City clusters in China: air and surface water pollution ppt

Cities within a cluster often compete for avail- 353 City clusters in China: air and surface water pollution Min Shao, Xiaoyan Tang*, Yuanhang Zhang, and Wenjun Li City clusters are mad

China has experienced unprecedented economic

growth over the past two decades, accompanied by

the development of large-scale industries and services In

the course of this expansion, medium-sized cities and

small towns have sprung up around the larger cities, ing city clusters, often with similar or interdependenteconomies

form-The development of city clusters in China is somewhatsimilar to the formation of the megalopolis in the UnitedStates, as described by Gottmann (1961) However, thereare some differences in terms of the number of cities in anarea, their infrastructure, and the services they provide tothe region, as compared to the US City clusters in Chinatend to be much more concentrated and densely popu-lated, with little room for natural areas; for example, thedistance between cities is often less than 10 km in thePearl River delta In the city of Guangzhou, spacingbetween residential buildings is so restricted that they areoften referred to as “handshaking” buildings Also, there

is no clear, functional division of infrastructures amongthe cities, due to a lack of coordination between cityplanners Cities within a cluster often compete for avail-

353

City clusters in China: air and surface water

pollution

Min Shao, Xiaoyan Tang*, Yuanhang Zhang, and Wenjun Li

City clusters are made up of groups of large, nearly contiguous cities with many adjoining satellite cities and

towns Over the past two decades, such clusters have played a leading role in the economic growth of China,

owing to their collective economic capacity and interdependency However, the economic boom has led to a

general decline in environmental quality This paper will review the development and current status of the

major environmental problems caused by city clusters, focusing on water and air pollution, and suggest

possi-ble strategies for solving these propossi-blems Currently, deteriorating water quality is of major concern to the

pub-lic and decision makers alike, and more than three-quarters of the urban population are exposed to air quality

that does not meet the national ambient air quality standards of China Furthermore, this pollution is

charac-terized by high concentrations of both primary and secondary pollutants Environmental pollution issues are

therefore much more complex in China than in western countries China is expected to quadruple its GDP by

2020 (using 2000 as the base year for comparison) and, consequently, will face even more serious

environmen-tal challenges Improving energy efficiency and moderating the consumption of natural resources are essential

if China is to achieve a balance between economic development and environmental health

Front Ecol Environ 2006; 4(7): 353–361

In a nutshell:

• The emergence of city clusters, large groups of cities and towns

in close proximity to one another, has contributed to China’s

rapid economic growth over the past 20 years

• However, environmental quality has deteriorated within and

around these clusters, with pollution issues becoming widespread

• Air pollution, especially increasing levels of fine particles and

ground-level ozone, is a growing environmental problem in city

clus-ters, and a multi-objective strategy is necessary for effective control

• China must improve its energy efficiency and resource

con-sumption in order to achieve environmentally friendly

eco-nomic development and a sustainable society

Authors’ contact details are on p361

able natural resources, investment, and regional funding

for infrastructure development and improvement For

example, five separate international airports have been

constructed in recent years in the Pearl River delta

(including Hong Kong and Macau) Better intercity

cooperation could avoid such wasteful redundancy in the

future, resulting in a more efficient regional economy

(Bao 2005)

If, as expected, such rapid development continues over

the next several decades, demographic trends suggest that

China will experience an even greater rate of

urbaniza-tion Population in urban areas has already increased

from 20.0% of the total population in 1980 to 36.1% in

2000 (National Bureau of Statistics 2001a), and reached

37.8 % in 2003 (Li and Ji 2003) Despite this rapid pace

of urbanization, current levels are still far below the

global average (48.3% in 2003; United Nations

Population Division 2004) There is still great potential

for further urbanization, therefore, particularly as the

urbanization process catches up with the pace of

industri-alization, which is often just as fast in villages (National

Bureau of Statistics 1999)

The combination of rapid economic growth and

ization has resulted in substantial mental problems throughout China, butnowhere more so than in city clusters Aconsiderable part of China’s GDP wasachieved at the cost of over-consumption

environ-of energy and other natural resources ThePearl River delta, for example, althoughaccounting for only about 20% ofGuangdong province, consumed 67% ofthe coal and 85% of the oil for the entireregion Due to the close proximity of thecities and the large number of emissionssources, ambient concentrations of SO2and NO2 in the Pearl River delta regionwere 2–3 times the level found in otherparts of the province (CESPKU and GIES2004) Pollutants from various cities inthe area tend to mix and spread over the

entire region (Wang SL et al 2005).

There is an urgent need to incorporateenvironmental issues into planningChina’s urban areas, in order to reduce therisks of further environmental degrada-tion This paper briefly describes the role

of city clusters in China’s economic opment, and describes the regional air andwatershed pollution that has developed as

devel-a result of the rdevel-apid economic growthwithin these city clusters We also proposepossible solutions to these environmentalproblems, taking into account the socialand economic plans for medium- andlong-term development in China

Economic growth in city clusters

Urbanization in China has occurred most rapidly in thecoastal areas, due to the stronger economic base and moredeveloped infrastructure, as well as the greater abundance

of natural resources As a result, several city clusters havearisen in coastal areas and nearby regions (Figure 1) Forseveral reasons, the formation of city clusters often acts as

a catalyst for economic growth and enhances the itiveness of the region as a whole The central govern-ment has therefore developed long-term plans to supportrapid coastal urbanization, followed by efforts to increaseurbanization, in the central part of the country, therebyaiding economic development (National Bureau ofStatistics 2001b) In essence, the three largest city clus-ters – the Beijing–Tianjin–Bohai Bay, Yangtze Riverdelta, and Pearl River delta regions – have become theforerunners of modernization in China

compet-At present, the Yangtze River delta and Pearl River deltaareas are the most fully developed, followed by theBeijing–Tianjin–Bohai Bay cluster and the recently initi-ated Northeast cluster (Table 1) The Pearl River delta citycluster has expanded rapidly since the 1980s, due primarily

354

Figure 1. The distribution of city clusters in eastern China The closed dots

indicate cities, sized according to urban population size; the dashed circles indicate

city clusters, sized according to GDP Details of the Northeast plains, Beijing–

Tianjin–Bohai Bay area, Yangtze River delta, and Pearl River delta are given in

Table 1; the other city clusters are generally development zones around one large

city Central-China plains, Guanzhong, Wuhan, and Changsha are used as

names of city clusters near the cities of Zhengzhou, Xi’an, Wuhan, and Changsha

cities, respectively Redrawn from Zhang (2004).

