Effects of cooperative learning and concept mapping intervention on critical thinking and basketball skills in elementary school

Effects of Cooperative Learning and Concept Mapping Intervention on Critical Thinking and Basketball Skills in Elementary School Accepted Manuscript Title Effects of Cooperative Learning and Concept M[.]

Accepted Manuscript

Title: Effects of Cooperative Learning and Concept Mapping

Intervention on Critical Thinking and Basketball Skills in

School.Thinking Skills and Creativity http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.01.002

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Title: Effects of Cooperative Learning and Concept Mapping Intervention on Critical Thinking and Basketball Skills in Elementary School

Running head: COOPERATIVE LEARNING AND CONCEPT MAPPING

a Mei-Yao Huang, b Hsin-Yu Tu, c Yu-Ting Yu, b Jui-Fu Chen, d Wen-Yi Wang,

d Chien-Chih Chou* (Responding Author)

a Department of Physical Education Promotion, National Taiwan Sport

University, Taoyuan County 333, Taiwan

b Department of Physical Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei

Abstract

Helping students develop their critical thinking potential may assist them in effectively developing motor skills This study examined the effects of cooperative learning and concept-mapping interventions on students' critical thinking and skill learning during physical education 170 fifth-grade students were assigned to a

cooperative learning condition (n=54), a concept-mapping condition (n=57), and a control condition (n=59) The students were subsequently assessed in terms of their

basketball skills and critical thinking skills The results showed greater improvements

of basketball skills improvements and critical thinking skills among the students in the cooperative learning condition and the concept-mapping condition than among those

in the control condition The results indicated that peer-cooperation and

concept-mapping mediated the learning of motor skills and offered a learning

environment that assisted critical thinking in the context of physical education

1 Introduction

Effective physical education supports the developments of motor skills and critical

thinking skills (Donnelly, Helion, & Fry, 1999) Recently, the cultivation of students’

critical thinking skills has been greatly emphasized in school physical education

(Lodewyk, 2009; McPherson & Kernodle, 2007) Lodewyk (2009) suggested that

motor skills performance always involves the development of critical thinking skills

when solving a problem Critical thinking in physical education, which is mainly

characterized by challenging students to produce unique solutions to movement

problems (McBride & Bonnette, 1995), has therefore become an important strategy

for enhancing personal critical thinking Methods for improving elementary school

students’ critical thinking in a teaching and learning environment, however, have

scarcely been studied (Barrett, 2005; Raab, 2007; Ripoll, Kerlirzin, Stein, & Reine,

1999)

1.1 The definitions of critical thinking in physical education

Since the initial advocacy of critical thinking research by McBride in 1990, the

proposed definition of critical thinking has changed from a unidimensional concept to

a multidimensional one, that is, from factors related to personal characteristics to

those concerning the social milieu (McBride & Xiang, 2004) What more recent

works on critical thinking have emphasized, however, is that multiple components

must converge in order for critical thinking to take place In his Componential Model

of Critical Thinking, Chou, Huang, Huang, Lu, and Tu (2015) defined critical thinking

as being characterized by intellectually disciplined information processing in learning

motor skills According to Chou et al., (2015), five components are essential for the

cognitive process of making reasonable and defensible decisions in learning motor

skills: assumption identification, induction, deduction, interpretation, and evaluation

of arguments In the Cognitive Model of Critical thinking Schema, McBride (1992) used the case study method to explore the thought processes of individuals with highly developed critical thinking and proposed a schema of critical thinking to clarify the relationships between cognitive and psychomotor outcomes He concluded that a person with critical thing skills is unique, developmental change is

multidimensional, and the critical person is an evolving system for problem solving in learning motor skills He also reported that the evolutions of critical thinking skills are influenced by teaching methods, motivation, emotions, and environments In the Peer Learning Model of Critical Thinking, Dyson (2002) proposed that two systems

