As sug g ested by workshop p articip ants, m aize p rod uction ag ro-ecolog ies were further red efined intosix ag ro-ecolog ical reg ions that cap ture both the up land and lowland p ro
Backg round
Vietnam has a population of about 80 million, with roughly 80% living in rural areas Agriculture employs around 67% of the total labor force, underscoring the sector’s centrality to the economy Over the last twenty years, the agricultural sector has undergone dramatic reforms that have modernized farming practices, increased productivity, and expanded rural livelihoods, as policies have advanced market-oriented reforms, investment in rural infrastructure, and better access to finance and technology for farmers.
Vietnam shifted from a centrally planned economy to a state-regulated, market-oriented economy Agriculture moved from a cooperative and state farm production system to one driven primarily by individual farmers The household became the basic unit of agricultural production, with farmers deciding which crops to grow based on market signals This transformation in agricultural production, together with institutional and policy reforms, reshaped the sector and contributed to the broader economic transition.
Vietnam ranked among the world's top three rice exporters in 1989 and again in 1996, while production of other perennial crops—rubber, coffee, tea, mulberry, and maize—also rose.
Maize is the second m ost im p ortant food crop in
In Vietnam, maize acts as a substitute staple during rice shortages, especially for people in rural and mountainous regions It is also the primary source of feed for Vietnam's poultry and livestock industry, making it an important income source for many farmers.
Maize p rod uction has risen sharp ly since 1990, when only 431,800 ha were p lanted to m aize, yield ing an averag e of 1.6 t/ ha for a total p rod uction of 671,000 t.
Since then, the g overnm ent has strong ly sup p orted m aize hybrid technolog y and the resultant hybrid m aize varieties have been wid ely ad op ted by farm ers.
In ad d ition, the livestock and p oultry ind ustry has g rown, creating a need for m ore m aize to use as feed
From 1990 to 1999, total m aize p rod uction increased by 161% The total area p lanted to m aize by 1999 was
659,100 ha yield ing an averag e of 2.5 t/ ha (Vietnam
Statistical Yearbook, 2001) This d ram atic chang e in m aize d em and and p rod uction has m ad e a sig nificant p ositive econom ic contribution to m any rural areas of Vietnam
Rapid economic growth and accelerated urbanization are expected to boost demand for maize, driving an intensification of maize production and more land being devoted to cultivation, especially in marginal upland areas This trend toward greater commercialization and intensification in upland maize farming could bring negative environmental consequences unless managed carefully Vietnam faces the challenge of meeting a growing maize market while preserving the natural resource base and environment through prudent agricultural planning Effective policy design and implementation must rest on comprehensive and accurate data about the current state of upland maize-based farming systems to guide decisions.
Because resource degradation and poverty are pressing in Vietnam's upland regions, this study centers on upland maize production systems to assess how these areas may respond to rising maize demand It aims to identify constraints to future productivity growth, evaluate potential environmental consequences, and compile options for promoting sustainable improvements in upland maize production.
This study is part of a project designed to promote sustainable intensification of maize production systems while ensuring equitable income growth and improved food security for poor households that depend on maize Funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and implemented under the direct supervision of the CIMMYT Economics Program, the project has been implemented in seven countries: China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Objective
The study aimed to support research and development efforts to better meet the requirements for increasing productivity in the country’s maize sector Its specific objectives included identifying the key factors affecting maize productivity, assessing current constraints and opportunities within the sector, and proposing evidence-based strategies to enhance production efficiency and overall output.
Gather and analyze detailed data to identify the major characteristics of different maize production systems across Vietnam, organized by agro-ecological zones and geographic regions, with a special emphasis on upland maize production The study compares farming practices, input use, productivity, ecological constraints, and socio-economic aspects to reveal the regional diversity of maize cultivation These insights support targeted research, extension, and policy interventions designed to strengthen upland maize systems and improve outcomes for farmers across Vietnam.
• Id entify constraints that lim it m aize p rod uction in those zones and reg ions;
• Id entify p riority constraints and solutions to alleviate those constraints in ord er to help the m aize sector better targ et its research and d evelop m ent efforts; and
Develop targeted recommendations for maize research and development policies that will boost maize production across every agro-ecological zone and geographic region of the country These policy guidelines should address zone-specific constraints, promote the adoption of proven technologies, and align with national agricultural development goals to ensure sustainable yield gains nationwide.
Method olog y
Detailed data on upland maize production systems in Vietnam were collected using a two-stage fieldwork strategy designed by CIMMYT, incorporating a rapid rural appraisal (RRA) in the first stage and a participatory rural appraisal (PRA) in the second stage The RRA surveys were conducted in both commercial and semi-commercial maize production systems across the upland and lowland maize areas of all eight major agro-ecological zones in the country (see Table 1).
Provinces chosen for the RRA fieldwork were selected for the importance of maize and maize farming in the communities and for their agro-ecological representation Within these provinces, villages were selected for their dominant maize production systems, accessibility status, and the extent of maize cultivation The RRA study was conducted in 19 villages as survey sites across the country’s major agro-ecologies to capture differing socioeconomic conditions (Table 1).