Mid China Plain

Pearl River delta

Yangtze River delta

Legend

City City cluster

P > 10 M

5M–10M 1M–5M 0.5M–1M

< 0.5M

Large

Medium

Small

M Shao et al Environmental pollution and city clusters

to former political leader

Deng Xiaoping’s policy of

creating “special economic

zones”, designated regions

where governmental policy

fosters a market economy

instead of a planned

econ-omy Similarly, the

exponen-tial economic growth of

Shanghai in the 1990s led

rapidly to accelerated growth

among cities in its

neighbor-hood The Beijing–Tianjin–

Bohai Bay area is a unique

city cluster that formed

spon-taneously around the twin

megacities of Beijing and

Tianjin

The Northeast plains cluster, the former national

cen-ter for heavy industry from the 1950s and throughout the

1980s, is now facing major challenges in maintaining its

economic strength, following the exhaustion of its once

abundant natural resources, especially coal, oil, and iron

ore Industrial restructuring and rehabilitation are

mak-ing the Northeast cluster China’s fourth economic pillar

(Table 1) While these four regions make up less than 3 %

of China’s territory, and encompass only about 12% of the

country’s total population, they account for nearly half of

the national GDP (47% in 2001; National Bureau of

Statistics 2002)

Although the government has also supported increased

urbanization of small towns (Bai 2002), it is the large city

clusters that are expected to drive economic

develop-ment for the foreseeable future (Li and Ji 2003) Even so,

it is widely predicted that millions of people will migrate

from rural areas to adjacent urban areas over the next

sev-eral decades, leading to the widespread growth of small

and medium-sized cities, some of which are likely to

become part of future city clusters For instance, Henan

Province, formerly a relatively poor agricultural province

but with the largest population of any of China’s

provinces, has since grown to become the fifth largest

provincial economy in China, based on GDP (2004

sta-tistics; Zhang 2005) This economic expansion was due

primarily to urban migrations and a subsequent shift in

the economic base, from agricultural to industrial

Meanwhile, the Central-China plains city cluster in the

same province is also growing very quickly These

devel-opments are seen as a rejuvenation of economic strength

in central China

The city clusters have major advantages in terms of

regional economic development: the drop in GDP due to

environmental pollution resulting from such rapid

eco-nomic growth has largely been ignored In 1997, a World

Bank report indicated that economic losses caused by

environmental pollution in China ranged from 3–8 % of

GDP, which attracted the attention of both policy makers

and academics (World Bank 1997) Although later mates provided different numbers, by the end of the 20thcentury, economic losses due to environmental pollutionwere probably around 4–5% of GDP, which is comparable

esti-to the 5% estimated for the US in the mid-1970s and the3–5% estimated for the European Union in the mid-1980s (Xu 1998) However, there are no truly reliableestimates of the impact that pollution from city clustershas on GDP, despite the importance of the issue

Watershed pollution

China has insufficient water resources The amount offresh water available per capita is about one-quarter ofthe global average of 8513 m3 per year (2002 statistics;

World Bank 2003) In a survey of more than 600 Chinesecities, two-thirds had inadequate water supplies, while

1 in 6 experienced severe water shortages (Li 2003)

Water pollution caused by rapid urbanization and the mation of city clusters has exacerbated the lack of acces-sible drinking water While levels of industrial wastewaterdischarge have largely stabilized, domestic wastewater hasincreased considerably While the total amount ofreleased industrial wastewater fluctuated around 22 bil-lion tons from 1995 to 2004, the domestic sewage dis-charge increased from 13.1 billion tons in 1995 to22.1 billion tons in 2000, and up to 26.1 billion tons in

for-2004 (State Environmental Protection Administration[SEPA] 1995–2004) This was due primarily to the enact-ment of more stringent controls on industrial sources ofwastewater; in 2003, 91% of industrial wastewater wastreated, in contrast to only 32% of urban domestic sewage(National Bureau of Statistics 2004)

As a consequence, surface water quality has become anissue of great concern in China A national survey ofseven major rivers in China, carried out in 2004, revealedthat water quality measurements in 28% of 412 moni-tored sections were below grade V, the worst grade in thenational standard for water quality in China Theseresults indicate that, for these sections of river at least,

355

Table 1 The contribution to national GDP from the four major city clusters in 2002

GDP per capita Percentage Number Area Population (1000 yuan in national City clusters of cities Megacities (1000 km 2 ) (million) person –1 ) GDP (%)

Pearl River 25 Guangzhou, delta Shenzhen 41.7 23.0 35.7 11.4 Yangtze River 43 Shanghai, 99.6 75.3 22.5 23.7 delta Nanjing,

Hangzhou Beijing–Tianjin– Beijing,Tianjin, Bohai Bay 9 Tangshan 55.3 35.1 14.2 7.0 Northeast plain 17 Shenyang,

Dalian 77.1 27.0 13.5 5.1

National Bureau of Statistics (2002)

Environmental pollution and city clusters M Shao et al

the water supply is virtually of no practical or functional

use, even for agricultural irrigation For the Haihe River,

which provides the cities of Beijing and Tianjin with the

bulk of their drinking water, this figure was as high as

57%, and for the Liaohe River, which supplies water to

Northeast China, it was 38% (see Figure 2 for the

loca-tions of these rivers) Overall, more than 90% of the river

sections that flowed through urban areas showed a water

quality of grade V or worse (SEPA 1995–2004) The

higher the grade, the worse the water quality; only water

with a grade lower than III is drinkable The same survey

suggested that even the water quality of the Yangtze and

Pearl Rivers, both of which have relatively abundant

water flow, was a cause for concern; approximately 10%

of the monitored sections of these tworivers also revealed water quality worsethan grade V, and all monitored sections

in the urban area of Guangzhou (on thePearl River) had water quality aroundgrade V or worse The water quality ofthe rivers shown in Figure 2 was charac-terized only by conventional indicators,such as chemical oxygen demand(COD), ammonia, and volatile phenols,among others The situation is evenmore worrisome when endocrine disrupt-ing organic substances are taken intoconsideration as well (An and Hu 2006).Lake Taihu, the third largest freshwa-ter lake in China, provides a typicalexample of water pollution caused bycity clusters With a total watershedarea of about 36 500 km2, Taihu is situ-ated within Jiangsu and Zhejiangprovinces The city of Shanghai, as well

as more than 37 other cities and towns,

is sited within its watershed GDP inthe area around Lake Taihu increased

by a factor of 17 between 1980 and1998; per capita GDP in the area wasthree times the national average (StateCouncil of China 1998), while the population density

was eight times the national average (Gao et al 2003) The

water quality of Lake Taihu has deteriorated greatly duringthis period (Figure 3), largely as a result of this rapid eco-nomic growth The lake remains the most importantsource of drinking water for the inhabitants of the YangtzeRiver delta region, but water quality has dropped by

approximately one grade level every decade (Qin et al.

