(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation

(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation(Luận văn thạc sĩ) The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school An investigation

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC SƯ PHẠM THÀNH PHỐ HỒ CHÍ MINH

Huỳnh Thị Kim Ngân

THE USE OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

IN ENGLISH READING AT DOAN KET

SECONDARY SCHOOL:

AN INVESTIGATION

LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ KHOA HỌC GIÁO DỤC

Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh – 2021

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC SƯ PHẠM THÀNH PHỐ HỒ CHÍ MINH

Huỳnh Thị Kim Ngân

THE USE OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

IN ENGLISH READING AT DOAN KET

SECONDARY SCHOOL:

AN INVESTIGATION

Mã số: 8140111

LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ KHOA HỌC GIÁO DỤC

NGƯỜI HƯỚNG DẪN KHOA HỌC:

TS PHẠM NGUYỄN HUY HOÀNG

Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh - 2021

Ngoại trừ những trường hợp được thừa nhận rõ ràng trong chú thích và danh sách trích dẫn ở cuối bài, tôi xác nhận rằng tôi là tác giả duy nhất của luận văn được gửi hôm nay với tên đề tài nghiên cứu:

The Use of Language Learning Strategies in English Reading at Doan Ket Secondary School: An Investigation

Tôi xác nhận thêm rằng, luận văn này được viết theo sự hiểu biết của bản thân người nghiên cứu, không chứa tài liệu nào đã từng xuất bản hoặc viết bởi người khác trước đây, trừ việc có sự tham khảo và trích dẫn các nguồn tài liệu phù hợp cho bản luận văn

Tôi xin cam đoan luận văn này là một công trình nghiên cứu độc lập, không là cơ sở cho bất kỳ một giải thưởng hay bằng cấp nào khác, những trích dẫn nêu trong luận văn đều chính xác và trung thực

Luận văn tuân thủ các yêu cầu của trường Đại Học Sư Phạm Thành phố

Hồ Chí Minh về Luận văn Thạc sĩ

Except where clearly acknowledged in footnotes, quotations and the bibliography, I certify that I am the sole author of the thesis submitted today entitled –

The Use of Language Learning Strategies in English Reading at Doan Ket Secondary School: An Investigation

I further certify that to the best of my knowledge the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis

The material in the thesis has not been the basis of an award of any other degree or diploma except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis The thesis complies with the requirements of Ho Chi Minh City University

of Education for a MA thesis

Tôi xin bày tỏ lòng biết ơn đến những người đã ủng hộ tôi trong việc hoàn thành luận văn này Đầu tiên, tôi muốn gửi lời cảm ơn đến tất cả các nhà ngôn ngữ học, các nhà nghiên cứu trên thế giới đã cho tôi nguồn tài liệu nghiên cứu dồi dào, điển hình là các nghiên cứu từ Bà Oxford Rebecca cũng như một số tài liệu khác của bà ấy có liên quan đến chủ đề về các chiến lược học ngôn ngữ (Language Learning Strategies - LLS) đã giúp tôi hoàn thành nghiên cứu này,

và thông qua sự giải thích cụ thể đó để Hướng dẫn Chiến lược học ngôn ngữ (LLSI) cho các em học sinh, giúp các em định hướng tốt trong tương lai Đồng thời, tôi muốn ghi nhận sự tham gia khảo sát của học sinh lớp sáu trong nghiên cứu này, và xin chân thành cảm ơn sự sẵn sàng chia sẻ kinh nghiệm của tất cả những người tham gia Nhờ sự hỗ trợ nhiệt tình này mà việc thu thập dữ liệu nghiên cứu đã hoàn thành và đạt được các kết quả khi phân tích dữ liệu về phương diện lý thuyết lẫn thực tiễn

Tiếp theo, tôi xin chân thành cảm ơn Hiệu trưởng nhà trường, các Ban Lãnh Đạo các Phòng/ Khoa, Ban Quản Lý và các Chuyên viên của Phòng Sau Đại Học - Trường Đại học Sư phạm Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh trong việc đào

tạo Thạc sĩ ngành “Lý luận và phương pháp dạy học bộ môn tiếng Anh”, cảm

ơn việc tuyển chọn những chuyên đề hay và phù hợp để đào tạo cho học viên, cảm ơn đã cung cấp đầy đủ cơ sở vật chất - trang thiết bị tiện nghi và để học viên có cơ hội học tập với những giảng viên có kinh nghiệm là các vị Giáo Sư, Phó Giáo Sư, Tiến Sĩ Triết Học, Tiến Sĩ Giáo Dục hoặc các vị Tiến Sĩ đa lĩnh vực đến từ nhiều trường đại học danh tiếng ở Việt Nam Các vị ấy đã triển khai nhiều đề tài nghiên cứu mang tính học thuật cao và vô cùng hữu ích cho học viên cao học Ngoài ra, các vị còn cung cấp cho học viên một số nhu cầu cần thiết: từ tài liệu học tập/ bài giảng cho đến những kinh nghiệm thực tế có giá

Nhân đây, tôi xin chân thành cảm ơn các bạn cùng khóa Thạc sĩ tại Trường Đại học Sư phạm Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh với tinh thần hợp tác đã thảo luận sôi nổi trong các chủ đề thuyết trình vì sự tiến bộ chung Đặc biệt, tôi xin trân trọng gửi ngàn lời cảm ơn sâu sắc đến người hướng dẫn luận văn cho tôi - PGS