For the RRA work, a g eneral RRA q uestionnaire p rep ared by CIMMYT was p re-tested and r evised to fit Vietnam ’s sp ecific m aize p rod uction cond itions,
Table 1 M ain characteristics of the sur veyed villages, Vietnam, 2001
M aize w ith communal Distance No of varieties M aize irrigation Road to market house- Popu- Agroecology Village (Province) Production orientation reported seasons systems conditions (km) holds lation
Northern Upland Yen Dong (Vinh Phuc) Upland Semi-commercial OPV, Hybrid WS 60 Good 3 315 1755
Ban Hoa (Son La) Upland Commercial Local, Hybrid SA 0 Fair 20 173 1038
Pache (Son La) Upland Commercial Hybrid SA 0 Fair 7 28 140
Phong Quang (Ha Giang) Upland Semi-commercial Local, OPV, Hybrid SS, SA 0 Poor 10 312 1560
Dong Xuan (Bac Giang) Upland Self-sufficient Local, Hybrid SS, WS, AW 30 Good 2 1600 7360
Thanh Van (Phu Tho) Upland Semi-commercial Hybrid SS, WS 62 Good 3 1300 5561
Northern Lowland Dong Thap (Ha Tay) Lowland Commercial Hybrid SS, WS 80 Good 2 467 2420
Central Highland- Bai Tranh (Thanh Hoa) Upland Semi-commercial Local, OPV SS, SA 0 Poor 5 108 436
Central Coast Ating (Quang Nam) Upland Semi-commercial Local, OPV, Hybrid SA, WS 0 Fair 25 338 1928
Upland Kado (Lam Dong) Upland Semi-commercial Local, OPV, Hybrid SA 5 Fair 6 1437 8191
Pro’ (Lam Dong) Upland Semi-commercial Local, Hybrid SA, AW 10 Fair 6 779 4455
Cour Knia (Dak Lak) Upland Commercial Local, Hybrid SA, AW 20 Relatively good 7 2400 11827
Central Highland- Ea Bar (Dak Lak) Upland Commercial Local, OPV, Hybrid SA, AW 17 Fair to poor 5 3505 18583
Central Coast Nhan Hoa (Gia Lai) Upland Commercial Local, Hybrid SA, WS 10 Relatively good 4 1744 10167
Lowland Quang Truong (Thanh Hoa) Lowland Semi-commercial Hybrid WS 60 Good 4 951 5230
Dien Phuoc (Quang Nam) Lowland Commercial Local, Hybrid SA, WS 70 Relatively good 3 2850 12269
Dai Quang (Quang Nam) Lowland Commercial Local, OPV, Hybrid SS, WS 15 Fair 4 2606 14895
Southeast-Mekong Cay Gao (Dong Nai) Upland Commercial Local, OPV, SS, SA, AW 0 Poor 4 1606 9078
Southeast-Mekong Phu Tam (Soc Trang) Lowland Semi-commercial Local, OPV SS 100 Relatively good 3 2800 15960
Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam RRA/ PRA Surveys, 2001.
Notes clarify that OPV means open-pollinated variety, SS means spring-summer, SA means summer-autumn, AW means autumn-winter, and WS means winter-spring These terms are used especially in relation to agro-ecological zones, seasons, and land-use types The questionnaire was used in an investigation to collect data across these dimensions.
In an open-ended format, interview questions served as guides rather than fixed prompts, enabling researchers and respondents to discuss maize production systems with maximal flexibility during the survey.
A multidisciplinary team conducted rapid rural appraisal (RRA) surveys at both farm and village levels, complemented by village-level secondary data from village and district People’s Committees Village interviews with village leaders covered three domains: the physical environment (annual rainfall, mean temperature, land use); the biological environment (maize-based cropping systems and cropping intensity by season, area planted to local/traditional maize, and the use of improved open-pollinated varieties and hybrids by season); and the institutional environment (especially the land tenure system) Farm-level socioeconomic information was gathered through farmer group interviews, with two groups of 10 household representatives of different socioeconomic status and gender interviewed at each study site Additional village-level secondary information was also obtained from village and district People’s Committees offices.
The PRA was cond ucted in a subset of the RRA sites to g ather m ore q ualitative than q uantitative inform ation.
Based on inform ation collected from the RRA surveys, four up land m aize-p rod ucing villag es located in d ifferent ecolog ical zones were selected for cond ucting
PRA surveys aimed to collect detailed information from farmer group discussions on the socio-economic, agro-ecological and environmental, and technological and marketing aspects of maize production systems For PRA work, a common list of open-ended questions was used to help the research team facilitate farmer group discussions The RRA survey was conducted in January–May 2001.
PRA survey was cond ucted in May-July, 2001.
Information collected from the RRA field work was first analyzed and summarized by village and by ecological zone The resulting findings were presented at the National Maize R&D Priority Setting Workshop in Vietnam, held at the Victory Hotel in Ho Chi Minh City from January 14 to 16, 2002 The workshop brought together senior maize research scientists from agricultural research institutions and universities, representatives from provincial extension centers and district People's Committees, and CIMMYT scientists to identify priority constraints for maize research and development.
Based on workshop participants' recommendations, maize-production agro-ecologies were redefined into six agro-ecological regions that span both upland and lowland production environments across three major geographic zones: the North (covering the Northeast, Northwest, and Red River Delta), the Central Highlands and Central Coast (uplands and lowlands), and the Southeast region with the Mekong Delta Data for these maize-production agro-ecologies were subsequently summarized.
Key characteristics of maize production systems and their constraints, gathered from RRA/PRA field surveys, were used to identify priority constraints and to set the research and development agenda for the maize sector in Vietnam The methodology used to identify priority constraints for maize research and development is presented in a later section of this report.
Lim itations
Originally, eight survey sites were selected across ecological zones, but the design was revised to six major agro-ecologies, resulting in an uneven distribution of survey villages among the newly defined agro-ecologies Given the study’s focus on upland maize production systems, more survey sites were allocated to upland agro-ecologies than to lowland ones, which means that some important lowland maize production characteristics may not have been fully captured The research primarily relies on data from RRA/PRA farmer-group surveys, with only limited information from individual farms, which limits the potential for more robust statistical analysis.
General Top og rap hy
Vietnam is a humid tropical country in Southeast Asia, covering 331,700 square kilometers with a 3,260-kilometer coastline More than 70% of the land lies below 500 meters above sea level, yet roughly three-quarters of the terrain consists of mountains and hills, giving the country a highly varied landscape that tends to slope down toward the sea in the east The Red River Delta in the north and the Mekong Delta in the south are flat and low, while the northeast and northwest are hilly and mountainous.
Fansipan Mountain, standing at 3,143 meters above sea level, sits in Vietnam's northwestern region Agricultural cultivation on steep, sloping terrain is highly vulnerable to soil erosion, and flooding frequently affects delta areas, particularly the Mekong Delta.
Agricultural land accounts for about 28% of the country’s total land area, while forestland covers about 35% Agricultural land is concentrated in the southeast, central highlands, the northeast, and the north-central coast regions, as well as in the Mekong Delta and Red River Delta Forested areas are found in the northeast, central coast, southeast, and central highlands, while plains account for roughly 25% of the total land area.
Rice is the primary crop of Vietnam, grown mainly in the delta regions where flat, fertile lands support vast paddies Yet rice cultivation is widespread, stretching across every part of the country—from the northern plains to the southern fields—making rice farming a national staple and a central element of Vietnam’s agricultural landscape.
Vietnam, along with large parts of the southeast and central highland regions, is planted with perennial and non-rice crops The southeast region and the central highlands have the largest areas devoted to perennial crops—333.3 ha and 799.3 ha, respectively—such as rubber, coffee, tea, cashew nuts, and black pepper, with about 327.9 ha in the Mekong region.
The delta is planted with perennial crops, mainly fruit trees, according to the Vietnam Statistical Yearbook 2001 Generally, Vietnam's climate and soil conditions are favorable for the development of a diverse agricultural sector.
