Experimental study of the rigidity and transparency to ionizing radiation of composite materials used in the enclosure under pressure of the Micromegas detector 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 3 14 15 16 17 1[.]
Trang 16
7
8 Imen Harbaouia,⇑, Hatem Besbesb, Moez Chafraa
Applied Mechanics and Systems Research Laboratory, Tunisia Polytechnic School, University of Carthage, La Marsa, Tunisia
10 b
King Abdul-Aziz University, Faculty of Sciences, Physics Department, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
11
1 3 a r t i c l e i n f o
14 Article history:
15 Received 3 October 2016
16 Received in revised form 14 February 2017
17 Accepted 15 February 2017
18 Available online xxxx
19 Keywords:
20 Nuclear imaging
21 Micromegas detector
22 Composites
23 Robustness
24 Transparency to gamma radiations
25 Synthetic fibers
26 Vegetable fibers
27
2 8
a b s t r a c t
29 Innovation in the field of nuclear imaging is necessarily followed by a radical change in the detection
30 principle The gas detector Micromegas (Mesh Micro Structure Gaseous) could be an interesting option,
31 thanks to the stability and robustness of such a detector Thus, it was necessary to study the
implemen-32 tation of the detector enclosure in composite materials The focus of the present study was the robustness
33 and gamma rays transparency of a set of composites The studied composites were reinforced with
veg-34 etable fibers (alfa), and synthetic fibers The mechanical properties of all composites specimen were
eval-35 uated by three-point bending test, whereas, gamma ray transparency was evaluated by the exposition of
36 composites specimen to a mono-energetic gamma ray beam emitted by a Technetium 99-m source
37 Findings revealed that the biocomposite materials using alfa fiber and Polymethyl Methacrylate matrix
38 are very promising as long as they present good robustness and high gamma ray transparency in
diagnos-39 tic range
40
Ó 2017 Published by Elsevier B.V This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
41 creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
42 43
44 Introduction
45 Actually nuclear imaging (scintigraphy and Positron emission
46 tomography (PET)) is essentially based on scintigraphic detection
47 For example for scintigraphy, since the first gamma camera[1,2]
48 was designed, by Anger, in 1954 [2], there has been no radical
49 changes in the detection process However many manufacturers
50 tried to improve the performance of gamma camera by: smoothing
51 collimators to increase detection efficiency[3], developing systems
52 of rectification of physical phenomena including reconstruction
53 process (correction of mitigation, loss of spatial resolution at depth
54 [4,5]), renovation of algorithms granting the reduction of
acquisi-55 tion time and/or injected activities[6,7] Therefore, compared to
56 the evolution of the image construction and processing software,
57 the obtained quality evolution is very weak
58 To obtain an in-depth evolution in parameters qualities in
59 nuclear imaging that satisfies the actually clinical needs, it is
indis-60 pensable to change the detection principal Our approach consists
61 in adopting a new imaging system that uses a new sophisticated
62 gas detector called Micromegas (Mesh micro structure gaseous)
63 [8] In fact, this particular type of detectors presents several
advan-64
tages as low time resolution (<100 ns) and excellent spatial
resolu-65
tion (<100lm)[8]which enables a better detection performance
66
To reach these performances, a gas detector needs to be under a
67
relatively high pressure The effect of high pressures of gas detector
68
in the resolution of Micromegas detector has been largely studied
69 [9–11] Whereas, to associate both transparency towards gamma
70
rays and resistance towards gas pressure inside the gas container,
71
composite materials seem to be the best choice to realize the
72
enclosure containing the gas detector thanks to its lightness, its
73
robustness and its low attenuation of gamma rays with energy in
74
clinical ranges
75
The effects of relatively high energy electromagnetic radiations
76
in composite materials have been the subject of several studies
77
that have led to many applications[12] Most of them have focused
78
on the study of low energy gamma-rays or X-rays shielding
com-79
posites Noor et al investigated the effect of the size of WO3/epoxy
80
composites on X-rays transmission ranging from 25 to 120 kev
81 [12] The effect of gamma-radiation on the morphology, thermal
82
behavior and mechanical properties of wood polypropylene
com-83
posites has been investigated by Ndiaye and Tidjani [13] The
84
results of their research indicated that gamma radiation improves
85
the mechanical properties while the thermal stability is decreased
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2017.02.023
2211-3797/Ó 2017 Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ).