2004), and in 2004 nearly 60% of sampling sites in thelake recorded water quality lower than grade V (SEPA1995–2004) As a result, the entire watershed area is nowfacing a shortage of potable water Residents in the areawho enjoyed the clean water of the lake in the past arenow compelled to buy bottled water for drinking

According to Gao et al (2003), over

80% of COD and 70% of total phorus originated from urban and resi-dential areas around the lake, with 42%

phos-of COD and 60% phos-of total phosphorusderived from domestic sewage dis-charge Research has shown thatincreased phosphorus concentration isthe key factor in the worseningeutrophication of Lake Taihu (Dokulil

et al 2000); domestic sewage is

there-fore clearly a major source of water lution in the lake Future conversion ofagricultural areas in the watershed tourban environments will very probablylead to even greater levels of water pol-

pol-356

Figure 2. Water quality of seven major rivers in China The length of the bars are

normalized to 1; the lengths of the green, yellow, and red bars represent the percentages

of each river section with water quality between grades I–III, between grades IV–V,

and grade V or worse, respectively (According to the national surface water quality

standards of China [GB3838-2002], water of grades I–III is suitable for drinking,

grade IV is for industrial and recreational use, and grade V is for agricultural use).

Songhuajiang

Liaohe

Haihe Yellow River

Figure 3. Historical trends in water quality in Taihu lake The water quality grading

system is the same as in Figure 2 (Derived from monitoring data provided by

National Environmental Monitoring Center.)

M Shao et al Environmental pollution and city clusters

lution (Gao et al 2003) The

deteriorating condition of Lake

Taihu is typical of the problems

associated with the increasingly

polluted nature of China’s

sources of freshwater, and

illus-trates the urgent need to

inte-grate both water pollution and

population controls into the

planning for future economic

development in the country’s

watersheds

Regional air pollution

Air pollution is perhaps China’s

biggest environmental problem

Results from routine monitoring

of 360 cities in 2004 revealed

that the air quality of nearly 70%

of urban areas did not meet the

country’s national ambient air

quality standards (NAAQS), and that nearly 75% of

urban residents were regularly exposed to air considered

unsuitable for inhabited areas (SEPA 1995–2004)

China has high levels of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and total

suspended particulates (TSP), because coal is the source

of 60–70% of its primary energy Meanwhile, the number

of motor vehicles has increased substantially since the

mid-1980s, primarily in urban areas and city clusters; in

Beijing, for example, the number of vehicles increased

from 0.5 million in 1990 to 2 million in 2002 (Beijing

Municipal Bureau of Statistics 2003) The growing

num-ber of cars and trucks has led to much higher levels of

atmospheric nitrogen oxides throughout the country, but

especially in urban areas

Since 2000, high concentrations of aerial particulate

matter with diameters less than 10m (PM10) are the

most frequent cause of NAAQS grade II violations (that

is, an average annual concentration of such particulate

matter at concentrations ≤ 100 g m–3

) In Beijing, theannual average level of PM10 fluctuated around 160 g

m–3from 2000 to 2004 (Beijing EPB 2005 ) Megacities

such as Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou are frequently

among the cities of the world with the highest levels of

airborne particulate matter (UNEP 2002)

Large areas of China are exposed to high levels of

par-ticulate pollution (Figure 4) For example, the vast region

extending from the North China plain down to the

Yangtze River delta and the heavily urbanized Pearl River

delta region show aerosol optical depths (AOD) of

0.6–0.8 (AOD is an index describing the absorption of

light due to atmospheric particles ie the opaqueness of

the air) In contrast, the AOD for Europe measures

between 0.5 and 0.1 for industrialized and rural areas,

respectively (Gonzales et al 2000) A study of 30-year

variations of atmospheric AOD in China showed that

levels increased by 9.5% from 1970 to 1979 and by 21.8%

from 1980 to 1989 (Luo et al 2002)

In recent years, the “gray sky” phenomenon has beenthe subject of growing public concern (Figure 5)

Research shows that high levels of ambient fine particles(PM2.5, ie airborne particulate matter with diameters lessthan 2.5 m) lead to poor visibility (Song et al 2003) In

2001, the concentration of PM2.5 in Beijing averaged

110 g m–3

, more than seven times the ambient air ity standard recommended by the US Environmental

qual-Protection Agency for fine particulate matter (Wang et

al 2004) Fine particle pollution in urban areas poses a

serious health risk to residents, but particularly to viduals who suffer from respiratory ailments, the elderly,

indi-and children (Zhang et al 2002; Li et al 2005) Such

severe fine-particle pollution is seldom observed in oped countries

devel-The very high PM2.5levels are most probably the result

of secondary particle production due to chemical tions in the atmosphere Ground-level ozone (a typicalcomponent of photochemical smog) is formed by the reac-tions of NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)under solar radiation (Haggen-Smit 1952) Areas of ele-vated fine particulate concentrations can also form down-wind of the precursor source areas if there is considerablemovement of air More importantly, atmospheric oxida-tion capacities are enhanced by increasing O3concentra-

reac-tions (Wennberg et al 1998) Thus, SO2, NOx, andvolatile organic compounds will be transformed into fineparticles (ie PM2.5) more efficiently where O3concentra-tions are higher due to increased rates of oxidation

High concentrations of ground-level ozone have beenobserved for many years in China’s urban areas Forexample, researchers at Peking University measuring thediurnal variations of episodic ground-level ozone in

357

Figure 4. Distribution of aerosol optical depth over China in 2002 (Li et al 2003).