highlight the improvements of critical thinking: the interactions of the field in learning physical education and knowledge gained through collaborative groups and peer interactions This model emphasizes that individuals construct knowledge through social interactions with their peers, facilitated by their teachers Social interaction provided a means for students to view problems from multiple perspectives and enhance their critical thinking in learning motor skills Similarly, in the Interactive Perspective of Critical thinking, McBride and Cleland (1998) underscored the

interaction of three core elements: the individual, other people, and the learning environment Moreover, in the Developing Concept Theory of Critical Thinking, Lodewyk (2009) claimed that learners were facilitated by teachers in improving their knowledge and reasoning He also suggested that critical thinking skills could help learners to correct misconceptions about motor skills and strategies by mapping the interrelatedness of concepts within the discipline

Although the aforementioned literature shows that critical thinking may be influenced by multiple approaches, a consensus exists that among these influential approaches, problem solving in learning motor skills has the most direct and strongest

effects on an individual’s critical thinking skills, and such approaches can be divided into three categories: knowledge, teaching-learning environments, and abilities

(Dyson, 2002; McBride & Xiang, 2004) As for knowledge, Chou et al (2015) also argued that a basic level of motor skills and problem solving within a specific

knowledge domain, along with deep knowledge of the subject, is required in order to develop movement skills In addition, they proposed that teaching and learning could foster a learner's critical thinking in physical education Apparently, using specific teaching-learning methods is the most fundamental and key element of critical

thinking that can lead to the development of proficient movement in physical

education

As for teaching-learning environments, the second element noted above, their importance has been highly emphasized in a famous critical thinking scheme for motor skill performance (McBride, 1992) Brennan, Brownson, Kelly, Ivey, and Leviton (2012) have illustrated that dispositions such as problem solving and

thoughtfulness are important for the performance of critical thinking in physical activities Based on a thorough literature review and empirical findings, Chou et al (2015) suggested two factors influencing critical thinking which could improve motor skills performance: teaching strategies and learning environments They found that in critical thinking skills, these factors were positively related to an individual’s motor skills performance

As for abilities, the third element noted above, Rawahi (2015) regarded critical thinking as a kind of capacity that integrates problem solving for motor skills with learning processes, procedures, and performance Ennis (1996) declared that the range

of skills, knowledge, and perspectives positively impact an individual’s critical

thinking performance Yeh (2009) also argued that critical thinking involves using

reasonable and defensible strategies Along the same lines, McPherson and Kernodle (2007) argued that critical thinking requires the ability to understand relationships among physical activities and concepts, and to organize the content of physical

activities into conceptual frameworks in order to engage in the performance of

physical activities Lodewyk (2009) found that such problem-solving abilities such as organizing and analyzing problems, planning and adjusting working progress, staying judgmental in solving problems, and being sensitive in making observations were positively related to critical thinking performance Therefore, both cognitive and metacognitive abilities are essential for critical thinking skills

1.2 The definition of the cooperative learning method

Cooperative learning in physical education is an instructional method in which

students work together in small groups to learn in psychomotor, cognitive, and

affective domains (Dyson, Griffin, & Hastie, 2004; Iserbyt, Madou, Vergauwen, & Behets, 2011) It is characterized by various forms of student-student interactions through physical activities (Barrett, 2005; Donnelly et al., 1999; Dyson et al., 2004)

To date, most cooperative learning studies are attempted in the context of physical activity levels or skill performance as well as problem solving, and most research regarding cooperative learning has therefore focused on the improvement of physical activity levels For example, Chen (2001) claimed that cooperative learning is the practice of applying social skills from face-to-face interaction in peer relationships to physical activity in order to improve problem solving In the same vein, Honnan and Ratliffe (2004) declared that, in the context of physical education, group processing occurs when group members reflect on which member actions were helpful and make decisions about which actions to continue or change