Maize is the second most important food crop after rice and is grown in diverse environments upland rainfed maize areas are primarily located in the northeast, northwest, central highlands, and southeast regions Large areas of irrigated lowland maize are concentrated in the Red River Delta and the north central coast, with only a small area of the Mekong Delta planted to maize.
General Characteristics of Maize Prod uction Ag ro-ecolog ies
Northern up land
Vietnam's agro-ecological zone accounts for most of the country's maize production, lying predominantly in the northwest and northeast regions The northwest is mostly highland and mountainous, with elevations ranging from around 700 meters to over 2,000 meters above sea level.
The northeast reg ion has both m ountainous and m id land areas with averag e elevations fr om 400 to 500 m asl The transp ortation system is p oorly d evelop ed m aking it d ifficult to transp ort p r od ucts to local m arkets or to other reg ions Due to the steep slop ing top og rap hy, soil erosion is a m ajor constraint to ag ricultural cultivation Maize is m ainly cultivated in rainfed cond itions, but irrig ated m aize is also found in areas having g ood access to irrig ation system s In the northwest, there is m ainly one m aize crop p er year, whereas two m aize crop s are com m on in the northeast reg ion Most Vietnam ese m aize is g r own in these northern up land reg ions, where both com m ercial and sem i-com m ercial p r od uction system s exist Maize p lays an im p ortant role in farm household econom y as food and anim al feed and in p rovid ing farm incom e The averag e farm size is about 1.5 ha.
Northern lowland
This ecolog y is located m ainly in the Red River Delta, the second larg est rice-p rod ucing ar ea of the country.
These areas have well-d evelop ed irrig ation system s and irrig ated m aize is com m on Maize is usually p lanted in two seasons, the winter-sp ring and the sp ring -sum m er crop seasons The winter-sp ring m aize p lanted after two rice crop s is the m ajor m aize-based crop p ing system in this ag ro-ecolog ical zone In m ost rural ar eas, farm ers have g ood access to the m arket Therefore even with sm all averag e farm sizes of about 0.3 ha, farm ers p rod uce m aize com m er cially (usually for anim al feed ) in this ag ro-ecolog ical zone, and incom e from cultivated m aize is an im p ortant source of household incom e.
2 2 3 Centra l highla nd s—centra l coa st up la nd
This agro-ecological zone sits at elevations of 400–1500 m above sea level and is dominant in the central highlands, while also including upland maize-producing areas along the central coast The topography is relatively flat with vast plains and meadows in the central highlands, but becomes steep in upland areas of the central coast and in Lam Dong province, where the risk of soil erosion is high Infrastructure remains underdeveloped in many places Soil and climate conditions in this zone are favorable for perennial crops such as coffee, rubber, and black pepper, as well as annual crops like maize, beans, and cotton It ranks as the country’s third-largest maize-growing area, after the northern uplands and the southeast-Mekong Delta upland agro-ecological zones On average, farmers operate on relatively large plots of about 1.3 ha, but rural poverty remains very high The common maize-based cropping systems are either rainfed maize-bean systems or one upland maize crop Both commercial and semi-commercial maize production systems are present in this agro-ecological zone In semi-commercial maize production systems on sloping topography, a single maize crop is usually planted in the summer–autumn crop season.
Figure 1 M ap of Vietnam Geographical regions w here
RRA and PRA surveys w ere conducted
Central hig hland -central coast lowland
im p ortant food crop for m ost ethnic far m ers, but easy access to cheap rice g rown in other areas has r ed uced the im p ortance of m aize as food
2 2 4 Centra l highla nd s—centra l coa st low la nd
This agro-ecological zone is located in the central coast lowlands, where commercial irrigated maize is the major maize production system The dominant maize-based cropping pattern is winter–spring maize grown after two successive rice crops on very small farms averaging 0.3 ha Maize is also rotated with beans, tobacco, or sweet potato Flooding and storms often negatively affect agricultural production during the rainy season, and rural poverty is notable in this area.
Southeast reg ion-Mekong Delta up land
This ag ro-ecolog ical reg ion is located in the southeast reg ion of Vietnam , between the Mekong Delta and the central hig hland s Elevation varies from 100-200 m asl.
Topography in this area ranges from medium to high-sloping terrain in some locations, with elevations of 100 to 200 meters above sea level Seasonal flooding from rivers and streams occurs during the rainy season, while drought conditions predominate in the dry season, creating two major constraints to agricultural production in the region.
Rainfed maize is grown in two main seasons—summer–autumn and autumn–winter—with the dominant cropping pattern being maize–maize, though maize is also rotated with beans and tobacco This agro-ecological zone has the second-largest area planted to maize in the country, and most maize areas in the region are geared toward commercial production, supported by a well-developed road network and proximity to a major feed-processing center The average farm size is about 1.0 hectare, and income from selling maize constitutes a large share of total farm income.
Southeast reg ion-Mekong Delta lowland
The Mekong Delta agro-ecological zone is dominated by flat wetlands where maize cultivation is relatively limited compared with other zones in the country A small area is devoted to maize, with some plantings during the winter–spring dry season after two consecutive rice crops In An Giang province, commercial irrigated hybrid maize varieties are grown, while in other provinces farmers mainly cultivate improved open-pollinated varieties and local/glutinous maize The region tends to have relatively large farms, averaging about 1.3 hectares, and maize contributes only a modest share to total farm income.
Biop hysical Environm ent
Clim ate
Climate varies substantially across the country, from temperate to subtropical in the north to tropical in the south The northeast monsoon makes the northern region hot and rainy from May to October and cold and sunny from November to April, with the rainiest months in May–September though wet days also occur in January–March Winter temperatures hover around 15°C, rising to about 29°C in summer, giving an annual average near 23°C In the northwest, the rainy season runs April–September, peaking in June–July, with annual rainfall of 1,400–2,000 mm The northeast features cold, dry winters, while coastal provinces can suffer heavy rain and storm damage from June to August The Red River Delta averages about 23.4°C, with January at 16°C and July around 28.8°C, and receives roughly 1,800 mm of rain annually, concentrated from May to October Ha Giang Province averages 22.6°C with about 2,300 mm of rainfall per year, while Lang Son Province receives roughly 1,400 mm annually, illustrating strong regional climate variation.
The southern part of the country experiences a tropical climate with hot weather year-round The average annual temperature is about 27°C, with slight fluctuations from 25°C to 29°C The region has two distinct seasons: a rainy season from May to October and a dry season beginning in November.
