2.1.2 Language and Culture

Dealing with language and culture, Whorf who endorsed Sapir’s

theory declares firmly that “No language can exist unless it is steeped in the context of culture; and no culture of natural language.” [24, p.14] Language,

then, is the heart within the body of culture, and it is the interaction between the two that results in the continuation of life energy In the same way that the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril

According to Claire Kramsch [41, p.37], language is the principle

means whereby we conduct our social lives When it is used in contexts of

communication, it is bound up with culture in multiple and complex ways

“Language expresses cultural reality” as the words people utter refer to

common experience They express facts, ideas or events that are communicable because they refer to a stock of knowledge about the world

that other people share “Language embodies cultural reality through all its verbal and nonverbal aspects” People also create experience through

language They give meaning to it through the medium they choose to communicate with one other, for example, speaking on the telephone or face-to-face, writing a letter or sending an email message The way they use spoken, written, or visual medium itself creates meanings that are understandable to the group they belong Language is a system of signs that is

seen that having itself a cultural value “Language symbolizes cultural reality” as speakers identify themselves and other through their use of

language; they use their language as a symbol of their social identity

Edward Sapir claims that “language is a guide to social reality” and

that human beings are at the mercy of the language that has become the medium of expression for their society Experience, he asserts, is largely determined by the language habits of the community, and each separate

structure represents a separate reality He also affirms that “no two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world, with different labels attached.” [24, p.13]

Peter Newmark [49, p.94] indicates that culture is the way of life and

its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression Frequently, where there is cultural focus, there is a translation problem due to the cultural “gap” or “distance” between the SL and TL

2.2.1.3 Translation Equivalence

Equivalence can be said to be the central issue in translation although its definition, relevance, and applicability within the field of translation theory have caused heated controversy, and many different theories of the concept of equivalence have been elaborated within this problem Translation equivalence occurs when a SL and a TL text or item are relatable to (at least some of) the same features of substance The greater the number of situational features common to the contextual meanings of both SL and TL texts, the

“better” the translation

According to Peter Newmark, translation equivalence is an unwritten

rule about translation which people know and which influences the form of

translating exchange “Translation equivalence will not be achieved word for word, collocation for collocation, clause for clause, sentence for sentence, but possibly only paragraph for paragraph, or, rarely, text for text For this reason, translation equivalence, like the term ‘unit of translation’, is sometimes a useful operational concept, but it can be only roughly and

approximately indicated for a stretch of language.” [49, p.123]

Mentioning translation equivalence, Eugene Nida [51, p.26]

distinguishes two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence Formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form (poetry to poetry, sentence to sentence, concept and concept) and content (gloss translation, aim to allow the reader to understand as much of the SL context as possible) However, dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect, i.e that the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers

and the SL message

J.C Catford [25, p 47] claims that SL and TL texts or items are

translation equivalents when they are interchangeable in a given situation Catford's approach to translation equivalence clearly differs from that adopted

by Nida since Catford had a preference for a more linguistic-based approach

to translation and this approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday Catford proposed very broad types of translation in terms of three criteria: the extent of translation (full translation vs partial translation); the grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established (rank-bound translation vs unbounded translation); the levels of language involved

in translation (total translation vs restricted translation)

Moreover, Popovic [23, p.25] distinguishes translation equivalence into four types:

(1) Linguistic equivalence, where there is homogeneity on the linguistic level of both SL and TL texts, i.e word for word translation

(2) Paradigmatic equivalence, where there is equivalence of the elements of a paradigmatic expressive axis, i.e elements of grammar, which Popovic sees as being a higher category than lexical equivalence

(3) Stylistic (translational) equivalence, where there is “functional equivalence of elements in both original and translation aiming at an expressive identity with an invariant of identical meaning”

(4) Textual (syntagmatic) equivalence, where there is equivalence of the syntagmatic structuring of a text, i.e equivalence of form and shape