As far as the cooperative learning process is concerned, it involves the process of

making decisions and solving problems (Dyson & Grineski, 2013), as well as the process of sharing relevant information, and expertise with others (Gillies, 2004) Accordingly, Donnelly et al (1999) argued that cooperative learning methods create

an environment in which student-student interactions are encouraged through group discussions, the collective adoption of action strategies, and group efforts toward common learning objectives Such a learning environments allow students to make decisions in practice and to process information regarding motor skills actively and collectively so that they can become skillful movers As for influential factors of critical thinking, Lodewyk (2009) declared that peer-mediated learning settings involving the use of task cards could offer powerful learning environments that

emphasize decision-making, as well as motor goals, in physical education classes Dyson et al (2004) suggested that, in physical education, pedagogical factors

influencing critical thinking might include teaching method designs and integrative learning activities Along the same lines, Dyson, Linehan, and Hastie (2010) argued that teaching method designs that encourage teamwork improve critical thinking in learning motor skills Brennan et al (2012) also found that building team-learning groups in order to engage in decision making and problem solving in group

discussions contributed to critical thinking in the context of physical education

As discussed above, engaging in team learning for the purposes of discussion, decision making, and problem solving constitutes three core means through which to develop critical thinking skills and improve motor skills Therefore, these three

activities may interactively influence personal critical thinking skills if the

instructional program is well designed

1.3 The Definition of the Concept Mapping Method

Novak, Gowin, and Johansen (1983) claimed that the concept mapping technique

could serve as a measurement tool for accessing learners' issues with

conceptualizations and knowledge representations Based on the concept mapping theory, concept maps consist of graphs of nodes and labeled lines that represent terms and concepts in a given domain and are used to measure important aspects of an individual’s declarative knowledge (Fitzpatrick & Zizzi, 2014) Along the same lines, Martindale and Collins (2007) argued that concept mapping visually illustrates the relationships between concepts, ideas, images, and words Those concepts are

connected by words and phrases such that the connections between the ideas are explained, facilitating learners’ structuring and organizing of their thoughts on

physical activity in a logical but not rigid manner that allows future information or viewpoints to be included Most concept mapping studies were undertaken in the context of physical education or physical activity, and most definitions of concept mapping have therefore focused on problem solving or critical thinking For example,

in a study by Visek et al (2015), concept mapping was used to provide pictorial evidence-based blueprints for the fun integration theory that could then be used to maximize fun for children and adolescents in order to promote and sustain an active and healthy lifestyle through sport In the same vein, Ries, Voorhees, Gittelsohn, Roche, and Astone (2008) suggested that concept mapping is unique in its ability to generate and summarize detailed information succinctly in the form of a map for physical activity According to Ries et al (2008), concept mapping activities allow participants to share their opinions about aspects of their environment that are

important to physical activity and generate ideas about how to increase physical activity

As for cognitive thinking, Lodewyk (2009) claimed that concept mapping

facilitates motor skill development and critical thinking Other researchers also found

that concept mapping positively contributes to tactical knowledge that is an important element of critical thinking in sports (Dyson et al., 2004; McPherson, 1994) It can thus be assumed that using concept mapping will improve students’ cognitive abilities

to address physical activity problems.Collectively, the research has shown that

concept mapping could be a useful learning tool in developing students’ physical activities and critical thinking associated with skill development

2 Hypotheses of this study

Critical thinking in physical education can be viewed as the process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information to develop a strategy to solve a problem and then applying that strategy in

a movement situation Chou et al., (2015), Raab (2007), and Lafont, Proeres, and Vallet (2007) also suggested that performances of motor skills would be more

successful when physical education teachers indirectly foster critical thinking in their students by having them focus on the formulation of decisions that may lead to

successful skill performance Moreover, the development of critical thinking in the teaching of physical education is commonly emphasized in recent instructional

methods

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify the effects of the cooperative learning, concept mapping, and practice style on elementary school students’ critical thinking skills and basketball skills performance in physical education Based on the aforementioned literature concerning the influential factors and practical limitations in physical education, it is proposed in this study that efforts to develop elementary school students’ critical thinking skills could employ cooperative learning and

concept mapping in order to facilitate problem solving, while also engaging in

practices to facilitate knowledge internalization in order to produce solutions to

further facilitate motor skill performance

Although developing teaching methods and evaluating their effectiveness in terms of improving elementary school students’ critical thinking skills and motor skill performances were important goals of this study, the hypotheses proposed in this study are specifically focused on testing critical thinking skills and motor skill

improvements Accordingly, the proposed hypotheses were as follows: (1) cooperative learning and concept mapping would improve fifth-grade students’ critical thinking skills; (2) cooperative learning and concept mapping would improve fifth-grade students’ basketball skills performance; and (3) cooperative learning and concept mapping would facilitate basketball skills performance and critical thinking better than the practice style teaching method