TS Phạm Nguyễn Huy Hoàng đã nhiệt tình hướng dẫn, luôn hỗ trợ và chỉ bảo

để tôi có thể hoàn thành tốt luận văn này

Bên cạnh đó, tôi cũng thầm cảm ơn Phật đã kết duyên lành cho tôi tiếp xúc với các thiện hữu tri thức gần xa, đồng thời giúp tôi giải tỏa phiền muộn, căng thẳng để tiếp tục phấn đấu học tập Cảm ơn các thành viên trong gia đình tôi đã yêu thương, động viên, và quan tâm để tôi tập trung học tập sau giờ làm việc Vậy nên, tôi xin cống hiến Luận văn Thạc sĩ này cho sự phát triển của giáo dục cấp Trung Học Cơ Sở ở Việt Nam như một sự đền đáp của tôi, và để làm tròn nghĩa vụ của một người công dân phục vụ cho đất nước - Đó cũng là điều mà gia đình tôi luôn mong muốn Tôi sẽ tranh thủ nạp đầy năng lượng cho mình để chuẩn bị cho những nghiên cứu sâu hơn trong tương lai, tôi sẽ không ngừng trau dồi năng lực bản thân để đóng góp cho sự phát triển của quê hương đất nước Có thể luận văn này không tránh khỏi những thiếu sót nên rất mong nhận được nhiều góp ý nhằm cải thiện chất lượng nghiên cứu chuyên môn Nhiều người cống hiến nhiệt thành cho giáo dục thì chất lượng giáo dục Việt Nam sẽ ngày một tốt hơn

I would like to show my gratitude to a number of people for their support over this thesis completion First, I would say thanks to all the linguists and researchers in the world giving me a great source of research materials, typically Madam Oxford Rebecca and her related materials helping me fulfill this study through the clear explanations of Language Learning Strategies (LLS) and the future directions for Language Learning Strategy Instruction (LLSI) Second, I would like to acknowledge the sixth graders’ participation in this study, simultaneously to give my sincere thanks to those participants for their willingness and experiences sharing Thanks to their enthusiastic support, the research data collection was timely completed and basically achieved the validation of data analysis in theory and in practice

Next, I am very grateful to the Headmistress, the Executive Members, the Leader Boards and the Staff of Postgraduate Administrative Office Personnel

of Ho Chi Minh City University of Education opened the major course:

“Master of Arts in English Language Teaching”, that selected the best subjects

for teachers training, provided the classroom equipment and invited the most experienced and famous lecturers – Professors, Associate Professors, Doctors

of Philosophy/ Education, Doctors of various fields, and several Visiting Professors from the celebrated universities over the Vietnam country These noble Ph./ Ed Doctors have implemented the exciting research meetings and lectured plenty of helpful teaching subjects to us - the cohorts Noticeably, they have offered us some necessities: from the learning documentation to practical experiences - whose useful lessons, set the highest value for the cohorts’ MA study period and even for this thesis

I hereby give my honest thanks to the academic friends in the same MA course at Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, successfully cooperating

Hoang for his enthusiastic guidance, assistance, and refinement to this MA thesis

In addition, my deep thanks are sent to the religious belief of Buddhism in relieving my mind, recovering my self-control and striving for my professionalism development; and many thanks to all my family members for their love and encouragement for promoting my great learning effort after my tired working-hours at DK School Hence, I would like to dedicate this MA thesis to the development of secondary education in Vietnam, as a debt repay

to my gratitude or as a citizen’s duty serving this country - This is also the only thing that makes my family members satisfied the most I will try to stay healthy, more energetic and willing for further research in future so that I can employ my qualifications in contributing to Vietnam education better and better Probably, this thesis does not avoid its shortcomings, I hope to receive suggestions to improve the quality of research The more fervent dedicators throughout the years, the better quality of education for Vietnamese

LỜI CAM ĐOAN

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

LỜI CẢM ƠN

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABBREVIATIONS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