In trying to solve the problem of translation equivalence, Newbert [47]

postulates that translation equivalence must be considered a semiotic category consisting of the components (syntactic, semantic and pragmatic) These components are arranged in a hierarchical relationship, where semantic equivalence takes priority over syntactic equivalence and pragmatic

equivalence conditions and modifies both the other elements Equivalence overall results from the relation between signs themselves, the relationship between signs what they stand for and those who use them

In general, to achieve translation equivalence requires translators to produce the same effect (or one as close as possible) on the readership of the translation as was obtained on the readership of the original The translation equivalence is showed in some rules and principles which are very useful for the translators The focus is to assure the equivalence in translation of participants for translating to take place smoothly and effectively These principles help people best achieve their goals not only in communication but also in translating: exchanging information and establishing and maintaining social relations

2.2.1.4 Translation Methods

In order to have a good translated version, the translator should have knowledge about translation theory When we mention translation, we also refer to a process which involves the negotiation of meaning between producers and receivers of texts Translation plays such an important role in life that there have been many researchers who mention it with many different methods

Peter Newmark [49, p.24] mentions the difference between translation

methods and translations He indicates that, "While translation methods relate

to whole texts, translations are used for sentences and the smaller units of language" He goes on to refer to the following methods of translation:

(1) Word-for-word translation: is the process the SL word order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context

(2) Literal translation: is the process the SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context

(3) Faithful translation: it attempts to produce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures

(4) Semantic translation: differs from “faithful translation” only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL texts

(5) Adaptation: is the freest form of translation, and is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture is converted to the TL culture and the text is rewritten

(6) Free translation: it produces the TL texts without the style, form, or content of the original

(7) Idiomatic translation: it reproduces the “message” of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original

(8) Communicative translation: it attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership

Mentioning linguistic aspects of translation, Roman Jakobson [38, p

232-239] distinguishes three types of translation:

(1) Intralingual translation, or rewording (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs in the same language)

(2) Interlingual translation or translation proper (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language)

(3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of nonverbal sign systems.)

The translation in these three types properly describes the process of transferring from the SL to the TL He goes on immediately to point to the central problem in all types: while messages may serve as adequate interpretations of code units or messages, there is ordinarily no full equivalence through translation

Engene Nida [51] provides the model of the translation process

consisting of the following stages:

Transfer For example:

Friendly greeting on arrival Decision to distinguish between forms

of greeting available

Transfer

Firth [24, p 22] defines meaning as “a complex of relations of various

kinds between the component terms of a context of situation” He points out

that, in determining what to use in English, the translators must:

(1)Accept the untranslatability of the SL phrase in the TL phrase on the linguistic level

(2)Accept the lack of a similar cultural convention in the TL

(3)Consider the range of the TL phrases available, having regard to the presentation of class, status, age, sex of the speaker, his relation to the listeners and the context of their meaning in the SL

(4)Consider the significance of the phrase in its particular context- i.e

as a moment of high tension in the dramatic text

(5)Replace in the TL the invariant core of the SL phrase in its two referential systems (the particular system of the text and the system of culture out of which the text has sprung)

Moreover, dealing with translation methods, Levy [24, p 22], the great

Czech translation scholar, insists that any contracting or omitting of difficult expressions in translating was immoral The translator, he believes, had the responsibility of finding a solution to the most daunting of problems, and he declares that the functional view must be adopted with regard not only to meaning but also to style and form The translator cannot be the author of the

SL texts, but as the author of the TL texts has a clear moral responsibility to the TL readers

In brief, there are different methods of translation and each method has its own strong and weak points A good translator, then, is a person who flexibly applies the suitable method or effectively combines these methods in

his or her texts

2.2.1.5 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation

Differently from other authors, basing on the points of view of reader,

Peter Newmark [48, p 39] makes a distinction between two kinds of

translation; semantic and communicative

Source Language (Bias) Target Language (Bias)