The rainy season in the southern part of the country begins about a month later than in the northern part, but with similar rainfall amounts From May to November, the southwest monsoon winds sweep across the Indian Ocean, bringing an average annual rainfall of about 1,900–2,000 mm to most of the southeast-Mekong Delta lowlands, while the higher elevations of the southeast-Mekong Delta uplands receive around 2,200 mm.
The central coast experiences distinct seasonal patterns: the western dry wind from Laos brings a dry spell to the lowland from April to June, while the central coastal region receives high overall rainfall that is unevenly distributed, with very heavy rain from September to November and a long dry season of about seven to eight months From September through January, the northeast monsoon crossing the South China Sea delivers very heavy rainfall to the central coast highland region, which then suffers severe flooding and typhoon damage during the rainy season.
November in this region experiences extreme climate variation caused by an elevation range from 400 to 1,500 meters above sea level The average temperature varies from 21.4°C in Lien Khuong (Lam Dong) to 23.5°C in Buon Me Thuot, reflecting diverse microclimates shaped by the altitude differences.
Thuot (Dak Lak) Rainfall varies from 1757 m m in Lam
Dong to 2396 m m in Pleiku (Gia Lai), with 70% of annual rain falling from May to October The d ry season, from Novem ber to Ap ril bring s cold , d ry, wind y weather.
Soil typ es
During PRA surveys, farmers described and classified the soils they plant maize on by texture and color, and they identified the advantages and problems of each soil type Red basal soil, for example, is largely found in the central highland–central coast uplands and in the southeast Mekong Delta upland agro-ecologies The soil has good texture and drainage, deep cultivation depth, and is easy to prepare for cultivation, making it suitable for annual crops like maize, beans, and groundnut, as well as for perennial crops such as coffee, rubber, black pepper, and fruit trees It is, however, susceptible to erosion and nutrients are easily leached, leading to loss of the topsoil layer and soil fertility Therefore, soil erosion control and soil fertility management are important for maintaining the productivity of this soil type.
Diverse soil types are found across the country’s six major maize agro-ecologies (Table 2) In the northern uplands, common soil types include humic gray soils.
Key soil types along rivers and creeks include humic acrisols, red-yellow humic soils (humic ferralsols), grey soils (ferralic acrisols), alluvial soils (eutric fluvisols) and new alluvial soils (dystic fluvisols), plus brown-red soils on limestone (luric calcisols).
Alluvial soils (eutric fluvisols) are the most common soil type in the Red River Delta, located in the northern lowland agro-ecological zone The central highlands and central coast uplands feature extensive red basal soils (rhotic ferrasols) formed from basalt weathering Other soil types present include degraded basal soils (ferric ferrasols), humic grey soils (humic acrisols) in the valleys, and newer alluvial soils.
(d ystric fluvisols) along the rivers and larg e stream s and som e g ray soils (hap lic acrisols), stony black soils (lithic luvisols), black soil (hum ic g leysols), red -yellow soils
Across the central highland–central coast lowlands, major soil types include alluvium (eutric fluvisols), sandy clay (gleyic acrisols), and sandy soils (haplic arenosols) In the southeast region uplands, key soils are gray soils (haplic acrisols), red-dish brown soils (rhodic ferralsols), red-yellow soils (xanthic ferralsols), and stony black soils (lithic luvisols) The area also features black soil (humic gleysols), new alluvial soils (dystric fluvisols) along rivers and large streams, low-humic clay soils (haplic acrisols), and swampy soils (staglic gleysols) in the valleys Alluvium soil (eutric fluvisols) is the major soil type in the Mekong Delta, but there are also large areas of acid sulfate soils (thionic fluvisols) and saline soils (salic fluvisols).
Understanding the advantages and disadvantages of each soil type guides farmers in making crop management decisions, such as which crop to plant, how much and what kind of fertilizer to apply, and how to control soil erosion and address soil fertility issues (Table 2) Recognizing and understanding farmers’ soil classifications helps researchers and extension workers communicate more effectively and disseminate maize technologies.
Institutional Environm ent
Line ag encies
National ministries have equivalent departments at the provincial level; however, the provincial People's Committee stipulates the tasks and responsibilities of these departments This structure ensures alignment between central policy and local administration, clarifying the duties of provincial departments and how they implement national directives on the ground.
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) oversees the professional agriculture extension system at the central level within the Division of Agricultural and Forestry Extension MARD disseminates extension services to all provinces and most districts, ensuring wide-reaching knowledge transfer While villages have cadres responsible for the agriculture sector, the responsibility for agricultural extension rests with the provincial extension centers run by MARD These extension centers transfer technology to farmers by providing training in crop production, plant protection, and animal husbandry, among other topics.
The extension system is highly centralized, financed entirely from the national budget and structured from the national level down to localities Inadequate funding constrains its service coverage and the number of activities it can offer to farmers There are too few extension workers, who are underpaid, face poor working conditions, and have little incentive to perform effectively As a result, extension activities do not adequately address the real problems faced by farmers.
Table 2 Soil types in the six major maize agro-ecologies, Vietnam, 2001
Soil type Soil type M aize agro-ecology w here found
(farmer’s (technical classification) equivalents) NU NL CHCCU CHCCL SEM DU SEM DL Advantages Disadvantages
Red basal soils, known as Rhodic Ferrasols, offer high fertility and excellent drainage, making them well suited for a wide range of annual and perennial crops They can support deep cultivation, but their susceptibility to erosion and nutrient loss requires careful land preparation and erosion-control practices to maintain productivity.
Degraded basal soil Ferric Ferrasols √ Loss of fertile surface soil layer, surface is hard, poor soil structure, difficult land preparation, low yield, requires high fertilizer inputs
Sandy soil Haplic Arenosols √ Easy for land preparation, Low fertility, need additional good drainage inputs, poor water-holding capacity, low yield
Sandy clay soil of the Gleyic Acrisols type has good drainage and is easy to plow, but it suffers from low fertility and low moisture content In the rainy season it offers good water access, yet it becomes hard during the dry season, making land preparation more difficult The soil can be good for rice and vegetables with proper management, although overall yield is low Managing water and fertility is essential to maximize production on sandy clay Gleyic Acrisols.
Black soil (humic clay) Humic Gleysols √ √ High fertility, good for rice field Becomes sticky in rainy season, hardens and cracks in dr y season, difficult land preparation
Low-humic clay soil Haplic Acrisols √ Good water-holding capacity Low fertility, become waterlogged in heavy rain, difficult land preparation, low yield, requires high fertilizer inputs
Swampy soils, classified as Stagnic Gleysols, have high humus and moisture content and become waterlogged in heavy rainfall They have a light texture that is favorable for paddy rice cultivation, yet land preparation is often difficult To improve soil fertility and crop performance, the use of potassium and phosphorus fertilizers is recommended.