ABSTRACT 1

CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 2

1.1 General context and secondary education in Vietnam 2

1.2 Rationale for the study 4

1.3 Aim of the study 5

1.4 Research questions 6

1.5 Background of the study 6

1.6 Thesis overview 9

1.7 Chapter summary 9

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 11

2.1 Language learning strategies 11

2.1.1 Definitions of learning strategies 11

2.1.2 Classification of learning strategies 12

2.1.3 The factors related to learning strategies 16

2.2 Significance of English reading strategy use at secondary schools 19

2.2.1 Relevance of reading selection in English learning 19

2.2.2 Reading strategy instructions in secondary schools 20

2.3.2 Some domestic studies (in Vietnam) 42

2.4 Research gap 49

2.5 Summary of literature review 51

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 54

3.1 The research objectives and research questions 54

3.2 Research methodology 54

3.3 Research Setting 56

3.4 Research sites and participants 57

3.5 Data collection 58

3.5.1 Samples collection 58

3.5.2 Instruments for data collection 59

3.6 Data analysis 62

3.6.1 Credibility 63

3.6.2 Dependability 64

3.6.3 Confirmability 64

3.6.4 Transferability 64

3.6.5 Analysis of research data 65

3.6.6 Language strategy use inventory 66

3.7 Timeline for the study 74

3.8 Chapter summary 75

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 76

4.1 Results 76

4.1.1 Students’ learning strategy use synthesized from the questionnaires 76

4.1.2 Results from focus interviews 79

4.2 Discussion of results 83

4.3 Chapter summary 87

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 88

5.1 Conclusion 88

5.1.1 Answer to the research question 1 88

5.1.2 Answer to the research question 2 89

5.1.3 Significance 91

5.2 Implications 93

5.2.1 Limitations of the study 93

5.2.2 Suggestions 94

REFERENCES 97

APPENDICES 106

Appendix 1: Descriptions of learning strategies 106

Appendix 2: Diagram of the strategy system showing all the strategies 108

Appendix 3: Questionnaire on language learning strategies 110

Questionnaire on LLS in Vietnamese 112

Appendix 4: The questions for interviews 114

Appendix 5: Focus interviews in details 115

Appendix 6: Frequency statistics of students’ English marks 116

AFFECT Affective Strategies

COG Cognitive Strategies

COMPENS Compensation Strategies

DK School Doan Ket Secondary School

EFL English as a foreign language

ESL English as a second language

ESP English for Specific Purposes

LLS Language Learning Strategies

LLSI Language Learning Strategy Instruction

LLT Language Learning and Teaching

MEMORY Memory Strategies

METACOG Metacognitive Strategies

MOET Ministry of Education and Training

SLA Second language acquisition

SOCIAL Social Strategies

SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

STELLAR Strategies for English Language Learning and Reading

Table 3.2 Statistics of students’ scores in English course 62

Table 3.3 Reliability statistics 67

Table 3.4 Cronbach’s alpha reliability test of LLS use 67

Table 3.5 KMO and Bartlett's Test 68

Table 3.6 Communalities 68

Table 3.7 Total variance explained 69

Table 3.8 Component matrixa 69

Table 3.9 Correlations among students’ LLS 70

Table 3.10 Correlations between students’ LLS and English scores 71

Table 3.11 Model summaryb in multiple regression analyses 72

Table 3.12 ANOVAb for multiple regression analyses 72

Table 3.13 Coefficientsa for multiple regression analyses 73

Table 3.14 Residuals statistics for multiple regression analyses 73

Table 3.15 Timeline for the Study 74

Table 4.1 Descriptive statistics of questionnaires 77

Table 4.2 Descriptive statistics of the frequency of LLS use 78

Table 4.3 Descriptive statistics - Mean total of LLS 81

Table 4.4 English marks - Statistics 81

Table 4.5 Report of the comparison between mean total and English marks (for good students only) 82

Figure 2.1 Diagram of a strategy system: Overview (Oxford, 1990, p.16) 13Figure 2.2 Diagram of a strategy system showing two classes, six groups and

19 sets (Oxford, 1990, p.17) 15Figure 2.3 Inter-relationships between direct and indirect strategies among the six strategy groups (Oxford 1990, p.15) 16Figure 2.4 Oxford Reading for Comprehension (Oxford, 2020) 23Figure 2.5 Key to understand the averages - SILL profile of results, Version 7.0 (Oxford 1990, p.300) 66

ABSTRACT

This study evoked the theories of language learning strategies (LLS) in the world, of which the most priority was Oxford’s (1990) and her latest orienting students’ awareness of LLS afterwards The investigation explored the use of learning strategies of 176 Vietnamese sixth graders at Doan Ket Secondary School through Oxford’s model of SILL The 5-scale questionnaires were curtailed and adapted to discover an important issue - a research gap after testing the correlation between the frequency of LLS use and these students’ performance in English language reading, also the case with their reading skills Their use of LLS at a medium level indicated a necessity for more LLS instruction (LLSI), specifically motivated English Reading Strategies - as a foundation of other LLS among secondary school students; hereby, language teachers can recognize the most suitable teaching methods to support the students Furthermore, this study also analyzed some factors related to LLS and indicated how effective students’ LLS choice was Transparently, the classification after definitions of language learning strategies were presented in literature review for easily applying a strategic language (e.g English language) to secondary education, creating a better learning environment, and taking advantages of young students’ communicative competence in English The result of this study may be controversial because of the absurd indicators

of the analyzed research database Nevertheless, the study remained showing the significance of LLS use, first and foremost reading strategies which were indispensable to English learning and teaching at secondary schools, and some pedagogical implications regarding LLS instruction were later suggested encouraging future research of LLS in different educational contexts

Keywords: language learning strategies (LLS), English reading strategies, LLS instruction, secondary school students’ LLS

CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1 General context and secondary education in Vietnam

Language Learning and Teaching (LLT) has played an important role in a society's intellectual development and Language Learning Strategies (LLS) will decide the outcomes of language acquisition People said that language learning strategy is a major premise in the inspirational transmission during the LLT process (English language) It became significant to researchers from the 1970s with the more direct and indirect factors related to learning strategies that bring about the innovations of LLT, specifically directing our students towards their own language learning strategies

This study summarized the definitions and classification of learning strategies from researchers, simultaneously explored students’ English language learning strategies at secondary schools that most of those are still at non-mature age and their consciousness remains ambiguous (e.g the sixth

graders aged from 11-12) Unsurely, how other secondary schools in District 6

of Ho Chi Minh City have been – It may remain a general problem for some Secondary Schools (also in District 6) as the following: Students at secondary schools are so young that they always confuse with their learning styles and learning ability, even some of them are ill-writing Vietnamese – the mother language (L1), while others belong to Chinese nationality or the ethnic groups Cham and Khmer, so the difficulty here is how can they follow a foreign language – English language (some disable ones granted as priority students from the Vietnamese government exclusive), the quality of English scoring at Doan Ket school has been at low level in District 6 and at the lowest in the city Though the teachers have tried to adjust students’ English learning, their learning results are not satisfactory

Being apprehended from the previous researches together with the existing conjuncture of this school, and as a practical illustration of the research

“The use of language learning strategies in English Reading at Doan Ket Secondary School: An investigation” This study was carried out to recognize

its feasibility and significance in students’ communicative competence achievement or valued in learners’ foreign language acquisition (FLA) That somehow innovated teachers’ LLT experiences through the reading strategy instruction to these secondary school students based on the educational theories and real situations The definitions and classification of language learning strategies, the related factors and the use of these learning strategies in foreign language learning environments that emphasized the significance of secondary education through this study – A transition phase between Primary School and High School levels created a firm knowledge foundation for Tertiary Education afterwards The results of the previous studies indicated that the LLS use and the reading strategy instruction needs starting as soon as possible whilst Vietnam is at a span lower than other countries about the implementation due

to the waiting time of project testing and approval Moreover, the complex form

of Vietnam education makes itself difficult to change or modify following an entire system of each educational level At present, this study is an understanding of the existing situation of secondary education in Vietnam Hence, more and more LLS research will be acknowledged and applied through the different levels of the learning environment