Environmental pollution and city clusters M Shao et al

Beijing from 1982 to 2003 found that O3concentrations

have increased sharply since the 1990s, and often exceed

200 ppb (Figure 6) A similar study in the Yangtze River

delta region showed that high ozone concentrations are

also often found at sites some distance removed from

urbanized or industrial regions (Wang et al 2005)

Such high levels of both primary and secondary airborne

pollutants lead to the development of a (perhaps typically

Chinese) “air pollution complex” concept (Figure 7) The

main purpose of the air pollution complex model is to

underscore the variety of interactions of airborne

pollu-tants in China: how increased atmospheric oxidation

capacity, caused by the formation of ozone, will speed up

the conversion of SO2, NOx, and VOCs into sulfates,nitrates, and particulate organic matter, and how these fineparticles, in turn, play a catalytic role in further heteroge-neous reactions (Ravishankara 1997) While it is true thatthese processes are observed in many locations around theworld, the conditions prevalent in China – high concen-trations of SO2, oxidants, and their precursor components,

as well as the comparatively high concentrations of pended particles, etc – result in a level of aerial chemicalinteractions that is probably unique to the country

sus-In recent years, intensive efforts have been made toreduce air pollution in China Countermeasures, such asadapting energy production (including shifting primary

energy production from coal to gas),reducing sulfur emissions throughincreased use of low-sulfur coal and fuelgas desulfurization, and promoting morestringent vehicular emission standards aswell as switching to non-leaded gasoline,have been implemented in urban areasthroughout the country These measureshave, to some extent, slowed the rate ofincrease of pollutant emissions (Figure8) Nevertheless, while these measuresmight be effective for the abatement ofsome primary pollutants, they are insuffi-cient for the control of secondary pollu-tants and the resulting chemical interac-tions that form the core of the airpollution complex model

The pollution complex concept mightalso be applicable to water pollution, inview of the interactions between aque-ous pollutants (eg metals, nitrogen, andorganic material) and the interfacesamong water, sediment, and aquaticorganisms Furthermore, exchange of

Figure 6. Trends in the episodic concentrations of ambient O 3 measured in Beijing

from 1982 to 2003 in Zhongguancun (ZGC), a northwest suburb of the city, about

20 km of Tian’anmen square The 2008 Olympic Games site is about 4 km north of

ZGC The yellow line indicates the 1-hour average O 3 concentration at grade II,

according to the national ambient air quality standards of China (2000 amendment

June 1987 (city average) June 1997 (ZGC) 10–24 Aug 2003 (Olympic site)

M Shao et al Environmental pollution and city clusters

materials between the atmosphere, pedosphere, and the

terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (eg the nitrogen cycle)

links air, water, and soil pollution together, suggesting

that the control of the pollution complex requires an

integrated approach While abundant expertise from

Europe and the US is available to address pollution

prob-lems (such as photochemical smog, acid deposition, and

suspended particles), the knowledge and experience

needed to find solutions to the unique pollution complex

in China are still lacking

Challenges for future development

The Chinese Government has set as a goal the doubling of

the country’s GDP (using 2000 as the baseline) by 2010,

and quadrupling it by 2020 As a

result, each province and city, from

the coastal areas to the western parts

of China, has created its own

eco-nomic development plans

accord-ingly A new round of rapid

eco-nomic development is therefore

expected to spread across the

coun-try More city clusters will be

gener-ated as a result, and the natural

envi-ronment will be subjected to even

greater stress

If, by 2020, 50% of China’s

popu-lation live in towns and cities,

domestic water needs will be double

those of 2000, while industrial use

will increase 1.5 times (Peng 2002)

As water consumption rises, so too

will the amount of discharged

domestic sewage, by a factor of at

least 1.3 (Han 2004) Should

effec-tive countermeasures not be taken,

China’s already fragile freshwater ecosystems will comeunder even greater strain

Low energy efficiency is one of the main causes of airpollution in China Currently, the nation is one of theworld’s biggest consumers of energy and materials, but is

very inefficient in the use of these resources (Imhoff et al.

2004) While China’s GDP accounted for only thirtieth of the total global GDP, raw material consump-tion rates were much higher; for instance, China’s steel,coal, and cement consumption accounted for 25%, 33%,and 20% of world totals, respectively (Guo 2004)

one-The increase in vehicular traffic is another main cause

of air pollution China is anticipating a threefold to enfold increase in the number of motorized vehiclesbetween 2002 and 2020 It is projected that CO2 emis-

Anthropogenic

Oxidant (O3, OH)

PM2.5(SO4 2-, NO3 -)

Smoke and dust emission

Numbers of private cars

Figure 8. GDP, number of cars, and emission of SO 2 , smoke and dust, and discharge of COD in China, 1995–2004 (Data on GDP and private cars from the National Bureau

of Statistics [1995–2004]; data on emissions of SO 2 , smoke and dust, and COD discharge from SEPA [1995–2004].)

Environmental pollution and city clusters M Shao et al

sions from motor vehicles will quadruple during the same

period, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon levels will

triple, and NOxand PM levels will also remain at high

levels (CAE 2003)

Increasing China’s already severe air pollution will

sub-stantially increase the incidence of respiratory diseases

throughout the country, as air pollution is estimated to be

the primary cause of nearly 50% of all respiratory

ail-ments (Brunekreef and Holgate 2002) According to UN

Environmental Programme statistics (1999), soot and

particle pollution from the burning of coal causes

approx-imately 50 000 deaths per year in China, while some

400 000 people suffer from chronic bronchitis annually in

the country’s 11 largest urban areas The UN

Development Programme estimated that the death rate

from lung cancer in severely polluted areas of China was

4.7–8.8-fold higher than in areas with good air quality

(UNDP 2002) Extrapolating from current emission

lev-els and trends, the World Bank estimated that by 2020

China will need to spend approximately US$390 billion

– or about 13% of projected GDP – to pay for the

health-care costs that will accrue solely from the burning of coal

(World Bank 1997)

A recent study on sustainable energy strategies for

China indicates that by means of improvements in energy

efficiency and some restructuring, the projected

quadru-pling of the country’s economy would require only a

dou-bling of current energy consumption rates (Zhou 2003)