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: imene.harbaoui8@gmail.com (I Harbaoui), chafra_moez@
yahoo.fr (M Chafra).
Contents lists available atScienceDirect
Results in Physics
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w j o u r n a l s e l s e v i e r c o m / r e s u l t s - i n - p h y s i c s
Please cite this article in press as: Harbaoui I et al Experimental study of the rigidity and transparency to ionizing radiation of composite materials used in
Trang 286 with an improvement of interaction between polymer and wood
87 fibers
88 Fornes et al studied the effect of gamma radiation and electron
89 bombardment on the mechanical properties of graphite fiber
com-90 posites considered by a three point bending test[14] Zaman et all
91 showed through experimental study that gamma radiation is one
92 of the powerful sources that can improve the mechanical and
93 dielectric properties of jute fabrics/polymer matrix composites
94 [15]
95 More recently Le Chang et al investigated the effect of filler
96 loading on shielding and mechanical properties of Tungsten/epoxy
97 composites by using two sources of gamma radiation[16]
98 The present study conducts experiments on a variety of
com-99 posite materials with synthetic or/and biological fibers All
com-100 posite specimens are submitted to mechanical pressure and
101 gamma rays flow The study aims first at determining the
mechan-102 ical properties of these materials obtained by three-point bending
103 test[17]and second at studying their attenuation rate of gamma
104 rays The objective of this study is to suggest a novel system of
105 nuclear medical imaging based on gas detection
106 Method and materials
107 Composite specimens realization
108 For composite specimens’ development, mixture of fibers, type
109 ‘‘UNIFILO”, with surface density of 300 g/m2, lignocellulosic fibers
110 in mats form and alfa fibers are used Composite plates are
rein-111 forced by various glass and vegetable fibers For composite
speci-112 mens using lignocellulosic and glass fibers, seven specimens are
113 prepared with a mass reinforcing rate of nearly 25% and for those
114 using only biological fibers (alfa fiber) two specimens are prepared
115 with different mass reinforcing rates
116 The remarkable problem in the realization of specimens was the
117 air bubbles in the composite structure To solve this problem we
118 have placed composites in vacuum chamber This process
permit-119 ted to avoid the deterioration action of air bubbles touching the
120 mechanical properties and the dimensional stability
121 Three-point bending test
122 Robustness is one of the decisive criteria for choosing composite
123 materials Thus, the gas enclosure must with stand a pressure that
124 exceeds 6 bars Then, it is imperative that the used materials do not
125 exceed the limit of elasticity To ensure these mechanical qualities,
126 bending tests are conducted on all composites specimens The
127 bending test[17,18]is widely used in industry It is often the only
128 available method to evaluate the properties of composite materials
129 in particular aggressive environmental conditions (temperature,
130 humidity, salt fog, etc.) In addition, this test requires loads of
rup-131 ture much smaller than the tensile and compression tests,
autho-132 rizing the use of testing machines and load cells of lower
133 capacity Two important parameters are the thickness of the
spec-134 imen and the distance between supports (Fig 1) These parameters
135 will significantly alter the stress states distribution and therefore
136
the nature of the damage This test is most commonly used to
137
determine the stiffness and flexural strength of composite
materi-138
als It is simple to implement and has a good reproducibility
139
The three-point bending test is carried out following the
140
instructions of the NFT57-105 norm
141
Three-point bending tests were carried out on the Instron 3369
142
machine The assembly comprises a static bending machine,
143
instrumented with a displacement sensor and an effort sensor
144
(strain gauges) The curves of stress-displacement were provided
145
by a computerized purchasing system They allow an assessment
146
of the main mechanical characteristics of the composite The
spec-147
imens of the 3-point bending tests do not require any particular
148
preparation
149
Flexion of thin bars (L/e ratio) leads to very large arrows, which
150
leads to the modifications of the boundary conditions at the
sup-151
ports Moreover, in 3-point bending, the punching stresses induced
152
by the upper roller may cause a premature rupture in compression
153
To reduce the contact stresses, we resorted to the interposition of a
154
foil
155
Interaction with gamma rays
156
As the enclosure will certainly be interposed between the
157
source and the sensing matrix, it is necessary to study the
probabil-158
ity of interaction of the composite materials with gamma rays of
159
technetium 99 metastable (Tc-99 m) (the radioisotope most
160
widely used in nuclear imaging because it emits monochromatic
161
radiations with low-energy (140 keV)[19])
162
Gamma rays undergo three interaction modalities in mater In
163
technetium case (low energy), the predominant interaction
modal-164
ities are photoelectric and Compton effects[20] The gamma-ray
165
attenuation function follows an exponential law[21,22]
Consider-166
ing that I0represents the intensity of gamma incident radiation
167
and that I is the intensity of the transmitted gamma radiation
com-168
posite material with thickness x and attenuation coefficient l
169
(Fig 2), the attenuation function is given by:
170
173