As investigated for the latest research from ten years back, almost all researches of LLS was implemented over the system of primary schools, high schools, and tertiary education in the Vietnam country (e.g years from 2011-2020) However, Doan Ket Secondary School was the only one among other schools in District 6 doing this LLS research, thus it may be representative for

the whole system of secondary education in Ho Chi Minh City The strength of qualitative and quantitative research tools allowed a reliable result in the DK students’ LLS usage, then educators/ language teachers can recognize which is needed to apply and to what extent for a modification or a change From here, this study revealed the real result of teaching at primary schools in Vietnam affected secondary school student’s learning style, right after beginning a new school year The application of LLS in secondary education is essential to promote the development of the teacher staff and students’ potential competency at secondary schools in both theoretical and practical aspects

1.2 Rationale for the study

As Rubin (1987, p.22) insisted “Language Learning Strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affects learning directly” Oxford (1990, p.1) also proved that “learning strategies are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which enhance students’ learning and develop communicative competence” Standing in such a situation (i.e explained in the Item 1.1 General context and secondary education in Vietnam including DK Secondary School), the rationale for this thesis adoption was firstly due to the practical situation of most secondary schools - facing an out-of-date state, lacking an understanding of learning strategies, and no strategy training to secondary school students, even lacking dynamicality and creativity Secondly, it was the same topic of LLS but this research was conducted on learning EFL in a secondary school of District

6, Ho Chi Minh City without learning ESL like in high school education or any educational type in Vietnam Thirdly, being based on what was found in other researches, journals, and in the literature review showed that learners should use as many language learning strategies as possible; nevertheless, learners’ comprehensive ability is very important, their competence and language use

need to be reinforced in accordance with the existing educational context at secondary schools in Vietnam In doing so, learners need to acquire reading skill first then reading strategy as a preparation for communicative competence This helps students at secondary schools self-regulate their learning attitude sooner and intensify the use of Language 2 (L2) through reading – A new learning method stressing the student-centered approach, not teacher-centered approach (Graham, Woore, Porter, Courtney & Savory, 2020) Correspondingly, the rationale of this research to be considered in priority in English language learning and teaching at secondary schools in Ho Chi Minh City

1.3 Aim of the study

This research aimed at identifying the levels of strategy use among the students at Doan Ket Secondary School, the correlation between the use of language learning strategies and students’ performance in English reading Hence, both teachers and students may discover remarkable cases, secondary school teachers can adjust the students’ learning environments assisting back

to the students or consulting education in case of any changes

Furthermore, based on the research results from the 6-grade students at Doan Ket Secondary School that educators or secondary school teachers may discover these students’ more or less use of language learning strategies in English reading to consider fine-tuning the balance use among their language learning strategies (i.e increasing or decreasing the frequency of LLS use, types of LLS, if any LLS combination, etc.) or to make the informed decisions regarding whether the procedures or proposals encourage students (which LLS should be used by the students and which LLS should be trained), and instruct these learners how to employ language learning strategies effectively, specifically the use of English reading strategies

1.4 Research questions

Derived from the above perspective, the researcher suggested the two following research questions to obtain the aim and objectives of the study:

❶ What language learning strategies are most frequently used by

students at Doan Ket Secondary School?

❷ What is the correlation between these students’ use of learning

strategies and their performance in English Reading?

1.5 Background of the study

In the last decades, there were a large number of research journals over the world that confirmed the roles of Learning Strategies in acquiring a FL/ SL, specifically English language Reading was proposed to be extremely important among other language skills – complementing each other through the scanning and skimming roles before Nowadays, the development of language learning and teaching theories are the issues that are beyond the level of teaching practice And teaching English through Instructed Language Learning Strategies has much applied in the world, but still much limited in Vietnam There has been a great deal of considerable contribution from the language researchers in the world (from the 2000s up to now inclusive) who have made constant modifications for Language Learning Strategies (LLS) Vietnam has also attained many worthy researches and journals posted on the pages of International Reading Association or on others’, and the Vietnamese researchers in multi-fields including education perspectives have been awarded the valuable praises (e.g several research journals from the 2011s to 2020 have deserved to be posted on the TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, Arab World English Journal, Universal Journal of Educational Research, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Indonesian Journal of English Language Teaching, Language Education in

Asia, etc.) Remarkably having applied Oxford’s first book “Language Learning Strategies” (1990) so far, continuously following the advanced trends

of social language from her and her colleagues (1995, 2003, 2008, 2013, 2014,

2017, 2018, 2020)

Oxford (1990) defined and classified “Language Learning Strategies” as

a recipe of “what every teacher should know” in language teaching through the use of direct strategies for learners’ performance of four language skills, combining with the indirect strategies to be the most effective LLS users As stated in the aim and objectives, this study was to explore the DK school’s existing circumstance affecting to DK students’ English learning results through the effective methods - a recast from other researchers in and out Vietnam The reason for choosing Oxford (1990) in this study was that it assured the requirements of secondary education research (learners can apply English LLS quickly and easily at secondary schools) Any accomplishment of LLS definition and classification is marked as a first step of the SLA process The basic merits of LLS still stand in the highest position throughout the years, making a baseline for further research of LLS A child who speaks a language other than L1 going to school for the first time, that child has to learn the way people learn a language other than their mother tongue (Ellis, 1997) When learners know how to grasp or improve their language knowledge means that they move to another step of SLA, then LLS will support their learning directions