Implementing sustainable energy strategies will greatly

improve China’s energy efficiency by 2020, and CO2

emissions, remaining high in terms of emissions per unit

GDP when compared with other countries, will be greatly

reduced as well

It is now widely accepted in China that the course of

economic development projected to occur over the

next 20 years must avoid the pitfalls of high energy and

resource consumption, widespread pollution, and the

low rates of return that characterized the expansion of

the Chinese economy over the previous 20 years The

World Bank and the Global Environment Facility have

financially supported the development of three Energy

Management Companies (EMCs) in China, and this

has helped to identify and eliminate energy

ineffi-ciency, but a similar approach is needed for the

conser-vation of water and other natural resources as well To

realize this goal, laws and regulations promoting a

cycli-cal economy must be introduced, so that producers,

consumers, governmental organizations, and the media

all bear social responsibilities equally Greater

invest-ment in the technologies that would promote a cyclical

economy is also required, including technologies for

the re-utilization of industrial and agricultural waste

material Finally, education programs designed to

increase public awareness concerning current

environ-mental issues and the incorporation of resource

conser-vation into economic planning are essential for China’s

future development

Conclusions and suggested strategies

China’s economic growth over the past 20 years hasbrought many benefits to its citizens, but at the cost of anexponential increase in pollution over a relatively shorttime (Liu and Diamond 2005) City clusters, where botheconomic activity and large populations are concentrated,suffer from extensive environmental degradation China’sunique pollution complex, characterized not only by highlevels of primary pollutants but also by the interactionsbetween them, and by their spread from source locations,leads to complicated regional problems The large-scalewatershed pollution and air pollution complex will con-tinue to worsen if stringent measures to protect the envi-ronment are not taken soon

The realities of both economic losses and increasingmortality rates due to pollution have prompted a veryserious consideration of future developments, and asChina enters into a new phase of development and eco-nomic prosperity, it finds itself at a crossroads Will thecountry continue down the same road as in the past twodecades, or will environmental quality, energy efficiency,and the conservation of resources no longer be sacrificed

at the altar of economic development?

The authors would like to thank YH Zhuang, CS Kiang,

JY Fang, S Slanina, and SQ Zhang for their valuable ments and suggestions Financial support was provided bythe China National Key Basic Research Project(#TG1999045700) and the China National NaturalScience Foundation (#40275037)

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361

China is a populous country with scarce resources and

relatively poor natural conditions As a result of themonsoon climate, rainfall occurs unevenly throughout

the year China’s annual precipitation is about 6.2 trillion

m3, which corresponds to a depth of 648 mm over the

entire country (9.6 million km2; Liu 2002) Surface runoff

and groundwater per annum are 2.7 trillion m3and 830

billion m3, respectively The net total amount of available

water (surface plus groundwater) is 2.8 trillion m3(MWR1992) China’s available water resources per capita areonly 2220 m3, about one quarter of the world average(Qian and Zhang 2001)

There are about 2300 lakes (excluding seasonal lakes)

in China, each with a water surface area larger than

1 km2 These include 12 large lakes, each with a surfacearea greater than 1000 km2 The total surface area of allChina’s lakes is 72 000 km2and the total storage capacity

is 709 billion m3, comprising 32% of the total fresh waterstorage capacity (Qian 1994) In addition, there are alsosome 85 000 reservoirs which, in 1998, had a combinedstorage capacity of 458 billion m3, equivalent to 17% ofthe total annual runoff (Gu 1999)

Variability across the country

Correlation analysis (NIWA and IWHR 1998) suggeststhat China’s major river systems (Figure 1; Table 1) fallinto five categories: (1) the Songhua–Liao watershedgroup in the northeast; (2) the Hai-Luan watershed group,Yellow watershed, and Huai watershed group in the north-central region; (3) the Yangtze watershed, Pearl water-shed, and southeast watershed group; (4) the southwestwatershed group; and (5) the inland watershed group.The major source of water to all the watersheds is rivers

Implementing China’s “Water Agenda 21” Xiaoliu Yang 1* and Jinwu Pang 2

China’s per capita available water is only 2220 m 3 , about a quarter of the world average As a result, China faces

an imbalance between the supply and demand of water for agricultural and general population use Poor water resource development, wasteful usage, and water pollution are all exacerbating the problem Water-related issues have seriously hampered economic development in China, especially in recent decades, while the coun- try has undergone rapid economic growth Implementing a sustainable water resource strategy is therefore vital To meet the goals of national economic reconstruction and development, and to solve the water shortage problem, China’s “Water Agenda 21” was formulated in 1998 This paper focuses on the implementation of this strategy and discusses China’s approach to solving its water-shortage problems in order to safeguard sustainable socioeconomic development

Front Ecol Environ 2006; 4(7): 362–368

In a nutshell:

• China’s economic growth has been hindered by a shortage of

fresh water

• To balance water supply and demand and safeguard economic

development, China’s “Water Agenda 21” was introduced in 1998

• This aims to minimize water shortages and water pollution

and to meet the basic water needs of urban inhabitants, culture, and the environment

agri-• Progress has been made in improving urban living standards,

balancing economic development and poverty alleviation, securing food supplies, conserving soil and water, and protect- ing ecosystems

• Nevertheless, further effort is required, particularly in

inte-grating water resources management and mobilizing the vate sector

pri-Authors’ contact details are on p368)

XL Yang and JW Pang China’s “Water Agenda 21”

363

Taking into account the duplication

between surface water and groundwater

flows, the groundwater contribution is

only significant on the plains, particularly

in northern China (NIWA and IWHR

1998) Elsewhere in the country,

ground-water contribution is negligible Table 2

gives the average water availability in

1993, relative to population density,

urbanization rate, income levels, and

arable land The area south of the Yangtze

accounts for 81% of China’s water, but

only 54% of its population and 35% of the

arable land Thus, per capita water

avail-ability for the area south of the Yangtze is

about four times greater than that for the

region to the north of the Yangtze, and the

per ha water availability for arable land

south of the Yangtze is about eight times

greater than that to the north of the river

In general, less than 1700 m3of water per

capita represents water stress, while less

than 1000 m3per capita is classified as a

water shortage Water resources in the Hai-Luan watershed

group are as low as 245 m3per capita, increasing to only 355

m3per capita when the net contribution of groundwater is

included Availability in the Huai and Yellow River

water-sheds in northern China is greater, but is still less than 1000

m3per capita

In contrast, water is abundant in the south and southwest

of the country Inland watersheds account for about 35% of

China’s land area; although water availability per capita is

normally good, local desert communities face extreme

shortages Water availability for irrigation is typically a

lim-iting factor in North China, but land rather than water is

the limiting factor in South China (Table 2) The situation

in areas varies; average water availability tends to exceed

evaporation rates in inland watersheds, suggesting that

there is still potential for increased irrigation

Variability throughout the year

Water availability varies greatly at different times of the

year (Table 3) Annual variability is greater in the north (eg

the Songhua–Liao, Hai-Luan, and Yellow watersheds) than

in the south (eg the Yangtze and Pearl watersheds) There

can also be wide variability at the sub-watershed level;