Peter Newmark [48], in communicative translation approach, the only part of

the meaning of the SL which is translated is the part which fits the TL reader’s understanding of the identical message In this translation, the translator has the right to modify, correct and improve the translation version, but the translator has to consider what extents of the SL should be suitable to

the knowledge, intelligence of the TL readers Communicative translation

addresses itself solely to the second reader, who does not anticipate difficulties or obscurities, and would expect a generous transfer of foreign elements into his own culture as well as his language where necessary

Communicative translation is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer, more

direct and more conventional, conforming to a particular register of language Communicative translation emphasizes “the force” rather than the content of the message

Semantic translation, in contrast, is a translation in which the translator

is loyal to the author of the SL It means that he has to translate the meaning

of the SL material into the TL text However, if the text is not updated, the

translation version has to be put into modern language Semantic translation

attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the

second language, the exact contextual meaning of the original Semantic translation remains within the original culture and assists the readers only in its connotations if they constitute the essential human (non-ethnic) message of the text Semantic translation would be more informative but less effective Semantic translation tends to be more complex, more awkward, more detailed, more concrete and pursues the thought-processes rather than the intention of the transmitter It tends to overtranslate, to be more specific than the original and to include more meanings in its search for one nuance of meaning

In summary, a translator who wants to be successful in his translation needs to know how to combine these two methods fluently because there are often sections in one text that require both semantic and communicative translation Moreover, if we use only one method, the translation might be rigid and less flexible So, accuracy, clarity and flexibility are highly needed

in the language transfer For this reason, the translators tend to combine communicative and semantic methods appropriately, sensibly in their translation process

2.2.2 Euphemisms

2.2.2.1 Concepts and Definitions of Euphemisms

It is obviously that euphemism is one language performance form which people seek in the social communication It is created for ideal communication effect because of its powerful abilities Together with increasingly enhancement of social civilization, speech skill and good interpersonal relationship also profoundly affect our life, thus, more and more euphemisms will be produced in the language Euphemism has been always played an important part in English and especially it is chiefly the core point

in our daily communication Therefore, there have been a lot of researches about English euphemism because of its importance and prominence

In “Introduction to Semantics and Translation”, Katherine Barnwell

gives a definition that “A euphemism is the use of an expression which has a meaning quite different from its apparent surface meaning It is an indirect way of saying something, usually used in order to avoid being offensive” [23,

p 98]

Allan and Burridge [21, p 57] define euphemism as “an alternative to

a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either one’s own face or, through giving offense, that of the audience, or of some third party” The dispreferred expression may be taboo, fearsome, distasteful, or

some expressions with negative connotations

According to Galperin [31, p 76], "Euphemism is a word or phrase

used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally acceptable one" The origin of the term “euphemism” discloses the aim of the device very clearly, i.e speaking well (from Greek - eu = well + pheme =

speaking) He also shows that euphemism is sometimes figuratively called "a whitewashing device" According to him, euphemisms may be divided into several groups according to their spheres of application The most recognized spheres are the following: 1) religious, 2) moral, 3) medical, 4) parliamentary

In “Style Guide”, Pam [55, p 620] defines euphemisms as “the

fine-sounding words and phrases we used for things which are not so fine or beautiful The word itself goes back to the Greeks and Greek civilization, suggesting that they had found the need for inoffensive expressions to refer to what was unpalatable, unacceptable and unmentionable in their culture"

Moreover, Geoffrey Leech [43, p 102] insists that “euphemism is the

practice of referring to something offensive or delicate in terms that make it

sound more pleasant or becoming than it really is” Therefore, people use

euphemisms to get rid of the negative meaning or connotation the word or topic

Euphemistic expressions occur at all levels of society, but throughout the history people have found certain areas to be more uncomfortable and unpleasant to discuss than others These include sex, death, killing, crime,

diseases and different functions of the human body

Mentioning euphemism, Crystal [26, p 61] claims that “euphemisms

are the use of a vague or indirect expression in place of one which is thought

to be unpleasant, embarrassing or offensive Euphemisms are typically used

to replace expressions to do with death, sexual activities and other bodily functions”