The development of education has created exciting contests to academic researchers, in which included the studies of LLS Prominently, Madam Oxford’s contribution to the LLS research now and then Some modifications and innovations were presented in Oxford (2013) emphasizing the self-regulation model, and in Oxford (2017) on self-regulation in context based on

the former LLS under an experienced and persuasive way to the readers in the world However, this study did not enter for a deep research of LLS because the DK students’ language skills were noticed at the beginning of this research procedure on LLS in English reading DK students have faced the difficulties

in English learning, still far from the FLA process These students need LLS instruction to have the best one for their language knowledge Nevertheless, they need more time to improve and prepare for the newer directions in future

As Oxford, Lee, Snow, & Scarcella (1994, p.257) specified “the integration of language skills in an international perspective” and enclosed “the five different types of instructional designs” (called the five specific instructional models) reserving these integrating language skills In addition, many other researchers have explored and examined some different types from the related factors affecting learners’ language ability and language competence (e.g Weinstein, Husman & Dierking, 2000; Huong, 2015; Mai, 2017; Linh, 2019; Wolsey,

2020, Malang, 2020)

Thanks to the theoretical foundation prefabricated from the domestic and international materials/ researches, this investigation of secondary school students’ LLS partly explained their learning outcome during a whole school year, and helped with making the future plans of next years On the other hand,

it pointed out the role and strength of comprehensive reading in activating students’ LLS and of LLS instruction There still came many other aspects of learners’ LLS, but this study mainly presented the practical learning situation

of the typical representative – only DK Secondary School students with their frequency of LLS use The researcher only analyzed some of the students’ most frequently used LLS to remind the significance of LLSI to the students, as well

as how they performed their reading ability resulting in their learning reports at school This explained why the English reading strategy was chosen in this

study, and answered the reason for just skimming without deeply analyzing all LLS (6 learning strategies as in Oxford’s model, 1990)

1.6 Thesis overview

The structures of this thesis consisted of five chapters The initial chapter described the general contexts of language learning and teaching, of secondary education in Vietnam, and developed the research questions Chapter 2 established the argumentative theories which are presented through the review

of the literature on: the language learning strategies (LLS), the significance of LLS use in English reading at secondary school, and the previous studies about LLS The research gap was identified through the findings from the literature review Chapter 3 presented the methodology including the research objectives and research questions, the research procedure of the study, the sites and participants, and the research methods including data analysis in which was developed based on the study background and the literature review Chapter 4 synthesized the research context, results and discussed the findings of the study

in relation to the literature Chapter 5 provided an overall picture of the research content - made conclusions, and discussed implications including limitations of the study and suggestions for future research

1.7 Chapter summary

This chapter 1 was initiated by the Vietnam general contexts of language learning and teaching, particularly at secondary education through the changing trends and the LLS direction or orientation for an SLA/ FLA The rationale for the study in this chapter also explained some reasons for a true investigation of

DK 6-graders’ English LLS in District 6, Ho Chi Minh City The benefits of investigation stimulated the effectiveness of English language teaching and learning at secondary education, based on reading comprehension ability and/

or reading competence The aforementioned aim of this study was to identify

the frequency of LLS use to see the role of reading strategies in English learning, and the correlation between the LLS employment and DK students’ English reading performance

This chapter partly mentioned the contribution of in and out researches to the innovations of language learning and teaching, specifically this study proved that secondary school teachers have played a big role in both teaching English language knowledge, consulting and/ or directing English LLS to the students, properly adjusting the related factors to the students’ process of language acquisition The introduction of two research questions rightly exposed the confronting problem of DK school students – their use of LLS in English reading Furthermore, this chapter 1 summed up the background of the study based on the combination of the qualitative and quantitative research methods to make the problems of this study explicable and understandable The free source of academic references has made several convenient conditions so that the researcher can find out and decide her own choice of primary material (Oxford’s, 1990) and secondary materials (Oxford’s and others’) among the diversified sources of referential research Thereby, the results of this study were realized as a significant database of language learning strategies (LLS) and language learning strategy instruction (LLSI) in order to improve or readjust the existing educational circumstance in the DK school itself

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Language learning strategies

To answer the two research questions, the study made a joint lead back to the nature of language Noam Chomsky insisted “Language serves essentially for the expression of thought” (Language and Responsibility, 1977) When studying human language means approaching what some might call “the human essence, the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know, unique to man” (Language and Mind, 2000) Therefore, appropriate language learning strategies make learners improve language proficiency as well as increase their self-confidence (Oxford, 1990) Surely, learners' own language learning strategies are essential in the process of language learning

2.1.1 Definitions of learning strategies

As being collected from multisource, Language Learning Strategies (LLS)

is an academic term used to show learners’ language comprehensive processes and referred to their conscious actions during those process Language learning strategies help learners with their effective language learning or usage Many linguists over the world have defined language learning strategies in various ways:

 Rubin (1975, p.43) defined language learning strategies as “the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge”

 Tarone (1981, p.290) defined learning strategies (LS) as “an attempt

to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language to incorporate these into one's interlanguage competence”

 O’Malley and Chamot (1990, p.1) illustrated learning strategies “as special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information”

 Cohen (1998, p.4; cited in Selinker & Susan, 2008, p.439) defined language learning strategies as “processes which are consciously selected by learners and which may result in action taken to enhance the learning or use of a second or foreign language, through their storage, retention, recall, and application of information about that language”

 Chamot (1998, p.2) demonstrated “Learning strategies are the thoughts that students have and actions that they can take to assist their comprehension, recall, production, and management of their language learning”

 Oxford (1990s, 1999, cited in Selinker & Susan, 2008, p.439) refered

to learning strategies as “Specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques that students use to improve their own progress in developing skills in a second or foreign language”

Hence, learning strategies have been seen as special ways of information processing that improve comprehension, learning, or retention of the information and problem solving Learning strategies are essential because they enhance students’ learning and help develop their language communicative competence