typhoons and atmospheric depressions can dump huge

quantities of water in the space of a few days, leading to

sub-stantial changes in river levels, followed by flooding The

relative stability of inland river flows is due to the

continu-ous influence of snowmelt, which can mask differences at

the sub-watershed level

This variability leads to alternating floods and droughts

(Xu and Dai 2002) Historically, floods have been a serious

problem in China, so flood alleviation and control remain a

major concern in most regions (Li 1999) Construction of

storage reservoirs and levees has resulted in a variable degree

of protection from flooding, but huge areas of the countryremain vulnerable Even the large cities may only be pro-tected against a 40-year flood, with protection oftenachieved at the expense of rural areas Drought primarilyaffects northern and inland watersheds (Zhang 1997) Theycan be offset by making use of groundwater in dry years,notably in the North China Plain, but this has only limitedpotential when superimposed against general, and increas-ing, scarsity In contrast, typhoons and tropical storms arepredominantly a feature of the southern coast, where theyare relatively frequent during the early and late monsoonmonths and can cause great damage

Deterioration in quality

China’s water pollution problems are increasingly ing Table 4 shows that the discharge of wastewater and

alarm-Figure 1. China's major river systems

Table 1 Distribution of water resources (MWR 1992)

Watershed/watershed group Available water resources *

10 9 m 3

Songhua–Liao watershed group 193 Hai-Luan watershed group 42 Yellow watershed 74 Huai watershed 96 Yangtze watershed 961 Pearl watershed 471 Southeast watershed group 259 Southwest watershed group 585 Inland watershed group 130

* Excluding groundwater recharge estimated to be transformed under natural ditions into river discharge.

con-Songhua–Liao

China’s “Water Agenda 21” XL Yang and JW Pang

364

pollutants has increased since 2000; the total amount of

discharged wastewater in 2004 was 48.24 billion tons, of

which 22.11 billion tons was discharged industrial

efflu-ent and 26.13 billion tons was domestic sewage At the

same time, the chemical oxygen demand (COD)

dis-charged reached 13.39 million tons, of which 38% came

from industrial sources and 62% from domestic

house-holds A total of 1.33 million tons of ammonia–nitrogen

was discharged, of which 33% came from industry and

67% from domestic sources Moreover, some untreated or

poorly treated wastewater and sewage are discharged

directly into rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, resulting in

dif-ferent levels of pollution Some freshwater lakes are

expe-riencing severe eutrophication and shallow groundwater

has also been polluted in some areas Water pollution has

exacerbated environmental degradation and further

aggravated the imbalance between supply and demand,

threatening sustainable use of water resources

Formulation of China’s “Water Agenda 21”

As mentioned above, China is subject to severe floods

and droughts; this leads to water shortages and a serious

imbalance between water supply and the requirements for

industrial and domestic use and environmental needs Inthe northern part of the country and the inland water-sheds, overexploitation of water resources from somerivers has led to successive drying of river courses, partic-ularly in the lower reaches In some regions, overuse ofgroundwater has caused serious regional declines in thegroundwater table, creating a series of ecological prob-lems, including large-scale land subsidence, disappear-ance of wetlands, and environmental deterioration (Liuand Chen 2001) In addition, the problems of water pol-lution and soil and water loss are very serious, severelyaffecting efforts to harmonize population growth, naturalresources development, environmental protection, andthe preservation of ecosystem services This has ham-pered China’s socioeconomic development (Wang 2002).China needs to implement a sustainable water resourcedevelopment strategy that will strengthen its water infra-structure, protect ecosystems, conserve and protect itswater resources, control water pollution, and promote thesustainable use of water resources throughout the country

In the 1990s, the Central Government promulgatedChina’s Agenda 21 (GPRC 1994) As a result, a number

of studies on water were conducted, including reports onsustainable water resource development (Liu and He

Table 2 Water resource indicators for major watersheds/watershed groups in 1993 (NIWA and IWHR 1998)

Urban GDP per Arable Available water Unit water Watershed (W)/ Population rate capita land resources * availability

Notes: * Excluding groundwater recharge estimated to be transformed under natural conditions into river discharge

** Equivalent of available water distributed uniformly over arable land

Table 3 Variability in river runoff (MWR 1992)

Mean annual Annual runoff at different relative values (mean Watershed (W)/ runoff annual runoff = 100)

XL Yang and JW Pang China’s “Water Agenda 21”

365

1996), relationships between water, the economy, and

society (Chen 1997; Huang 1997), water financing (An

1997), and water conservation (Jiang 1997) Based on

this work, China’s Water Agenda 21 (MWR 1998) was

formulated Priority was given to addressing water

short-age and pollution issues, and to meeting the basic water

needs of urban inhabitants, industry, agriculture, and

ecosystems Water Agenda 21 outlined policies for

sus-tainable water resource development and listed key

actions and projects

Ever since the period covered by the national Ninth

Five-year Plan (1996–2000), sustainability has become

the basic guiding principle for socioeconomic

develop-ment in China As a result, a sustainable water resource

development strategy, as outlined in Water Agenda 21

(MWR 1998), has been implemented This has led to

increased control and development of water resources in

the country’s major watersheds, and an improvement in

the potable water supply and sanitary conditions in

impoverished areas More emphasis has been placed on

the improvement of irrigation systems for the purpose of

conserving water, on ecofriendly construction with regard

to soil and water conservation, on the prevention and

control of water pollution, and on comprehensive

envi-ronmental improvement The water infrastructure in the

western part of China has been strengthened

In line with China’s Water Agenda 21, action plans

were formulated in the Yangtze watershed (Yangtze River

Commission 1998), the Huai watershed (Huai River

Commission 1998), the Yellow watershed (Yellow River

Commission 1998), the Hai and Luan watersheds (Hai

River Commission 1998), Taihu Lake (Taihu Lake

Management Bureau 1998), the Songhua and Liao

water-sheds (Song and Liao Rivers Commission 1998), and the

Pearl watershed (Pearl River Commission 1998) These

plans have guided water resource development in each of

these watersheds

A sustainable water strategy to support national

socioeconomic development

In 1995, the Central Government decided to further

strengthen water resource development (The State

Council of GPRC 1996) Consequently, a medium- and

long-term national plan that would balance water supply

and demand (NIWA and IWHR 1998) was developed

The plan emphasized better allocation, more efficient use,and stronger protection of water resources The imple-mentation of this plan helped to mitigate water shortages

in north China; for instance, during the drought of 2000,such integrated water resource management preventedthe lower reaches of the Yellow River from drying up atcertain times of the year, as had previously occurred