In Vietnamese, Trương Viên proposes a definition of euphemism in his

doctoral dissertation “uyển ngữ (euphemism) là một từ hay một ngữ cố ñịnh

ñược cấu tạo lại, diễn ñạt lại một nội dung ñã có ñể thể hiện một cách thích

hợp, tế nhị, thẩm mỹ; là lời nói ñược sử dụng trong những tình huống hay văn bản giao tiếp lịch sự, sang trọng, ñầy tri thức văn hóa, liên quan ñến cái ñẹp trong việc dùng từ ngữ.” [19]

Đ inh Trọng Lạc [3, p 18] mentions that “uyển ngữ (euphemism) là

hình ảnh tu từ trong ñó người ta thay tên gọi một ñối tượng (hoặc một hiện tượng) bằng sự miêu tả những dấu hiệu cơ bản của nó, hoặc bằng việc nêu lên những nét ñặc biệt của nó, tạo hình cho lời nói vì nó không chỉ tạo nên ñối tượng mà còn miêu tả ñối tượng nhã ngữ”

He also distinguishes between “uyển ngữ” and “nhã ngữ” However, he finally concludes that “nhã ngữ” is a variant of “uyển ngữ”, in which pleasant

and decent words are used to replace for impolite, harsh or unacceptable ones

“nhã ngữ là một biến thể của uyển ngữ, trong ñó những từ ngữ nhã nhặn, lịch

sự ñược dùng ñể thay thế những từ ngữ thô lỗ, khó nghe, không ñúng mực”

2.2.2.2 Characteristic Features of Euphemisms

a Universality

Universality is something that is well-known and accepted by all of the people Though euphemism is indirect and it doesn’t come straight to the point, people can easily infer its deeper implication Some taboos connecting with sex, death, or body functions are replaced by euphemisms And the public has accepted this kind of use For when we refer to death, we seldom

say “die” For example, in the sentence “David … fell asleep and was laid with his fathers”, the phrase “fell asleep” is an indirect way of saying “died”

b National feature

There is no doubt that each language has its own euphemism, the meanings of which are quite clear to a native speaker of the language This is the national feature of euphemism For example, in Vietnam, it is natural for people to experience adult, middle age, old age and death However, to westerners, old age means worthless and the old will be looked down upon or even deserted Therefore, no one would like to admit that he is old People

dread about old age so much that they see the word “old” as a taboo Instead, various indirect ways of referring to “old” was used: “the advanced in age”,

“the mature”, “the longer living”, “seasoned man”, “senior citizens”,etc

and inferior People always use euphemistic ways to describe such jobs This

indirect feature is common in a lot of professions such as: beautician = hair dresser, elevator = member of the vertical transportation corps, under-take = funeral service practitioner, mechanic = automobile engineer, dustman = sanitary engineer

d Localization

Different regions have different customs, history, culture and these differences embody the localization of language Many euphemisms are related to the folklore and its localization is clear People comprehend the notion of so-called euphemism in different ways For example, in the sentence

“He is in the bathroom”, American may think he is in the toilet but English may consider that he is taking a bath because the word “bathroom” in British English has the meaning of “bathing” but in American English, it becomes to

be a substitution of toilet

e Obscure feature

A lot of euphemisms make use of obscurity in language This

euphemistic way can enlarge the meanings of some words We often say “He

is unwise” or “He is mentally challenged” instead of using “He is stupid” The use of such words or phases as “unwise” or “mentally challenged” could be

more politely

f Humorous feature

The use of euphemism can increase the sense of humor This makes interactions between people more interesting For example, once a man was bathing without locking his door, one of his friends rushed into his room for emergency and found he was naked They both felt embarrassed Then the

man with nothing on said, “You are the one besides my mother who has seen I

am in my birthday suit” Both of them immediately burst into laughter “In one’s birthday suit” is one of euphemistic words about nakedness

g Figurative feature

As a stylistic device, euphemisms are figurative Euphemisms can be achieved by many stylistic devices such as circumlocution, metonymy, hyperbole and understatement, and so on We can find figurative expressions

like “the cavalry’s come” for “I’ve got my period” and “go to the happy hunting grounds” for “die” Or a metaphor for “vagina” is “the miraculous pitcher that holds water with the mouth downfalls”