2.1.2 Classification of learning strategies

Many linguists have had classification of learning strategies homogeneously The developmental process of learners always needs using

strategies: Learning Strategies and Communication Strategies Learning

Strategies relating to input (processing, storage, and retrieval), were divided into three such types as Cognitive, Metacognitive, and Socioaffective Strategies (Chamot & Küpper, 1989; O’Malley, Chamot, & Küpper, 1989; O’Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Küpper, & Russo, 1985)

Communication Strategies relating to output (how we express meanings) were just with Avoidance Strategies and Compensatory Strategies Strategies were defined as to facilitate the learning tasks (Chamot 2005, p.112, cited in Brown, 2000) More descriptions of Learning Strategies can be seen in Appendix 1

(Descriptions of Learning Strategies, source: O’Malley's et al., 1985)

However, learning strategies can be grouped in other ways Figure 2.1

-Learning strategies by Oxford (1990) showed a classification clearly detailed

with two main classes: Direct Strategies and Indirect Strategies in which each one included three categories (see Appendix 2 for Diagram of the Strategy System showing all the Strategies)

Figure 2.1 Diagram of a strategy system: Overview (Oxford, 1990, p.16)

Direct strategies create the target language to learners while indirect strategies support learners' language learning and use Direct strategies include memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies; indirect strategies consist of metacognitive, affective, and social strategies In this study, the researcher will incline to Oxford’s definitions and classification of learning strategies

Specifically, Oxford’s (1990) classification of learning strategies includes the followings:

⮚ Memory strategies: “Memory strategies or mnemonics with four

sets of creating mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing, and employing actions that help learners retain new information” (p.38)

⮚ Cognitive strategies: “Cognitive strategies which learners

manipulate or transform the target language that involve practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning, and creating structure for input and output” (p.43)

⮚ Compensation strategies: “Compensation strategies enable learners

to comprehend or produce knowledge or the target language They have two sets of guessing intelligently in receptive skills (listening and reading), and overcoming limitations in productive skills (speaking and writing)” (p.47)

⮚ Metacognitive strategies: “Metacognitive strategies are which

learners can manage their learning, including three sets of centering our learning, arranging and planning our learning, and evaluating our

learning” (p.136)

⮚ Affective strategies: “Affective strategies are the strategies relating

to learners' emotions, attitudes, and motivations in language learning They include three sets of lowering our anxiety, encouraging ourselves, and taking our emotional temperature” (p.140)

⮚ Social strategies: “Social strategies with the three sets are those

involving people and their social communication with three sets of

asking questions, cooperative learning, and empathy and each included two elements inside” (p.140)

Oxford’ s (1990) classification of learning strategies is depicted pretty specific in the Diagram of a strategy system showing two classes, six groups and 19 sets To shorten what is included in each type of language learning

strategies in this diagram, please see the sub-items thrusted inside Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Diagram of a strategy system showing two classes, six groups and

19 sets (Oxford, 1990, p.17)

Various language learning strategies lead to the different use among students is inevitable, provided that teachers can encourage the learners to complete the specific tasks or any learning situation easily in their language learning processes Oxford’s model has an appearance of a regular polygon with the multangulars and interlacements themselves that seems to have a representation for its strengths and weaknesses This model shows the interrelationships between direct and indirect strategies among the six strategy groups shows that Direct Strategies and Indirect Strategies always support each other and it is sure that the conflicts often happens the classification of learning strategies (see

Figure 2.3.)

Figure 2.3 Inter-relationships between direct and indirect strategies among

the six strategy groups (Oxford 1990, p.15)

2.1.3 The factors related to learning strategies

Many arguable ideas about factors affecting language learning strategies worldwide Rubin (1975) soon stated that “a good language learner is a willing

and accurate guesser” This person must grasp essential skills through three variables: aptitude, motivation, and opportunities Teachers are those who give appropriate methods promoting the student's incorporative learning strategies and help recognize their FLA The general model from Spolsky (1989) about second language learning was given in details that a language perspective starting from the social context leads to attitude, and motivation According to Mohammad Rahimi (2008), “learners’ language learning strategies are affected

by the level of language proficiency, motivation, learning style and gender strong effect on learners’ use of different types of strategies” Salma Binti Abdul Razak (2014) also stated the influential factors such as Motivation, Gender, Levels of English proficiency, Age, and Socioeconomic status

Besides that, a number of factors influence language learning strategies into cognitive processes like “individual factors, learners’ belief, and affective

factors” (Ellis, 1997) Most remarkably, individual factors include age,

personality, motivation, experiences, cognition, and native language as every person has one’s own hobby, personality and learning target Learners need the elements of autonomy, the experimental learning and centeredness during their learning process Learner autonomy is the right of a learner to

be independent and governs itself It allows learners to do everything for a production or a success, to initiate, to finish, to solve problems or to practice language use every time and everywhere they want (Brown, 2000) Learners’ belief, and affective factors mixed among the practical values of their lives under a variety of criteria Experimental learning means taking learners' immediate personal experience as a departure point and its nature of process is

“learning by doing” Richards & Rodgers (2001) indicated that language learning aims to achieve meaningful communication and even help reinforce the second language acquisition (SLA) Learner centeredness links strongly

with communicative language teaching, and a key difference here depends on information about learners or students, learners must be trained in the learning strategies and the specialized fields they need for occupations and languages

Next, teachers' roles in strategy training are the foremost factor that

influences students’ learning consciousness Teachers are learning facilitators with new roles and beliefs (Oxford 1990) as a language instruction for primary

schools Traditionally, teachers should ensure teaching qualifications for the

roles as instructor, facilitator, observer, coordinator, etc (Brown, 2001) Moreover, new roles for teachers are not on any authority more, but on the quality (i.e providing more opportunities for student's practice) and good relationship with learners Planning, assessing, and teaching, planning lessons, class observation, motivation for students, and classroom management are considerable ones in “shaping good teaching practice” (Crookes, 2003) Thus, teachers’ roles somehow indirectly affect a student's language learning strategies - promoting student's good insights

