the british cinema renewed itself tardily no doubt by orthodox commercial procedures

These films, representing real life and real issues, were seen to be cultural reflections of the time, exemplifying the high artistic values and capabilities of the British film industry

I feel that this is a very complex statement that should be broken down in order to fully consider its validity I propose to look at what I have interpreted Durgnat to mean by 'proven successes'; to which other 'media' and 'new talents' he refers; whether British cinema did, in fact, 'renew' itself; and which 'orthodox commercial procedures' he alludes to in his summary Firstly, I have

assumed that Durgnat's definition of 'proven success' to mean critical acclaim I would consider there to be several definitions of 'success' within the field of film and cinema, from the number of awards won to spectacular audience attendance not forgetting the box office return on production costs of the film Some films will only fall into one of these classifications whereas others may fall into more than one With this definition in mind I have decided to focus mainly on the films Billy Liar! (1963) and Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960)

Billy Liar!, originally a novel, then a play, and finally making it to the big screen followed an almost standard route for films between 1959 and 1963 The London run of Billy Liar! lasted for

at least six hundred performances1 enjoying the successful adaptation of Waterhouse's novel With previous cinema adaptations of other writers successfully under their belt, Willis Hall and Keith Waterhouse decided to turn their hand to their own work and adapted the stage play's script for film The two scripts were almost identical with only a small number of censorious changes made to the film version John Schlesinger, the film's director, was able to explore Billy's

fantasies in more depth, bringing an extra dimension to the central character and his surroundings due to the fact that film is a far more versatile medium than theatre For example, in the film, the viewer was visually transported to the imaginary country of Ambrosia rather than having to visit it through Billy's internal dialogue as had happened on stage and in the novel I believe that this capability of film enables viewers to engage better with the difficulties Billy faces and the

fantasies he dreams of Adaptations 'are all more interesting than the novels they are derived from, largely because of the way ideological information seeps into every frame.' Brian

McFarlane highlights the importance of ideology within film, especially in one whereby 'reality' is being projected 'As a result of the unobtrusive but insistent evocation of time and place, the protagonists' lives are seen to be played out against the backgrounds that shape and confine them:'

2 Film is much more able to use existing codes and conventions to signify and represent society in

an accessible fashion Theatre however, due to the restrictive nature of a stage, is much more limiting In film, the viewer can be transported into the community rather than having to imagine certain aspects of the life of the central character

I feel that the film version of Billy Liar! works considerably better as a film than as a play for these reasons It is indisputable that Billy feels trapped by his surroundings, not physically so, but metaphorically, by his family, girlfriends and his own lies and I feel that this is epitomised by the locations chosen for the film and the film style Similarly, in the film version of Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960) the male lead, Arthur, is trapped by his feelings of being unable to escape the confines of the factory and Nottingham He is placed at a distance from both the viewer and other fundamental characters further emphasising his surroundings and internal conflicts The film is not as true a representation of Alan Sillitoe's novel as Billy Liar! was to Keith Waterhouse's Saturday Night and Sunday Morning merely adopts the novel's main

incidents as it's own whilst bringing in fresh aspects to the plot and characters

It is not uncommon for an author to see his or her work adapted beyond recognisable belief for a stage play or film, however, as the films often credit the original writer, the audience are

sometimes misled to believe they are to witness a faithful reproduction of the original 'Only too often one is obliged to admit that translation to the screen has coarsened or blurred a novel or play'3 Dilys Powell is quoted to have written I would suggest that this is a purist attitude to film criticism Rather than respect the film as a piece of art unto itself, as an adaptation of a novel, it would appear from this statement that Dilys Powell expects an exact replica of the novel on celluloid As touched upon earlier, the very nature of film allows for a different version of 'reality'

to be presented in every scene viewed, connoting many facets of life that could never be captured using words alone Everything from accents to the locations themselves are chosen carefully to emphasise and embody the community depicted and to further highlight the anguish of the protagonist In the film version of Saturday Night and Sunday Morning the director, Karel Reisz, approaches his subject with a distinct sense of reality and rationalism whereas in the novel, Sillitoe's hero has a very romantic approach to the world