In fact, we use euphemisms to soften the reality of what we are communicating to a given listener or reader; to avoid stimulating, comfort for the human When replacing the taboo language, it can eliminate vulgarly and give people elegant impression Simultaneously, euphemisms sometimes may

be showy and also have the sense of humor Being good at euphemizing is a manifestation of high accomplishment, but using it excessively will give people affected feeling Therefore, we must pay attention to the usage of euphemisms in our daily communication to make our life more colorful

2.2.2.3 Euphemisms and other linguistic units

a Euphemisms and Dysphemisms

According to Allan and Burridge [21, p.26], “a dysphemism is an

expression with connotations that are offensive and it is substituted for neutral or euphemistic expression for just that reason” In referring to a

particular communicative intention in a given context, speaker must choose either to use or not to use a euphemism in order to create a certain effect on a

given occasion For example, when referring to one’s death, we can say “He passed away” or “He kicked the bucket” Obviously, the second is

intentionally dysphemistic by comparison with the first

Like euphemisms, dysphemisms are motivated by fear and distaste, but also by hatred and contempt; and in contrast to euphemisms, they are motivated by the desire to offensively demonstrate such feelings and to downgrade the denotatum or addressee when deliberately used

Euphemisms and dysphemisms may seem self-contradiction, but in fact they are not Euphemistic dysphemism and dysphemistic euphemisms have locutions which are at odds with their illocutionary point The expletive

“Shit!”, which typically expresses anger, frustration, or anguish, is ordinarily

a dysphemism However, it is remodeled as euphemism “Sugar, Shoot, or Shilvers” It is clear that the locution is recognized as euphemism even

though the illocutionary act might be dysphemistic So these expressions are considered as euphemistic dysphemisms Similarly, there exist some dysphemistic euphemisms For example, terms referring to menstruation such

as have the curse, woman’s complaint, be feeling that way, off the roof, and so

on are dysphemistic euphemisms for some occasions With dysphemistic

euphemisms, the locution is dysphemistic, but the illocution is not

b Euphemisms and Taboo

According to Peter Pam [55, p.741], “taboo words are words that many

people avoid because of the offensive they may give” Taboos can include

restrictions on sexual activities, gender roles and relationships with other people (e.g fornication, adultery, interreligious marriage, homosexuality, incest, bestiality and so on.); restrictions of bodily functions (burping, flatulence, urination, masturbation, nose picking and spitting) in public; restrictions on state genitalia; restrictions on showing body parts (pornography and nudity); restrictions on gestures; restrictions on the use of offensive language known as obscenity and vulgarity In order to avoid referring to these restrictions, a pleasant kind of words is resorted In other

words, the safest way to talk about these taboos is to use euphemisms Therefore, it can be said that taboo is one of the motives for the formation of euphemisms

“Taboo is a cultural or religious custom that forbids people to do,

touch, use or talk about a certain thing” (Oxford Dictionary) [54, 1213] A

taboo is a strong social prohibition relating to any areas of human activity or social custom declared as sacred and forbidden The term was originally

borrowed from Tongan “tapu” or the Fijian “tabu” These words usually mean “not allowed” or “forbidden” The use of the word “taboo” in English

was dated back in 1777 by an English explorer, Captain James Cook

Euphemisms can eventually taboo words themselves through a process called the euphemisms treadmill by Pinker In this process over the course of time, a word that was originally adopted as a euphemism acquires the negative connotations of the original word The process can happen many times, and may still continue to be happening An example of this is

euphemisms for the word “toilet”, it can be referred to as “WC, bathroom, loo, the smallest room”, and “I am just going to powder my nose”, all of which avoid using the word “toilet”

Taboo words and expressions are perhaps less obvious in our society

than euphemisms, which are used to “dress up” certain areas in life Hence

the use of euphemisms becomes more presentable Euphemistic words and expressions allow us to talk about unpleasant things and neutralize the unpleasantness They also allow us to give labels to unpleasant matters in an attempt to make them sound better

c Euphemisms and Slang

“Slang is the use of highly informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker’s dialect or language It is often used as a

way to say words that are not appropriate It is often not found in the

standard dictionary for the language” (Wiki.)