Finally, many other factors like problem orientation, action basis, involvement beyond just cognition, direct and indirect support learning, degree

of observability, level of consciousness, teachability, flexibility, and influences

on strategy choice are important ones of language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990) Though there is a close relationship between one's language learning style and preferred language learning strategies, LLS are different from learning styles in which refer to a learner's “natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills” (Reid 1995, p.89) The bilingual children want to be good at reading strategies, they must stand steady for orthographic and cognitive factors to develop the basic reading skills of first language (L1) and second language (L2) because reading is a complex skill There is “a correlation between the basic reading

skills in L1 and L2, and children’s performance is under the cognitive factor” – the working memory in different languages means the word-based reading processes vary the orthographic regularity (Gholamain & Geva, 1999)

2.2 Significance of English reading strategy use at secondary schools

2.2.1 Relevance of reading selection in English learning

In consideration with language skills, reading is one of the two language receptive skills, especially to the core force of Secondary Education Koda (2005) has analyzed fluent reading accomplished largely by word recognition,

a large vocabulary, knowledge of text structure and discourse organization L1 reading processes influence on L2 reading development

As Pressley & Afflerbach (1995) have shown, good readers engage in a number of strategic activities at every stage (before, during, and after reading), and then they may facilitate comprehension most Reading the texts is also a challenge in making a completely comprehensive meaning

Traditionally, reading skill is recognized under such forms as previewing, skimming, scanning, selective reading, and activating prior knowledge Now, reading becomes more diversified with intensive reading, extensive reading and readers can skip over any strange or difficult words but still master the text’s meaning

Thus, lower secondary school students should be intensified reading skills first Teachers will train students LLS via in-class reading activities with the designed multiple tasks Relevance of reading skill selection in English language learning here is that the two-purpose accomplishment: focusing readers’ attention on the texts or reading process, and making students’ interactions with the text or easy assessing their performance

In both theory and practice, Chyl, Kossowski, Wang, Dębska, Łuniewska, Marchewka, Wypych, Bunt, Mencl, Pugh & Jednoróg (2021) emphasized that reading in two contrasting languages (or more) makes the skilled readers’ brain converge the print and speech activities The correlation and intersection inside learners’ brains are associated with visual word recognition for reading strategies between L1 and L2 dissimilarly This variation is just like the transparency from grapheme to phoneme at the beginning of reading acquisition The earlier completed reading comprehension by children, the quicker literacy readers, and the better writing skill they have In this way, the selection of reading skill in English learning is completely relevant to secondary school students These young students should read English as much

as possible in order to attain language skills or language areas soon

2.2.2 Reading strategy instructions in secondary schools

Reading strategy instructions play a vital role in secondary schools As Williams (1981) assumed the seven factors in relation to students’ performance

in reading English as a second language: language environment, resources for reading, attitude towards reading English, exposure to the mass media (English), type of school, sex differences, and age His assessments were based

on testing comprehension, vocabulary knowledge, and rate of reading for the pupil participants and the scores from teachers, and head teachers The result said that it depended on the type of school and reading resources to determine which factors influenced most on the best scores on the reading tests His study indicated that language environment correlated with learners’ English reading performance while other variables including learning attitude, mass media, and age affected on learners’ reading scoring, and sex was the least important Hence, these young learners need to know how to use reading strategies matching with their reading intention in learning English at secondary schools

Language reading comprehension as well as reading ability is a main tool

in the transitional process into planning reading strategies for FLA while a series of other factors influence the reading ability of a learner years by

“Reader's capability of meaning guessing and expression” will help evaluate the text well, without impeding understanding (Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995) Learner’s background knowledge is a major one in determining how comprehensive a reader will be after a text (Koda, 2005) The overall average correlation of L2 reading comprehension and language distance were moderators for reading components out of the other investigated reading component variables Lopera Medina (2012) insisted the effect of students’ reading comprehension and reading strategy instruction helped them be more self-confident, then enhanced their learning motivation He reminded the typology of reading strategies directing readers with the strategies they concern For instance, each strategy attached to readers’ intention such as having a purpose, previewing, skimming, scanning, predicting, inferring, cohesive devices, guessing word meaning, or background knowledge All those things express reading strategy instructions that enrich students’ knowledge and language ability quickly

Students should learn the way to plan a language reading strategy Language reading strategies often consist of multiple cognitive processes such

as decoding, vocabulary knowledge, syntactic processing, and metacognition measured through reading subskills The purpose of reading strategy is to interact with others in languages, collect information components for maximum reading comprehension (Jeon & Yamashita, 2014) Readers who are affected

by their strategy employment (cognitive strategies and planning strategies) prefer to plan their own reading to facilitate their reading process or to improve their reading skills for the extensive reading During reading, learners can

paraphrase ideas by talking or writing, infer context meaning, and argue various topics by their own words (Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching, Vol 2, No.1, 2019) This represents a successful reading strategy instruction offering students self-confidence and activeness in learning English in secondary schools