The better description of physical material properties in terms
174
of radiation attenuation is by the mass attenuation coefficient This
175
coefficient takes into consideration the atomic number of the
176
material and its density In other words, it considers the electronic
177
density in the selected material[21,23] The mass attenuation
coef-178
ficient is given by:
179
lm¼l
182
wherelis the attenuation coefficient andqis the density
183
There is another way to describe the attenuation rate of a given
184
material by the determination of the half value layer (HVL) which
185
is nothing other than the required thickness of this material to
186
attenuate 50% of the incident radiation flux[22]
187
190
Experimental device
191
For the experimental measurement of HVL or attenuation
coef-192
ficient, it is necessary to measure accurately the incident and the
193
transmitted radiation flux through the studied material In this
194
case the used device must avoid any measurement errors when
195
determining different flux values Then, the considered device
196
includes a gamma rays source covered by a radiation absorbent
197
material like lead containing a window adjusted to the composite
198
specimen size to collimate the radiation emission For this, a
speci-199
fic phantom is released It consists in polyethylene parallelepipedic
Fig 1 Three-point bending beam.
2 I Harbaoui et al / Results in Physics xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
Please cite this article in press as: Harbaoui I et al Experimental study of the rigidity and transparency to ionizing radiation of composite materials used in
Trang 3200 container with volume 45 cm3, in which is inserted a Tc-99 m
solu-201 tion with activity of 5 mCi This container is closed by Plexiglas
202 cover and all the structure is covered by 2 mm thickness lead plate
203 Variable size windows are operated in the considered lead plate
204 (Fig 4) The flux measurements are operated on a Symbia Siemens
205 gamma camera using a ‘‘pin-hole” collimator (Fig 4) [24] The
206 specific device (phantom) is realized for attenuation study of
207 gamma rays with respect to the surface forms and dimensions of
208 different specimens The use of lead for protection permitted to
209 avoid parasite detections and reduce the calculation errors
210 Experimental measurements
211 The collimation greatly adjusts the gamma rays flux during the
212 acquisition process It gives the same acquisition field for incident
213 and transmitted gamma rays[24] Whereas, to calculate the HVL
214 values, it is necessary to determine both incident and transmitted
215 gamma rays flux for each composite specimen The adopted
mea-216 surement procedure consists in evaluating the counting rate with
217 and without composite specimen on the collimator using the
218 detection head of a calibrated gamma camera All count rates
mea-219 surements are done during 5 min In addition to counting rates,
220 image acquisitions (Fig 3) are performed in order to acquire a
bet-221 ter vision of the measurement process (Figs 5–7)
222
Quality index
223
Quality index is calculated according to the importance of each
224
parameter This can be judged by the influence of the robustness
225
and transparency on the quality of detection of the imaging
sys-226
tem In fact, while transparency influences directly absolute
effi-227
ciency [25], robustness influences indirectly the intrinsic
228
efficiency [26] Indeed, knowing that the absolute efficiency of
229
detection[25]is defined as the ratio of the amount of gamma rays
230
crossing the composite material and reaching the detection matrix
231
by the amount of the gamma rays emitted by the source, it is clear
232
that this detection quality is highly influenced by the attenuation
233
rate of the enclosure Furthermore, the intrinsic efficiency is
234
defined as the ratio of the amount of the delivered signal by the
235
detector by the amount of gamma rays crossing the composite
236
material, and then it depends on the fluctuation of the gas pressure
237
into the detector enclosure This is essentially due to the vibrations
238
of the enclosure structure that depends slightly on the robustness
239
of the composite material According to all these considerations,
240
the quality index is calculated after the normalization of both mass
241
attenuation coefficient and maximum stress and the attribution of
242
respectively 70% and 30% for the two sited parameters (Table 4)
243
Results and discussion
244
As previously mentioned, nine composite specimens are
per-245
formed; seven are realized using artificial fibers, whereas two are
246
realized exclusively with biological fibers The first seven
compos-247
ite specimens are made with glass fiber (FV), lignocelluloses fibers
248
(FLC) and polyester resin with the respective densities: 2.5 g/cm3,
249
1.12 g/cm3and 1.1 g/cm3 Using these different compounds, two
250
sets (MAT1 and MAT2) of composite specimens are made (Table 1)
251
For MAT1, two composite specimens (M and N) are realized with
252
the same weight percentage (wt% age) of fibers and then the same
253
volume percentage (vol% age), the same provisions of mat fiber and
254
two different thickness Whereas, for MAT2, five composite
speci-255
mens (A, B, C, D and E) are realized with the same wt% age of fibers,
256
five different provisions of mat fiber and five different thicknesses
257
(Table 1) The two last biocomposite specimens are made with two
258
different polymer matrices Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA)
259
(MAT4) and epoxy (MAT3) reinforced by alfa fibers (Table 2) For
Fig 2 Transmission of gamma rays through lead with different energies [20]
Fig 3 Flux measurement device.