Slang refers to informal lexical items used by a special group such as musicians, soldiers, prisoners, teenagers, thieves and so forth The peculiar property of slang is to be esoteric; hence slang is often understood by a certain social group itself For example, slang terms are only used by Londoners in

Cockney such as “needle and pin” for “gin”; “bees and honey” for “money”;

“storm and strife” for “wife”

There is a relationship between slang and euphemism when referring to some decent topics, especially taboo ones Some slang terms are considered

conventional euphemisms such as the use of “over-shoulder boulder-holders” for “bra”; or the use of “doodle, diddle, dink, dong” for “penis”

d Euphemisms and Jargons

Newmark [50, p.131] defines jargon as “an idiom peculiar to a trade or

profession, an occupational register of language, or an esoteric slang unintelligible to the layman” Actually, jargons are technical words or

expressions used by a particular profession or group of people and hard for others to understand The jargons are well known in the English language: the jargon of thieves and vagabonds, the jargon of surgeons, the jargon of the army, the jargon of sportsmen, the jargon of procurers or procuresses, and

many others For example, the word “grease” means “money”; “loaf” means

“head”; “a trick or a john” means “a prostitute’s client”

The subject matter plays an important role in recognizing the jargons as euphemisms or dysphemisms Some euphemistic jargons are common in

funerals’ language such as remains (=corpse), long home (=graveyard), sanitary treatment (=embalmment), dismal trade (= the arrangement of funerals for payment) In the field of education, people tend to use

euphemisms instead of using some simple value-laden jargons We can say

“These students are educationally and socially disadvantaged” (not These student are lazy), or “They are underachievers” (not stupid) Not all jargons

are euphemistic or dysphemistic There is a portion of jargon remaining the outsiders of any particular social group

2.2.3 Semantic Characteristics of English Words

2.2.3.1 Word Meaning

As we all know, communication becomes more and more a crucial factor in social organization and meaning plays such an important role in communication Meaningless utterances have no value in communication; they can only make their language users a laughing stock, which is why understanding the meaning is very important for the language users The meaning of a word is not merely the result you get from your search in a good dictionary because it depends on many factors concerned

In “Meaning in English”, Lesley Jeffries [39, p.124] states that

“meaning is a kind of invisible unclothed being waiting for the clothes of language to allow it to be seen, which is why it is very necessary to take off the clothes of language to understand the real meaning of words, phrases, and

sentences” For example, “the red flag at the seaside of a resort” means

+adult Three properties “human”, “adult”, and “female” provide a criterion

of the correct use of the word woman

denotative meaning but concomitants of womanhood (“capable of speech”,

“experienced in cookery”, “skirt-or-dress wearing”) as well as some

traditional attitudes such as frail, prone to tears, emotional or other qualities such as beautiful, gentle, compassionate, sensitive, and hard-working

c Stylistic meaning

Stylistic meaning is that which a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use In this style of meaning, a word can be recognized by the typical dimensions: Individuality (the language of Mr X, of Mrs Y, and so on); Dialect (the language of a geographical region or of a social class); Time (the language of the eighteen century, ect); Style (the language of poetry, the language of journalism, and so forth); Singularity (the style of Dickens, of Hemingway, ect )

d Affective meaning

According to Leech [43, p.125], affective meaning is often explicitly

conveyed through the denotative or connotative content of the words used He also claims that affective meaning is largely a parasitic category in the sense that to express our emotions we rely upon the mediation of other categories of meaning – denotative, connotative, or stylistic

e Reflected meaning

Reflected meaning is the meaning which arises in case of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense

f Collocative meaning

Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment For

example: “pretty” and “handsome” share common ground in the meaning

‘good-looking’, but may be distinguished by the range of nouns with which they are likely to co-occur or collocate: pretty girl, boy, flower, garden, etc and handsome boy, man, car, vessel, etc

g Thematic meaning

Thematic meaning is what communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis

Moreover, mentioning word meaning, in “Semantics and Translation”,

Katherine Barnwell [23, p 60-64] analyses meaning with five different kinds

of associative meaning, in which includes: connotative meaning, stylistic (social) meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning

2.2.3.2 Sense Relations

In order to understand euphemisms comprehensively, we must rely upon the uses of themselves through various types of meaning as well as in

the relations of senses

- Polysemy: James Hurford (1997) defines “A case of polysemy is one

where a word has several very closely related senses.” [35, p.123]

Ex: Mouth (of a river vs of an animal) is a case of polysemy The two

senses are clearly related by the concepts of an opening from the interior of

some solid mass to the outside, and of a place of issue at the end of some long

narrow channel

- Synonymy: Lyons [40, p.165] defines two expressions as full

synonymous if the following conditions are met:

• All their meanings are identical

• They are synonyms in all contexts

• They are semantic equivalent in all aspects of their meaning

- Homonymy: According to James Hurford [35], a case of homonymy

is one of an ambiguous word whose different senses are far apart from each

other and not obviously related to each other in any way For example,

“Bank” (the edge of a river vs a financial institution) makes a good example

of homonymy So does the word “Ba” in Vietnamese, which suggests both

“father” and “three”

- Antonymy: Antonymy is the relation of opposite meanings

For example: Good/Bad; Fast/Slow are some examples of antonymy

2.2.3.3.Componential Analysis in Translation

The basic process in translation is to compare a SL word with a TL

word which has a similar meaning, but it not an obvious one-to-one

equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their differing sense

components The SL word normally has a more specific meaning than the TL

word, and the translator has to add one or two TL sense components to the

corresponding TL word in order to produce a closer approximation of

meaning The sense components of a lexical unit may be referential and/ or

pragmatic Comprehensively, a SL word may be distinguished from a TL

word on the one hand in the composition, shape, size and function of its

referent; on the other hand, in its cultural context and connotations, as well as

in its currency, period, social class usage and its degree of formality,

emotional tone, generality or technicality and, finally, in the pragmatic effect

of its sound composition

2.2.4 Classification of Euphemisms and Theorists’ Ways for Translation of Euphemisms

2.2.4.1 Classification of Euphemisms

Euphemism can be classified into many categories according to different criteria, rules or principles For instance, euphemism can be divided into euphemism in the Middle Ages, euphemism in the Victorian Age, euphemism in the twentieth century, and contemporary euphemism In terms

of the prevailing time, whether it is long or short, euphemism can be divided into temporary euphemism and persistent euphemism

There is no uniform standard, but the motives of the different classifications are to discover and understand the characteristics of euphemism from different angles The following is a brief introduction to some representative classifications of euphemism

a Positive Euphemism and Negative Euphemism

Hugh Rawson [57, p 211] divides euphemisms into two general

types—positive and negative Positive euphemisms can also be called stylistic

euphemisms or exaggerating euphemisms “The positive ones inflate and magnify, making the euphemized items seem altogether grander and more important than they really are.” In order to avoid thrill, to be polite or to

achieve cooperation, British and American people, especially contemporary Americans, prefer using the technique of exaggeration to euphemize something unpleasant and embarrassing

The positive euphemisms include the many fancy occupational titles, which save the egos of workers by elevating their job status For example,

“exterminating engineers” for “ratcatchers”, “beautician” for “hairdressers”

“The negative euphemisms deflate and diminish They are defensive in nature, offsetting the power of tabooed terms and otherwise eradicating from the language everything that people prefer not to deal with directly.” [57, p.214]