Every researcher has one’s arguments, and this study focused on secondary school students’ LLS use and instruction, typically the reading strategies were first employed to stimulate the use of other language skill strategies and to motivate student’s language ability Hence, the easiest starting point is reading strategy instruction which focuses on much reading for comprehension Canale & Swain (1980) affirmed that “good readers also need the support from other language skills and language areas” to identify four dimensions of communicative competence: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence when Oxford (1990) also claimed the main purpose of LLS use was on communicative competence However, it is difficult for DK Secondary School students to have a competence of those by themselves if they do not receive any LLS instruction or do not know a way to manage LLS In relation to reading strategies, secondary school readers employ them to match with their reading objectives, the more they read English, the better the foreign language knowledge they grasp Evidently, English reading strategy instructions are extremely necessary to the DK Secondary School students being with unmatured thoughts Oxford (2020) even suggested using reading strategies through the comprehensive reading as a framework in “language teaching and

learning pathway” (see Figure 2.4) that may create the premises to their

autonomous learning in future Secondary school students should be instructed

in English reading strategies to catch up with the social trends

Figure 2.4 Oxford Reading for Comprehension (Oxford, 2020)

2.3 Previous studies about language learning strategies

This study aimed to recognize the significance of LLS use in students’ English competence achievement or FLA, somehow motivating LLS to use the reading strategies more frequently among secondary school students to achieve that aim The study was based on collecting the educational theories from previous studies and the real situation of DK school to justify the two research questions

The research of LLS use may be acknowledged and applied in different levels according to the learning environments (i.e school types, levels of secondary school, school discipline, etc.) This investigation collected the theories on LLS from the latest studies at various levels of education in the world (e.g primary schools, high schools, colleges, and tertiary education) The practice showed the strength of LLS use, first and foremost reading strategies through reading skills in LLT has never changed This research followed secondary school students’ cognitivist paradigm through the mental activities determining the processes of English communicative competence The research

analysis was started with the identification of secondary school students’ memory strategies, passing that way to their cognitive strategies, and coming

to metacognitive strategies This thing was posed by the previous studies about the reading strategies as well as learners’ attainment of language reading comprehension through reading skills, some studies about ELT or LLT at other levels of education Besides that, the roles of language teachers in LLS and reading strategy instructions have always been considered in educational environments

The diversification of LLS from Oxford (1990) and her associates have been the most salient series among researchers creating the multi-controversial waves of LLS That also made changes of the viewpoint on LLS of learners over the world; therefore, this study currently focused on her directions of LLS (1990) as a primary material updating some new adaptations at present when other researches were condensed as a secondary material referring for LLS implications and suggestions in the existing education The previous studies have offered teachers, teacher educators, and researchers the former, current and newest perspectives of LLS insights as the abundant samples available for the successful application in Vietnam secondary education next stage

2.3.1 The highlights from the previous international studies

Reading strategies have been much mentioned in previous studies because

of their great effectiveness in LLT, and ELT in this case Cziko (1980) compared language competence and reading strategies, a comparison of the

oral reading error between the first- and second- languages The study

employed the variables of INT group with seventh graders, who speak English with intermediate and advanced levels in French in comparison to native French students to check errors and to serve as indicators in contextual language reading There are several theories explaining how readers can infer

meaning from written language context; therefore, he proposed that it has been classified into three following main groups: “bottom-up, top-down, and interactive views of reading” (p.101) His explanation is rather clear about the views of reading a language that can be temporarily summarized as below: A bottom-up view is a way of deriving meaning through one process of one-way information collection from the visual by another processing stage (e.g Bloomfield, 1942) A top-down view is another way of generating meaning from the information of context through the cognitive process (e.g a constructive process of Ryan & Semmel, 1969) Interactive views that meaning

is taken by readers through the integrated use between the visual and contextual information (i.e the detailed reading models in Massaro 1975, Rumelhart 1976) Cziko indicated that the interactive strategy in reading was much employed by native speakers at an advanced level and so did native French speakers, in vice versa, less competent readers trend on bottom-up view and make higher rates of errors Generally, the use of LLS in English reading comprehension was an effective one Paris, Lipson, & Wixson (1983) denoted reading strategies as “skills under consideration” because of a specific reading situation For any language, the reader’s competence level may be affected by one’s language reading strategies Attitudes and motivation are the main factors

to individual learners (Gardner, 1985) The higher motivation of the language learners, the more variety of using language learning strategies (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989) Learners are right-oriented and well-trained with appropriate strategies will facilitate the learning (Chamot, 1987); help learners to comprehend (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990); and make learner's learning easier, faster, and more transferable (Oxford, 1990) O’Malley & Chamot (1990) concluded that a language learner will succeed only if they can recognize their own learning strategies Therefore, the strategy instruction as a reciprocal combination between teachers and students is the most effective way to both

good learning strategies and the successful learning and teaching Prabhu (1987, cited in Richard & Rodgers 2001) claimed that “this creates contexts in which the learner's language learning ability is nurtured rather than making

systematics to teach language or Constructivism” (John Dewey 1913, cited in

Nunan 2004) involved in constructing learners' own knowledge through experience and problem solving Obviously, reading comprehension is a psychological process that occurs in an invisible way Kintsch (1998, p.4) described comprehension occurring “when and if the elements that enter into the process achieve a stable state” means the majority of related elements are meaningful and defined that “comprehension” refers to both a set of empirical phenomena and a theoretical construct” (p.209)

As mentioned the language teachers’ roles in LLT, remarkably English language apprehension via reading strategies, Richards & Rodgers (2001) claimed that teachers have helped facilitate learners’ learning process with multiple activities and this influenced planning, implementing, and evaluating English Language Teaching (ELT) in which learners must be competent in speaking a FL/ SL However, learners must have been good readers for important information and reflection contents before being good English speakers And in so doing, the LLS use like reading strategies were quite considerable, Koda (2005) emphasized reading strategies and claimed that good learners must be accomplished with fluent reading by word recognition, large vocabulary, knowledge of structure and discourse automatically Afflerbach, Pearson & Paris (2008) reminded that a century of research ago, reading was defined as a reference to such specific skills as Bible reading, understanding of directions/ questions about the texts Now reading is considered as a complex undertaking and an impressive achievement, and Afflerbach et al (2008) helped clarify the differences between reading skills