3 Method

3.1 Participants

The participants in this study were 170 fifth-grade students (87 boys and 83 girls) and six teachers from six classes at two elementary schools Due to the school system examined in this study, the experimental conditions were randomly assigned to whole classes instead of to individual students Therefore, each class was randomly assigned as a unit into one of the three groups: the cooperative learning (CL) group, the concept mapping (CM) group, or the practice style (PS) group All the

participants were from Taipei, had middle to lower-middle socioeconomic backgrounds, and were assessed as having average body mass indexes (BMI) The participants and their parents completed an informed consent that was reviewed and approved by the University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) prior to the

experiment Basketball was the subject of study for all the students in all three

experimental conditions

3.2 Experimental Procedure

The experiment lasted for 15 weeks for each of the three conditions The initial ten weeks were devoted to the experimental instruction, and the remaining five weeks consisted of a retention period during which the effects of each condition were

assessed In the instruction phase, 20 lessons were taught to help the students develop basketball dribbling, passing, and shooting skills and to teach them offensive and defensive tactics, as well as rules 10 lessons were designed for game playing

activities during the retention period Lessons 1 through 6 in the unit involved

learning the basketball skills and applying the skills in increasingly complex

basketball games Lessons 7 through 12 focused on offensive skills for off-the-ball movements (i.e supporting the ball carrier, post player, clear-out, and give-go), offensive skills with the ball (i.e passing, catching, taking a jump shot, taking a set shot, following a shot, and making give-and-go passes), and defensive skills (i.e defending space and defending the basket) Lessons 13 through 20 focused on tactical thinking for offense and defense and techniques using 2 against 2, 3 against 3, and 5 against 5 forms The retention lessons, 21 through 30, focused on basketball games using 5 against 5 forms

3.3 Treatment Design

In the cooperative learning condition, students were grouped together as

five-member teams through heterogeneous grouping Each group was asked to

practice basketball skills at the beginning of each lesson After practice, each group was asked to discuss the upcoming game collectively and to come to an agreement among the team members in order to find a solution for winning the game These team discussions were also focused on the individual actions undertaken by each student; these discussions aimed to stimulate discussion and share ideas if necessary

Each student was also encouraged to participate equally in every discussion These situations resembled the cooperative learning situations defined by Lafont et al

(2007) The students thus obtained experiences of engaging in group processing and discussions about basketball skills and games in the context of physical education For the concept mapping condition, the teachers used a concept map post to teach the students about basketball skills and games During the instruction, each individual student completed a drawing of a concept map, practiced the basketball skill tasks, and then shared and received feedback from his or her peers and the

teacher Basketball games occurred after the concept map drawing and the practice period For game activities, students were grouped together in five-member teams by randomized grouping Each group was asked to use concept mapping in discussing the game strategy collectively in order to find a solution for winning each game The teacher concluded each class with feedback regarding each group’s game performance These situations resembled the concept mapping situations defined by Heinze-Fry and Novak (1990)

In the practice style condition, the participants in which served as the control group, the students learned basketball skills via practice style teaching The students decided when to start the basketball skill-related tasks and determined the pace set for performing each basketball skill During individual practice times, the teacher

observed individual student performances and offered feedback These situations resembled the practice style defined by Mosston and Ashworth (2002) Basketball games occurred after each practice time For game activities, students were grouped together in five-member teams by randomized grouping Each group was asked

discuss the game strategy collectively in order to find a solution for winning each game The teacher ended each class with feedback regarding each group’s