Gray soils Haplic Acrisols/ √ √ √ Good drainage, deep cultivation Low to medium fertility, dry and
Ferralic Acrisols depth, suitable for perennial crops easily eroded with deep roots
Red-brown soil Rhodic Ferrasols √ √ Deep cultivation depth, good soil Susceptible to erosion and fertility, suitable for various crops nutrient loss
Red/ brown soil Luric Calcisols √ Deep cultivation depth, good soil Susceptible to erosion and
(on limestone) fertility, suitable for various crops nutrient loss
Red-yellow soil Xanthic Ferrasols √ √ Medium fertility, suitable for Need additional inputs to obtain annual crops high yield, difficult land preparation in dry season
Alluvium soil Eutric Fluvisols √ √ √ √ Well-drained, fertile, rich in organic matter, suitable for rice, other annual crops
New alluvial soils Dystric Fluvisols √ √ √ Easy for land preparation, good Drought in dry season, flooding in
(along rivers,streams) for rice, maize, other annual crops rainy season
Humic gray soils Humic Acrisols √ √ High fertility, good water holding Poor in phosphorus capacity, easy for land preparation, good for rice field
Red-yellow humic soil Humic Ferrasols √ Relatively high fertility, suitable for Usually found in sloping land perennial crops therefore difficult land preparation, low pH, susceptible to erosion
Stony black soil of Lithic Luvisols is highly fertile with good drainage, making it productive for crops but posing land-preparation challenges for several annual crops Mechanized land preparation is difficult for maize, tobacco, and beans, and perennial crops are not feasible on this soil Shallow cultivation is typical, and water shortage remains a constraint in this soil type, especially in areas with limited cultivation depth.
Acid sulfate soil Thionic Fluvivols √ Easy for land preparation, could be Low pH, low soil fertility, need planted with rice, pineapple, irrigation water for reducing acidity other annual crops
Salic Fluvisols are saline soils that are easy for land preparation but suffer from high salinity, dryness, and low soil fertility With good irrigation conditions using fresh water, these soils can support rice cultivation with appropriate fertilizer inputs to achieve high yields; they also offer potential for high-yield non-rice annual crops when managed with sufficient irrigation and inputs.
Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam RRA/ PRA Surveys, 2001.
Six regional codes categorize Vietnam’s landscapes: NU (Northern Upland), NL (Northern Lowland), CHCCU (Central Highlands–Central Coast Upland), CHCCL (Central Highlands–Central Coast Lowland), SEMDU (Southeast Region–Mekong Delta Upland), and SEMDL (Southeast Region–Mekong Delta Lowland) These geographic zones are used for mapping, data analysis, and regional planning, with upland and lowland distinctions highlighting environmental and developmental differences, especially between the central highland–coast corridor and the Mekong Delta's contrasting upland and lowland areas.
Coop erative and user g roup s
Agricultural cooperatives operate in several of the surveyed villages but generally offer limited services, such as helping farmers access credit or inputs and collecting irrigation fees and land taxes Although input supply used to be a core activity of these cooperatives, farm inputs are now readily available and inexpensive through private traders.
Cooperatives still play a relatively significant role in agricultural production in some villages along the central coast, as seen in Dien Phuoc and Dai Quang of Quang They provide shared access to inputs, collective marketing, and risk pooling, helping farmers achieve steadier yields, stabilize incomes, and build resilience to price and climate shocks While modernization and private investment continue to grow, these village cooperatives remain an important engine of rural development in the region.
Nam Province's farmer cooperatives coordinate irrigation, plan and organize collective mechanical land preparation and seeding, help farmers gain access to formal credit, and work with extension workers to disseminate technical information through farmer training.
Farmers' associations and other social organizations, such as women's associations, are present in every village, but their activities are often limited They may support farmers by organizing training in crop and animal production and by helping poorer farmers access formal credit sources In some villages, farmers also form their own interest groups, such as water-user groups for irrigation management or small farmers' credit groups.
Sources of inp ut
Across all surveyed villages, maize inputs were predominantly delivered to farmers through the private trade system Availability of inputs such as fertilizer was generally good in most villages, but remote areas in the northern uplands and the central highlands–central coast uplands remained hard to access by road While the major source of organic fertilizer comes from on-farm animal production, some households in the central highlands–central coast uplands purchased manure from traders to support high-value crops like coffee and black pepper Most farmers recognize that organic fertilizer benefits maize cultivation and soil fertility, yet only a few have enough manure on their farms or in other accessible places to use for their maize crops.
Improved OPV and hybrid maize seed are supplied through multiple channels, including extension services, government marketing and distribution networks at provincial, district, and village levels, private seed companies, and local agricultural input wholesalers and retailers In some areas, farmers also have the option to obtain seed from farmers’ associations, extension clubs, and local agricultural officers.
Cred it institutions
Farmers need access to appropriate agricultural technologies and credit to buy them Today, rural credit is indispensable for increasing agricultural production and improving family income The most important credit source reported by farmers is the Vietnam Bank of Agriculture (VBA), established to provide short- and medium-term credit to rural public institutions, farmers, and the emerging private sector A subsidized-interest-rate arm of this bank is the Vietnam Bank for the Poor (VBP), established in 1995 to offer subsidized credit to poor households, including poor farmer households The VBP credit is administered through the People’s Committees as the Hunger Eradication and Poverty Alleviation Scheme The main office of the VBA is in each province center with district branches.
Many farmers reported difficulty meeting the VBA’s loan requirements, such as land-use rights or collateral, which blocks their access to credit Others feared they would be unable to repay the loans Farmer-group discussions show that limited credit for investment in agricultural production is a major constraint for poor farmers Without credit, resource-poor and collateral-less households cannot expand production, while larger, wealthier farmers often finance their activities themselves or have easier access to formal credit sources.
The cred it d em and of m aize farm ers has only been p artially m et by the VBA.
When farmers cannot access formal credit, they borrow from private lenders, relatives, friends, other farmers, women’s associations, peasant associations, or farmers’ credit groups However, farmers often pay relatively high interest rates when borrowing from private moneylenders or local traders, and they usually can access only small, insufficient amounts from these associations.
Prices of inp uts and outp uts
Major inp uts p urchased by farm ers are hybrid and im p roved OPV seed , chem ical fertilizers, and p esticid es.