In 2001, the Central Government placed a high priority

on working towards sustainable economic and socialdevelopment (The State Council of GPRC 2001)

Recognizing that sustainable use of water resources is astrategic issue in China’s development, the plan called forthe implementation of vigorous measures to strengthenthe water infrastructures, and strongly encouraged protec-tion and sustainable management of water resources Inurban and associated industrial and agricultural develop-ment, the carrying capacity of water resources and effi-ciency of water use had to be taken into consideration

The plan also called for various water-saving technologiesand measures to be comprehensively implemented, andfor the development of low water consumption industries

Finally, the plan encouraged the general public to becomemuch more aware of the need for water conservation, andrecommended that traditional methods for conservingwater be replaced with new technologies

Actions and progress towards sustainable water use

Urbanization and living standards

Since the 1990s, the process of urbanization and the struction of new urban facilities has continued to acceler-ate From 1992 to 2000, the populations in cities andtowns in China increased by 132 million people and therate of urbanization increased from 27.63% to 36.09%

con-(NBS, 1992, 2000) This has been accompanied by watershortages in cities and towns, flooding, and drainage andaquatic environmental problems Four hundred of the

668 cities in China suffer from some degree of watershortage (MWR 2002) Of these, 108 cities have seriouswater shortages, of the order of about 6 billion m3annu-ally Six hundred and twenty-five cities are subject tofloods and waterlogging, due to inadequate flood controlmeasures and poor drainage systems (MWR 2002)

Table 4 Discharged wastewater and major pollutants in China’s rivers (SEPA 2005)

Amount of wastewater COD Ammonia–nitrogen Year (billion tons) (million tons) (million tons)

Total Industrial Domestic Total Industrial Domestic Total Industrial Domestic

China’s “Water Agenda 21” XL Yang and JW Pang

366

As a result of the continuous increase in domestic and

industrial wastewater discharge and the insufficient sewage

treatment capacity, some of this wastewater is discharged,

untreated, directly into rivers, lakes, or the seas, causing

varying degrees of water pollution Consequently, the

Central Government, focusing attention on urban

con-struction, introduced policies governing the urban

environ-ment and the developenviron-ment of infrastructure to regulate

urban floods and the water supply These policies

empha-sized that any new plans for urban development must take

into consideration the capacity of the local water resources

and must include the construction or improvement of

municipal flood control measures Regulations also covered

the water supply infrastructure, municipal water pollution

control, industrial wastewater treatment, and the

compre-hensive management of the urban environment (Qian et al.

2002) Beijing is a good example of this new approach beingput into practice; the city’s green riverbanks and clear lakescontribute to the urban environment and preserve itsancient culture (Figure 2)

Economic development and poverty alleviation

In 1992, more than 88 million people living in rural areas

of China did not have access to safe drinking water, withmost living in border regions or areas characterized by eth-nic minority populations or extreme poverty In suchareas, water shortages are often accompanied by soil ero-sion and electricity shortages Since 1992, there has beensome progress towards improving agricultural productionand living conditions in these regions; nevertheless, thereare still more than 24 million people without access to safedrinking water and who have only limited access to elec-tricity To improve this situation, efforts have been made

to propel economic development in the affected areasthrough water resource development These include theconstruction of drinking water treatment plants and theprovision of electricity to rural areas at the county level, aswell as soil and water conservation Small and medium-scale water projects in poorer areas have served to pro-mote water resource development and poverty alleviation

Increasing food supplies

About two-thirds of China’s population inhabit ruralareas While the country has a large population, there isrelatively little farmland and few agricultural resourcesper capita; moreover, Chinese farmers represent thecountry’s lowest income group In order to improve farm-ers’ living standards and food production, central andlocal governments have intensified the development ofirrigation and water conservation systems and the ruralinfrastructure, and improved low and middle yield crop-lands (Shen and Wang 2001) Figure 3 provides a view offarmland in a coastal region of China, where the econ-omy has improved and the focus has shifted from purelyagricultural to contributing to the national economy, andfrom only stressing social benefits to considering allaspects of social, economic, and environmental benefits.The new strategy combines the development of farmlandirrigation systems with rural economic development,rural road construction, and modernization of rural com-munities

Soil and water conservation

China has one of the most serious soil erosion problems inthe world The affected area covers 3.67 million km2, rep-resenting 38% of the country About 1.79 million km2ofthe affected area is the result of water erosion, while 1.88million km2 is due primarily to wind erosion The Loess

Figure 2. The Beijing Municipal Government has strived to

comprehensively manage rivers and lakes in the city After years

of effort, the goal of clear water, unobstructed flow, and green

banks has now begun to be realized.

Figure 3. Development of water resources has improved

agricultural production conditions and transformed farmland into

gardens An integrated plan was introduced, encompassing

ditches, canals, farmland, forests, and roads As a result, the

construction of garden-style farmlands has increased, and has

become an important basis for rural development Other efforts

have focused on farmland standardization, ditch and canal

lining, road construction, and effective use of resources.