Perhaps this alternative approach by directors could be attributed to the pressures of the industry

and audiences in the late 1950s During this time, critical praise was heaped upon the films of the New Wave due to their perceived 'realism' These films, representing real life and real issues, were seen to be cultural reflections of the time, exemplifying the high artistic values and

capabilities of the British film industry In his leaflet, Realism or Tinsel, Michael Balcon gave his views on the construction of contemporary films He approved of the documentary techniques adopted in the 'kitchen sink' style dramas of the era and degraded those films made purely for entertainment purposes Hollywood equated with 'tinsel', the glamour and theatrical style of films that really represented little other than a distraction It should be remembered however that whilst critical opinion matched that of Balcon, it represented a very middle class attitude of the industry

at the time, and whilst the influence of critics can be very persuasive it does not always guarantee the success of a film In her book British Genres, Cinema and Society, 1930-1960, Marcia Landy categorises the reasons as to why realism was critically better received than anything else at that time It was believed '(1) that realism is an unchanging essential phenomenon, (2) that realism is superior to genre production, (3) that the strengths of British cinema reside in realism, and (4) that films are a "reflection" of life.'4 In contrast to the realism being produced on home soil,

Hollywood was seen to be turning out the 'tinsel', films of no real substance, purely entertainment During the period Durgnat mentions in the earlier quote, 1959 to 1963, the British film industry was still undergoing change Experiencing some remaining turbulence caused by the Second World War, this period continued to see outside influences affect the medium in such a way that would forever label these four years as the British New Wave This stage of British cinema's history was characterised by a new focus on working class life, more specifically on the Northern working classes With a filmic style firmly based on Grierson's documentary movement of the 1930s, these films had a refreshing gritty realism that was both new and exciting Loosely associated with the Independent Group of artists, architects and critics, this innovative group of 'New Wave' filmmakers had strong theatrical and literary roots Tony Richardson, Karel Reisz and Lindsay Anderson were all originally theatre directors, making their first documentaries in the mid 1950s and progressing onto feature films during this innovative period Both groups were determined to forge an original style in their respective media, the New Wave looked at the very essence of England and its communities whilst the Independent Group grasped the idea of Americanism and its consumerism Whilst this was the beginning of Pop Art, with its young, witty, sexy and gimmicky approach to brash subject matters, the film world was doing almost the reverse Equally outspoken about the social construction of society the New Wave focussed on emotions and realistic representations of daily life To further emphasise their modern approach many of these directors chose actors that were previously unknown in the cinema It was felt that they were able to project a more 'authentic' reality onto the screens as they had been untarnished

by 'star' status The protagonists of this New Wave of films enabled viewers to focus on the film's subject matter and the values of working class life that were embodied within the film Often rebelling violently to society these modern day heroes were labelled the 'Angry Young Men', another phrase that was later adopted for the cycle of films With their rejection of society and feelings of anti-establishment these 'Angry Young Men' reflected an increasing divide between society's disillusioned young adults and their communities The realism portrayed in these New Wave films represented genuine contemporary issues in a way that had previously been left untouched by cinema

Further assisted by the more relaxed censorship values of John Trevelyan, filmmakers were now able to tackle real issues of promiscuity, sex, nudity and abortion in an adult fashion Trevelyan had decided that, to prevent censorious cuts, he would award these films an 'X' certificate He had hoped that this new cycle of films, critically defined as 'quality' because of their realism, would help to improve the image of the 'X' rated film which was previously associated with the

sensational and exploitative horror genre Directors greeted this new policy with open arms The New Wave was ideally suited to adapt to these new regulations as the relaxed censorship enabled further exploration of real issues Billy, in Billy Liar!, makes open references to his girlfriends of his feelings for them, in one particular instance offering Barbara 'passion pills' to encourage her to sleep with him However, in the case of Liz, scenes that had been passed for the theatrical play had to be cut before the film could be shown to cinema audiences as they were deemed to be too contentious