Among local maize farmers, most save seed on the farm for the next growing season, maintaining self-sufficiency and keeping input costs low A smaller share buys limited quantities of seed at local markets, selecting from traditional local varieties as well as improved OPV (open-pollinated variety) seeds.
Seed costs are lowest for local and improved OPV varieties, ranging from 1,700 to 2,500 VN Dong per kg (about US$0.12–0.18 per kg, Table 3) Farmers, however, must pay substantially higher prices for hybrid seeds—roughly seven to nineteen times the cost of local and OPV varieties For the same type of hybrid seed, prices do not vary much across agro-ecologies, but there are significant price differences among different hybrid types LVN 10, a single-cross hybrid planted by most farmers, is relatively cheaper than other hybrids such as DK 888 and those from Cargill and Bioseed seed companies Across agro-ecologies, hybrid seed prices vary by hybrid type, with some varieties commanding higher prices than others.
LVN 10 seed rang ed from 1800 VN Dong to 19000 VN
Dong / kg (US$ 0.13-1.36/ kg ) Seed of Carg ill hybrid s reg ister ed the hig hest p rices from 34000 VN Dong to
Fertilizer prices did not vary much across ecologies, but were expected to be higher in remote upland areas with poor market access In subsistence and semi-commercial production zones, exchange labor is common among farmers; more hired labor is used in commercial maize production areas, especially for labor-intensive tasks such as land preparation, weeding, and harvesting Hired labor is usually paid in cash, and wage rates for hired labor do not vary much across regions On average, wages for men tend to be higher than those for women, largely because men are hired for more difficult tasks such as land preparation, pesticide application, and input and produce transport, while women are typically hired for less demanding activities such as weeding and harvesting.
Compared with lowland agro-ecologies, upland agro-ecologies face higher prices for seeds, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides due to higher transportation and marketing costs Tractor power rental is also higher in uplands because of more difficult working conditions Farmers in irrigated zones within lowland agro-ecologies mainly pay irrigation fees Land tax represents another fixed cost based on soil quality, and it is higher for the northern lowlands, the southeast Mekong Delta lowlands, and the central highland-central coast uplands than in other agro-ecologies.
Maize grain prices are broadly similar across agro-ecologies, with lowland regions showing only a slight premium over upland areas At the farm gate, maize prices hover around 1,300 VN Dong per kilogram, indicating a tight price spread across the region.
2000 VN Dong / kg (US$ 0.09-0.14/ kg ) while averag e p rice at nearest m arket rang ed from 1900 VN Dong to
Prices stand at 2,500 VND per kilogram (about US$0.14–0.18/kg) according to Table 3 Grain prices for local/traditional varieties are slightly higher than those for hybrid varieties, while prices for different hybrid maize genotypes are the same.
Table 3 Average prices of farm inputs and outputs, Vietnam, 2001
M ajor maize agro-ecologies Northern Northern Central Highlands- Central Highlands- Southeast-M ekong Southeast-M ekong Inputs Uplands Low lands Central Coast Uplands Central Coast Low lands Delta Uplands Delta Low lands
Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam RRA/ PRA Surveys, 2001.
Infrastructure
Accessibility status
In g eneral, the northern up land s, p articularly in the m ountainous areas of the northwest, have m uch p oorer road system s than the other up land ar eas in the country.
In villag es where vehicle access is d ifficult, farm ers use horses and cattle for transp orting inp uts and farm p rod ucts The road s of the northeast are better but still und erd evelop ed Most up land villag es in the survey have road system s connecting them to the d istrict and p rovince centers, which were built up in the last d ecad e to facilitate the exchang e of g ood s and inp uts within the reg ion The local r oad system s within the villag e, however, ar e still p oorly d evelop ed , m aking the transp ortation of inp uts and far m p rod uce d ifficult.The accessibility status (road cond itions) of the surveyed villag es is p resented in Table 1.
Compared with the northern uplands, the central highland–central coast region has a much better road network, but upland villages along the central coast still suffer from poor road access In contrast, the southeast Mekong Delta upland agro-ecologies exhibit relatively good transportation systems, perhaps due to feed-processing centers located near commercial maize-growing areas.
Table 4 p resents the p ercentag e of villag es having vehicle access, by ag ro-ecolog ical reg ion.
The lowland regions along the Red River and the central coast typically feature well-developed transportation systems In the Mekong River Delta, the provinces near Ho Chi Minh City also enjoy strong transport networks, while other Delta provinces still lack fully developed road infrastructure As a result, much of the region’s goods are moved by waterways rather than by road.
Markets and m arketing p ractices
Most lowland villages surveyed have their own local markets, with farm-to-market distances averaging 2–4 km In contrast, the farm-to-market distance in upland agro-ecologies varies widely, and farmers in remote northern uplands and the upland areas of the central coast must walk 10–25 km to reach the nearest market (Table 1) In Phu Tam village, Soc Trang province, Mekong Delta, farmers expressed interest in hybrid maize but reported they would struggle to sell their crop because the maize feed-processing center is too far away and there is no local marketing system The absence of an efficient maize marketing system for the feed industry is a key factor limiting the adoption and production of hybrid maize in Soc Trang.
Across most villages, tractors are the main means of transporting large loads, while motorbikes carry smaller quantities of farm inputs and produce to and from the local market Boats are a crucial transport option along the canals of the Mekong Delta In remote upland villages, farmers typically move farm produce and inputs to the market manually or using horses and ox-carts Yet, in most villages surveyed, farmers can buy farm inputs from warehouses or stores located near the village’s main road.
Across villages with large quantities of maize, farmers can sell their produce directly to local traders and collectors at the farm gate In commercial maize belts of the southeast region and the central highlands, farmers with substantial yields often prefer to sell fresh, shelled maize to local traders right on the field at harvest This marketing practice is particularly common during the rainy season when drying and storage facilities are limited In villages with good road access, OPV maize grown for fresh home consumption is also sold at the farm gate to local traders who harvest and transport it.
Table 4 Percentage of villages having vehicle access,
Central Highland-Central Coast Uplands 90.1
Central Highland-Central Coast Lowlands 88.0
Source: Computed using secondary data from Vietnam Statistical Yearbook, 2002.
Most farmers rely on local marketing channels operated by private traders In commercial maize-producing areas, the system also includes small village-based collectors, commission agents, middlemen, and independent traders, all competing intensely to secure the largest share of farmers' produce in order to maximize their capital output.