The negative euphemisms can be called traditional euphemisms or narrowing euphemism They are extremely ancient, and closely connected with the taboos A euphemism and its corresponding taboo are in fact two faces of the same coin They refer to the same thing though they have different looks, the euphemism having a much more pleasant face than the taboo In many cultures, it is forbidden to pronounce the name of God So

there are euphemisms such as “Jeeze”, “Jeepers Creepers” , or “Gee” for

“Jesus”, “Jesus Christ” or “Christ”, “Goodness” for “God” or “My Gum” for

“My God” The names of the tabooed subjects as the dead, and the animals

that are hunted or feared, may also be euphemized this way

b Conscious Euphemism and Unconscious Euphemism

Euphemisms, whether positive or negative, can be divided into unconscious euphemisms and conscious euphemisms The criterion is the euphemistic meaning whether correlative with the original meaning or not

Unconscious euphemisms, as its name implies, were developed long ago, and are used unconsciously, without any intent to deceive or evade For

example, “Indisposition” has been a substitute for “disease” for a long period;

people seldom realize that its original meaning is incapable of dealing with

something Or “Dieter”, the original meaning “taking food by a rule or regulation” has been substituted by the euphemistic meaning “the one moderate in eating and dining for loosing weight” From the above we can

conclude that unconscious euphemisms were developed so long ago that few can remember their original motivations

Conscious euphemisms are widely employed, which involve more complex categories When people communicate with each other, speakers are conscious to say tactfully, and the listeners understand their implied meanings For example, when a lady stands up and says that she wants to

“powder her nose” or “make a phone call” at a dinner party, the people present realize the euphemism means “something else”, that is, “going to the ladies’ room”

c Semantic Classifications of Euphemism

Beside the divisions mentioned above, according to their contents concerned, euphemisms can be semantically divided into:

• Euphemisms expressing death

• Euphemisms expressing sex

• Euphemisms expressing pregnancy

• Euphemisms expressing childbirth

• Euphemisms expressing prostitutes

• Euphemisms expressing genitals

• Euphemisms expressing occupation

• Euphemisms expressing unemployment

• Euphemisms expressing disease…

2.2.4.2 Theorists’ Ways for Translation of Euphemisms

Mentioning translation of euphemisms, in “Semantics and Translation”,

Katharine Barnwell [23, p.68] states that:

• Sometimes a euphemism in the SL can be translated by a direct form in the TL

• Sometimes a euphemism in the SL has to be translated by a euphemism in the TL, often quite different in form but having equivalent meaning in the TL

• Sometimes something which is referred to directly in the SL may have to be translated by a euphemism in the TL in order to avoid an expression which would be offensive in the target culture

According to M L Larson [42, p 87], a euphemism in the SL needs to

be translated by an equivalent euphemism in the TL It is important that the translator must recognize the euphemistic nature of euphemism in SL and translate it into TL with euphemistic equivalence

As stated by Alan Duff in “Translation” [21, p 144 ], idiomatic

expressions are notoriously untranslatable These include similes, euphemism, proverbs and saying, jargon, slang and colloquialisms and phrasal verbs He also shows that if the expressions can not be directly translated, try any of the following:

- Retain the original word, in inverted commas: “phở” , “chèo”

- Retain the original expression with a literal explanation in brackets:

“áo dài”(a long close-fitting blouse)

The golden rule is: if the idiom does not work in the TL, do not force it into translation

As we know, in reality, there are a lot of euphemisms with high idiomatic and sometimes we must use metaphor to reach to euphemistic

nature of euphemisms As a result, this principle of Alan Duff can be

employed in translating euphemisms

In short, due to some limitations of time and materials, in this thesis, the author has just only carried out an investigation on the translation of euphemisms expressing death, sex, pregnancy and childbirth basing on ways

of translation of euphemism, namely:

• a euphemism in the SL is translated by a direct form in the TL

• a euphemism in the SL is translated by an equivalent euphemism in the TL

• a euphemism in the SL is translated by a non-equivalent one in the

TL

In summary, this chapter has presented the theories on translation, semantics, concepts, general features of euphemisms, classification of euphemisms and theorists’ ways of translation of euphemisms to support the investigation to count the percentage of each way used in translating euphemisms from English into Vietnamese and then give some remarks on the popularity of each way