XL Yang and JW Pang China’s “Water Agenda 21”

367

Plateau, a large area of silty,

erosion-prone soil along the upper and middle

sections of the Yellow River, is subject

to serious soil erosion This leads to loss

of usable land, flooding and drought,

and sandstorms Water and soil erosion

are among the top environmental

prob-lems in China Tackling them requires

strict land and water management

through improved policies and law

enforcement, better water and land use

planning, and the development and

implementation of water and soil

ero-sion monitoring systems (Shi and Lu

2001) Figure 4 illustrates an ecological

restoration project in Wuqi County,

Shaanxi Province, China

Protecting ecosystems

Protection of water resources and the

aquatic environment has been given top

priority in the ecological restoration of

China Some progress has been made,

including the formulation of water

resource protection plans, the implementation of

monitor-ing and alarm systems for water quantity and quality, the

protection of wetlands and other water sources, and the

strengthening of integrated management of water resources

(Qian et al 2002) An example of a project to improve the

water quality of Taihu Lake is shown in Figure 5

A long road ahead

It is encouraging to see that China has

taken its own practical approach to

solving some of its water-related

prob-lems and that progress, while limited,

has been made However, there are still

many challenges to overcome Badly

planned development and use of water

resources, wastefulness, and water

pol-lution continue to cause shortages

Population growth, economic and

social development, urbanization, and

improvements in living standards will

lead to even greater demands for water,

and the Chinese people’s expectations

for water, in terms of both quantity and

quality, continue to rise As China

con-tinues to modernize and develop its

economy, this will exacerbate the

imbalance between supply and demand,

making water resources the major

obstacle to realizing the strategy of

sus-tainable development Much work is

still needed, particularly with regard to

integrated water resource management and private sectorinvolvement

Water management in China is still plagued by mentation at both the local and central levels, andwithin sectors (agriculture, environment, urban construc-tion, etc) As a result, there is a multiplicity of publicagencies, with overlapping responsibilities for managing

frag-Figure 4. An ecological restoration project in Wuqi County, Shaanxi Province Wuqi County is located in the northwest of China, and belongs to the transition zone of the Loess Plateau, an area of rolling terrain and desert Here, ecologically based agricultural development has been introduced, characterized by intensive and self-supporting agriculture and livestock farming.

Figure 5. The water quality of the Taihu Lake, with a surface area of 2338 km 2 and a storage volume of 4.4 billion m 3 , has greatly improved since water was transferred to the lake from the Yangtze River With the development of the economy and the increase in human activities, the eutrophication of Taihu Lake had become increasingly severe, while water quality steadily deteriorated

China’s “Water Agenda 21” XL Yang and JW Pang

368 water, leading to inefficiencies in the decision-making

process The situation requires new institutional

arrange-ments supporting a holistic approach, uniting all

stake-holders in order to facilitate more efficient and effective

water management This approach should be based

around watersheds rather than being influenced by

polit-ical or administrative boundaries, thereby encouraging

water-related agencies to coordinate their activities and

establish mutually agreed-upon priorities for investment,

regulation, and allocation

Traditionally, water resource development and

manage-ment are financed by central or local governmanage-ments in

China This demands huge capital investment On the

one hand, the need for capital has already become the

burden of various levels of government; on the other

hand, the economic strength of the private sector in

China has increased enormously in recent decades and

has been accompanied by rapid national economic

growth These private companies are capable of, and have

expressed interest in, investing in and managing public

facilities Public–private partnerships in the water sector

have begun to develop and should be encouraged through

the introduction of relevant rules and regulations

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Global biodiversity is decreasing at an unprecedented

rate, in parallel with the rapid growth of the human

population (DeFries et al 2004) Among ecosystems that

support high biodiversity, wetlands occupy only about 1%

of the Earth’s surface, but provide habitat for about 20% of

the world’s species (Dugan 1993), especially endangered

and endemic species For example, approximately 50% of

the endangered bird species in China inhabit wetland

ecosystems (Wetland International [China] 1998) ever, these biologically rich ecosystems have undergonedramatic reductions The ecological consequences of thesechanges to wetlands, and the resulting loss of biodiversity,have elicited considerable concern (Gibbs 2000)

How-The Central Yangtze refers to the section of the YangtzeRiver Basin that extends from Yichang in Hubei province

to Hukou in Jiangxi province (Figure 1), and includes anumber of ecologically and economically valuable lakes andwetlands Dongting Lake, Poyang Lake, and the lakes in theJianghan Plain and Anqing region, together with theYangtze River and its tributaries, provide important habitatsfor aquatic animals and plants This area is also an impor-tant stopover and breeding ground for birds migrating

through Eurasia (Kanai et al 2002) More than 300 species

of waterfowl, about 200 fish species, and approximately

95% of the world’s wintering Siberian crane (Grus

leucoger-anus) depend on these wetlands (Wu and Ji 2002) It is also

an important habitat for the endangered Baiji (or Chinese

river) dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer), a freshwater cetacean that

inhabits the Yangtze River Because of its many vital logical functions and unique biodiversity, the CentralYangtze has been designated by WWF as one of the Global

eco-369

Biodiversity changes in the lakes of the

Central Yangtze

Jingyun Fang 1* , Zhiheng Wang 1 , Shuqing Zhao 1 , Yongke Li 1 , Zhiyao Tang 1 , Dan Yu 2 , Leyi Ni 3 , Huanzhang Liu 3 ,

Ping Xie 3 , Liangjun Da 4 , Zhongqiang Li 2 , and Chengyang Zheng 1

The Central Yangtze ecoregion in China includes a number of lakes, but these have been greatly affected by

human activities over the past several decades, resulting in severe loss of biodiversity In this paper, we

docu-ment the present distribution of the major lakes and the changes in size that have taken place over the past 50

years, using remote sensing data and historical observations of land cover in the region We also provide an

overview of the changes in species richness, community composition, population size and age structure, and

individual body size of aquatic plants, fishes, and waterfowl in these lakes The overall species richness of

aquatic plants found in eight major lakes has decreased substantially during the study period Community

composition has also been greatly altered, as have population size and age and individual body size in some

species These changes are largely attributed to the integrated effects of lake degradation, the construction of

large hydroelectric dams, the establishment of nature reserves, and lake restoration practices.

Front Ecol Environ 2006; 4(7): 369–377

In a nutshell:

• The large collection of lakes in the Central Yangtze region of

China has decreased substantially in size and number over the

past 50 years

• An increasing human population, greater food production,

and overfishing are the major causes of lake degradation

• Biodiversity losses have also been observed among aquatic

plants, fish, and waterfowl, at community, population, and

species levels

• Lake degradation, the construction of large dams, the

estab-lishment of nature reserves, and lake restoration practices are

the primary forces driving these changes in biodiversity

Authors’ contact details are on p377