Irrig ation facilities
Irrigated maize dominates lowland agro-ecosystems where tubewells and communal irrigation cover more than 60% of the total arable land in the villages surveyed (Table 1) The northern lowland and southeast-Mekong Delta lowland agro-ecologies feature well-developed irrigation infrastructure In most upland villages, more than 60% of agricultural land is rainfed, with communal irrigation systems primarily supplying water for rice production Groundwater irrigation is widespread in the central highlands, but is mostly used for high-value crops such as coffee and black pepper.
Overuse of g round water on a larg e scale for coffee irrig ation can threaten the g r ound water resources.
Processing and p ost-harvest facilities
Across the country, the majority of small farmers still shell maize manually each season In the commercial maize-growing areas of the southeast region and the central highlands, the corn-shelling machine—introduced to reduce labor costs—has become popular Large maize farmers often hire these shelling services to save labor and time, especially when harvests occur under adverse weather conditions In some commercial maize belts along the southern central coast, farmers also routinely use a compact electric shelling device.
Across most upland villages surveyed, farm-level drying facilities are scarce and there are no large village storage facilities Farmers typically sun-dry maize on flat cement floors or roads, in drying baskets, or on top of plastic sheets, and store sun-dried maize grains in plastic sacks at home A limited number of power-operated drying facilities are available, primarily in larger commercial maize areas and to serve local traders during the rainy season While multipurpose mills exist in all surveyed villages, only a few farmers in semi-commercial villages practice corn grinding, mainly for livestock feed.
Com m ercial m aize farm ers also r ep ort that they d o not store m aize for long p eriod s d ue to hig h storag e losses d ue to weevils.
Socioeconom ic Characteristics
Household s and ethnicity
Household numbers varied widely across the villages surveyed In the lowland agro-ecology villages, the number of households ranged from 1,420 to 15,960 (Table ).
Within the surveyed central highlands, very large numbers of households were recorded per village, ranging from 10,167 to 18,583 In other upland villages, the total number of households per village varied from 140 to 8,191 Across agro-ecologies, the average household size did not vary much, ranging from 5.2 to 5.9 members per household.
Vietnam is home to 54 ethnic groups, with the Kinh people accounting for nearly 90% of the population Among the ethnic minorities, the Tay, Thai, Muong, H'Mong, Dao, and Khmer are the most notable, most of whom live in the upland areas of the country The Kinh form the vast majority of households in the northern lowlands and the central highland–central coast lowlands, as well as a smaller majority in the southeast Mekong Delta agro-ecologies The Khmer and other minority groups contribute to the country’s rich ethnic diversity across various regions.
Vietnam ese Chinese, with little rep resentation from the other ethnic g r oup s in the surveyed villag es.
A diversified ethnic composition has been reported in the upland villages of the northern uplands, the central highlands and central coast uplands, and the southeast Mekong Delta upland agro-ecologies On average, Kinh people accounted for about 43% to 55% of the total households in the surveyed villages In the northern uplands, the major ethnic minority groups are Tay and Thai, followed by Muong, Hoa, Nung, and H'mong In the villages of the central highland-central coast uplands, the ethnic minority groups include Bana, Chill, Churu, Ktu, Ede, Giarai, Muong, Hoa, K'ho, Tay, Man, Nung, and Thai The ethnic composition in many areas of this agro-ecological zone has changed.
Table 5 Ethnic composition of population in sur vey sites, Vietnam, 2001
Agro-ecology Kinh Other ethnic groups
Central Highland-Central Coast Uplands 53 46
Central Highland-Central Coast Lowlands 100 0
Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam RRA/ PRA Surveys, 2001.
Note: Other ethnic groups include Tay, Thai, Muong, Man, Nung, Hoa, Giao, Tho, Hmong, Bana, Chill, Churu, Ktu, Ede, Giarai, and K’ho The population numbers for Muong, Hoa, K’ho, Tay, and Man are recorded, underscoring the region’s rich ethnic diversity.
Nung , and Thai ethnic m inority g roup s have m ig rated from the northern p rovinces over the last few d ecad es.
In the surveyed villag es of the southeast-Mekong Delta up land , there is a r elatively larg e num ber of Vietnam ese
Chinese ethnic m inority g roup s Other ethnic m inority g roup s are Nung , Tay, Giao, and Tho.
Farm er classification
In the upland agroecologies, farmer-residents were asked to classify maize farmers in their respective villages as part of a wealth-ranking exercise They first categorized maize farmers by farm size, then by the availability of cash for farm investment, the level of technical knowledge, and a few other minor considerations (Table 6).
Farm size that ultim ately d efined each farm er g roup varied substantially in each villag e, and reflected or ind icated som e or all of the following farm er characteristics:
• Ability to p rod uce enoug h food for the fam ily;
• Ability to p rod uce surp lus to sell for incom e;
• Ability to sustain a variety of crop s on his farm land ;
• Ability to ad op t farm m echanization (tractor);
• Access to cred it; and
• Level of ed ucation or training that allows them to und erstand and ad ap t new farm ing technolog ies.
The second most important criterion for classifying farmers was either the availability of cash for farm investment (as reported by farmers in the northern uplands and central highland–central coast upland agro-ecologies) or the farmer’s level of technical knowledge (as reported by farmers in the southeast Mekong Delta upland agro-ecological zone) Farmer-respondents described farmers with adequate capital as those who can secure enough credit or personal funds to cover at least 95% of the annual investment in crop and animal production, enabling intensive farming, the adoption of advanced technologies, and the procurement of sufficient inputs such as seed, fertilizer, and hired labor By contrast, farmers without access to formal credit typically practice non-intensive agriculture or rely on informal lending sources.
Technical knowledge is used as the second or third criterion in classifying farmers Respondents described peers who possess strong technical knowledge as having higher levels of education and training, easy access to technical advice, and a solid understanding of best farming practices In contrast, farmers perceived to have poor technical knowledge were identified by limited education or training and poorer farming practices, conditions that are associated with lower income status.
Other classification criteria used by farmers include the level of commercial farming, the major source of farm income, ownership of farm machinery and draft animals, and the farmer's age These factors help distinguish operations by intensity, revenue streams, capital assets, and experience, offering a fuller picture of farm profiles for analysis and planning.
Resp ond ents also p ointed out the neg ative asp ects of d ifferent characteristics of m aize farm ers:
Poor and medium‑scale farmers may achieve food security by producing enough to feed their households However, they often lack surplus crops to sell for cash, which limits their ability to meet other family needs and sustain their livelihoods.