I feel that this relaxation of censorship could be indirectly classed as one of the orthodox

commercial procedures to which Durgnat refers Whilst censorship was something that the filmmakers had no control over, the relaxed laws undoubtedly led to an increased attendance to many films especially those promising sexual excitement Previously any suggestion of sex in films had come from European 'art house' cinema, whose films had almost extensively been

restricted to screenings in adult cinemas The relaxation of British laws, however, should not be misread to imply that laws were being adapted to try to remodel the film industry or society However, a desire to produce films with more colloquial, and sometimes coarse, dialogue and texts with a slightly more adult subject matter did assist the development of new broadcasting laws Many of the key acts in British history were passed during the 1960s as a direct result from pressures within the society that they were created to protect

In an attempt to further help the British film industry grow during this of surge of activity, and once again outwith the control of the filmmakers themselves, the UK government took measures

to encourage foreign film companies to enter the British commercial market By reducing the cost

of filmmaking in Britain many French, Italian and American filmmakers produced films in Britain using our studios and technical crews As a direct result of this incentive, Harry Saltzman and Cubby Brocolli made Dr No (1962) the first of a long and successful line of James Bond films Again, first being published as a novel in 1958 by Ian Fleming, the current formula of British filmmaking was being used again albeit by an American Whilst Dr No was not part of the 'Angry Young Men' cycle, these directors ' plainly put film second Their success was directly derived from the success of the original plays and novels by Osborne, Amis, Braine and Sillitoe Look Back in Anger, Room at the Top, The Entertainer, A Taste of Honey, Saturday Night and Sunday Morning, and The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner came out in their original forms between May 1956 and September 1959 The film versions, which came out after a three year interval, between 1959 and 1962, clearly depended on the prepublicity and acclaim already generated by their literary sources for their initial impact.'5 Peter Wollon is very critical of the films made between 1959 and 1963, as is Raymond Durgnat, as reflected in his opening statement Neither seem to consider that in this period cinema attendances had dropped dramatically and, with increasing competition from television, perhaps it was wiser for directors to stick with the tried and tested genre of literary adaptations It certainly wasn't a new discovery to adapt novels and stage plays, Brighton Rock (1947) started its life as a novel by Graham Green as did Bram Stoker's Dracula, which had more cinema adaptations prior to 1960 than I care to mention Nonetheless, audience tastes seemed to be progressing from the dramatic adaptations of previous years to real depictions of society The chief executive of Anglo-Amalgamated, Nat Cohen, 'did feel the change in audiences' tastes taking place at that time - for one thing, television was

reflecting back into their own living rooms a much more realistic picture of the lives they led outside.'6 With this in mind, cinema had to try to increase its competitive edge by giving

audiences what they wanted in terms of the realism that television was offering plus the subject matters that television was not yet able to provide

I believe that the ultimate factor defining the breakthrough of cinema during the New Wave was the change of focus from the working classes as comedic entertainment to socially integrated and hardworking, members of society with their own aspirations The main core of the films made during the period 1959-1963 were adaptations of literary works and they were produced using styles taken directly from other sources However, the British film industry was once again about

to face a further collapse if measures were not taken to support it To say that the industry 'renewed itself, tardily' can only really refer to the fact that the rest of Europe, especially France, had already initiated a revival of it's own Always a follower and never a leader, Britain was slow

to adapt to the new techniques of the 'Nouvelle Vague' in France Nonetheless, the industry was reborn, if only for a short time, under its current guise A stimulating era which, in later years, influenced a new cycle of films termed 'Brit-Grit', evolving in the late 1980s, early 1990s

Notes

1.Anthony Aldgate, Censorship and the Permissive Society: British Cinema and Theatre,

1955-1965 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), p.146

2.Brian McFarlane, 'A Literary Cinema? British Films and British Novels', in All our Yesterdays

-90 Years of British Cinema, ed by Charles Barr (London: BFI, 1986) pp 120-42 (p.138)

3.Christopher Cook, ed., The Dilys Powell Film Reader (Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1991) p 21

4.Marcia Landy, British Genres Cinema and Society, 1930-1960 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991) p.50

5.Peter Wollon, 'The Last New Wave: Modernism in the British Films of the Thatcher Era', in British Cinema and Thatcherism Fires were Started, ed by Lester Friedman (London: UCL Press, 1993), pp 35-51 (p.37)

6.Nat Cohen Alexander Walker, Hollywood, England The British Film Industry in the Sixties (London: Michael Joseph, 1974/Harrap, 1986) p.112

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Billy Liar! (1963)

Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1961)