• Owners of d raft anim als g et anim al labor and org anic fertilizer, but m ust have feed for the anim als and m anp ower to use them ;
Table 6 Classification of farmers in the sur veyed villages, Vietnam, 2001
Upland agro-ecology First criterion (farm size) Second criterion Other criteria
Regional profiles from the IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam RRA/PRA Surveys (2001) span three areas—North, Central Highlands–Central Coast, and Southeast Mekong Delta—and reveal large farm sizes across the regions Access to cash for farm investment varies, with adequate cash in some regions and generally good or moderate access elsewhere Technical knowledge among farmers ranges from medium to good, while the level of commercial farming remains small Ownership of machinery and draft animals is common, and the age of farmers is a key characteristic shaping farming practices in these regions Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam RRA/ PRA Surveys, 2001.
• Larg e or rich farm ers m ay not have enoug h in-house
(i.e fam ily) labor to work the farm ;
• Com m ercial farm ers can earn a hig h cash incom e, but it is d ep end ent entirely on a m arket where p rices can fluctuate up or d own;
• Machine owners can harvest and p lant on tim e, but also have associated m anp ower and m aintenance costs;
Young farmers typically have fewer assets and less capital than older farmers However, they bring more energy, greater strength, and a strong willingness to learn and adopt new technologies, which can drive innovation and productivity in modern agriculture.
A PRA survey of farmer classifications reveals substantial diversity among farmers within any given community in terms of landholdings, educational attainment, credit access, and technological assets Understanding these differences is essential for the successful design and implementation of development interventions.
Literacy and level of ed ucation
Table 7 shows the distribution of the population by literacy and educational attainment across agro-ecologies The majority have attended or completed elementary school In the lowland agro-ecologies, a larger share have attended or completed secondary school or university than in the upland areas, with educational attainment ranging from 19.9% in the northern uplands to 56.3% in the central highland–central coast lowland region Remote upland villages dominated by ethnic minorities show the lowest educational levels, and illiteracy is higher there than in the general population For example, illiteracy is particularly high in villages such as Ating village in Quang Nam Province and Cour Knia village in Dak Lak Province.
Kado and Pro village in Lam Dong Province ranged from 8% to 20% of the total population, while illiteracy was low in most other surveyed villages, with a maximum of only 5% of the population.
Land hold ing s and tenure system s
Across all agro-ecologies in the country, the average farm size in the lowland is much smaller than in the uplands, with the notable exception of the southeast-Mekong Delta lowland, where the average farm size is relatively large Very small farm sizes of about 0.3 ha were recorded in the northern lowland and the central highland–central coast lowland Among upland villages surveyed, average farm size varied widely, with the lowest average of 0.28 ha recorded for Thanh Van village in Phu Tho province and the highest of about 3.5 ha in Pache villages of Son La province All commercial maize-producing villages in the uplands have an average farm size of more than 1.0 ha Farm size also varied among local farmers within one village; some have farms too small to produce enough food or generate enough income for the family In all surveyed villages, most of the land cultivated by farmers is family-owned, and there are few landless farmers overall.
Most farmers in the lowland agro-ecologies have obtained land use certification, known as the Red Book, for the land they own, while many farmers in the upland agro-ecologies still lack legal land use rights to cultivate the land they manage, particularly in villages near forest areas Without formal land use privileges, these farmers cannot access formal credit sources and have little incentive to invest in land that is not officially theirs.
Table 7 Distribution of population by literacy and education levels in sur veyed villages, Vietnam, 2001
Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam RRA/ PRA Surveys, 2001.
Table 8 Distribution of income by sources in sur veyed villages, Vietnam, 2001
Percentage of total household income Other Non-
House- Farm agricul- agricultu- hold size M aize tural ral
Agro-ecology size (ha) sale income income
Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam RRA/ PRA Surveys, 2001.
Level of incom e and p overty
Across all surveyed villages, agriculture remains the primary source of income, with maize contributing variably to farm income across different agro-ecologies—ranging from 0.5% to 32.7% of total farm income and accounting for less than 40% of farm income in every village (Table 8) Maize sales contribute a higher share of farm income in upland agro-ecologies than in lowland areas, while upland maize farmers typically have less non-farm income than their lowland counterparts.
In the m aize g rowing villag es located near big cities like
In Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, there are job opportunities for young villagers to work in the city and send a portion of their income back to their home villages Urban employment provides steady earnings and skill development for rural youth, while remittances support families and local development in Vietnam This dynamic shows how city-based jobs connect Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City with rural communities, balancing opportunities with shared economic growth.
A hig h level of p overty still exists in rural areas, althoug h Vietnam on the whole has exp erienced relatively hig h econom ic g rowth in r ecent years.
About 16% of the total population is living in extreme poverty, and the highest poverty rates—between 19.7% and 23.3%—were recorded in 1999 in the northern uplands and in the upland and lowland areas of the central highlands–central coast region (Table 9).
Maize utilization
Maize has become a major element of people's diets and a preferred substitute for rice during periods of rice shortage, especially for ethnic minorities in the northern upland and the central highland–central coast upland regions Most maize is grown not for direct human consumption but for animal feed, fueling rapid growth in the livestock and poultry production sector The share of maize produced for human food remains limited, partly due to the widespread availability of cheap rice This pattern shapes dietary choices, agricultural demand, and policy considerations across these upland areas.
Across agro-ecologies, the average share of maize sold to the market ranges from 40% to 97% of total maize production (Table 10) Most of the maize kept for home consumption is used for farm animals, mainly for raising pigs and poultry The share allocated to farm animals is relatively high in the central highland–central coast lowland and the northern upland–lowland agro-ecologies, ranging from 28.5% to 60% of total production, corresponding to the larger numbers of pigs and poultry raised by farmers in these systems.
On average, about 13% of total maize production in the central highland–central coast upland and about 10% in the southeast Mekong Delta lowland agro-ecological zones is used for human consumption In all other agro-ecologies, less than 10% of total maize production goes to human consumption However, in villages with a high proportion of ethnic minorities, more maize is allocated for home consumption than in other villages—40% of the maize yield in Phong Quang village (Ha Giang Province), 35% in Ating village (Quang Nam Province), and 30% in Kado village (Lam Dong Province) Maize used for human consumption is mainly local/traditional varieties In all surveyed villages, the portion kept for seed was very small.
Table 9 Rural pover ty situation in Vietnam, 1999
Rural Rural Number of Share of population poverty rural poor total rural
Source: Computed using poverty data for 1999 in Population and Socioeconomic Statistics Data
Table 10 Utilization of locally produced maize as % of total production, Vietnam, 2001
Sold to Home consumption (% ) market Human Animal
Agro-ecology (% ) Total consumption feed Seed
Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam RRA/ PRA Sur veys, 2001.
3 M aize Production Trends and Systems