Please cite this article in press as: Harbaoui I et al Experimental study of the rigidity and transparency to ionizing radiation of composite materials used in
Trang 4260 the study of polymer structure without reinforcement, another
261 specimen is prepared only with epoxy matrix (MAT5) with
262 0.401 cm of thickness
263
In order to give a classification by physical efficiency, all
com-264
posites specimens are experimentally tested whether by
evaluat-265
ing mechanical parameter or by studying the interaction with
266
gamma ray flux Thus, the robustness of composite specimens is
267
evaluated using the three-point bending test (Tables 3 and 4))
268
Knowing that the technetium-99 m[19]is the most used
radioiso-269
tope in scintigraphic imaging, transparency or attenuation rates of
270
gamma rays are determined by the exposition of each composite
271
specimen to a mono-energetic gamma ray beam of energy
272
140 keV (Tables 3 and 4) Assessed values show that the two
stud-273
ied proprieties are influenced by the natures of fibers and polymer
274
matrices, thickness of composite plates, provision of mats fiber and
275
reinforcing rate (Tables 3 and 4)
276
Interpretation of results
277
Concerning the interaction between Technetium-99 m gamma
278
rays and all composite specimens, it is noticed that all plates are
Fig 4 Acquisition with different windows and different specimens of various composite materials with (below) and without (above) composite specimens.
Fig 5 MAT2 with different provision of fiber.
Fig 6 Biocomposites.
Fig 7 Alfa/PMMA with different weight and size.
4 I Harbaoui et al / Results in Physics xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
Please cite this article in press as: Harbaoui I et al Experimental study of the rigidity and transparency to ionizing radiation of composite materials used in
Trang 5characterized by a little attenuation of gamma rays Thus, they
rep-280
resent high transparency against gamma rays in diagnostic range
281
energy In spite of this, two classes of composite specimens can
282
be considered in this context: those presenting relatively high
283
attenuation with mass attenuation coefficient (l
q) higher than
284
0.04 cm2/g as MAT1, MAT2 with provision B, D and E, MAT3 and
285
MAT5, and those presenting lower attenuation with mass
attenua-286
tion coefficient (l
q) lower than 0.04 cm2/g as MAT2 with provision A
287
and C and MAT4
288
Results, in terms of rigidity, show that stiffness depends
signif-289
icantly on the nature of fibers, nature of polymer matrixes,
thick-290
ness of composite plates, provision of mats fiber and reinforcing
Table 1
Composite specimens with synthetic fibers.
Provision of mat fiber
Table 2
Biocomposite specimens.
MAT 3 (alfa/
epoxy)
MAT 4 (alfa/
PMMA) The volume percentage of the
fibers
Matrix density(g/cm 3
The composite density:(g/cm 3
Table 3
Experiments results of composite specimens MAT2.
l
Maximum stress in Mpa 105,67 ± 5,68 52,549 ± 4,44 70,226 ± 2,36 60,526 ± 6,21 64,243 ± 3,62
l
Table 4
Experiments normalized results of composite specimens and quality index.
Maximum stress in Mpa 105,67 ± 5,68 52,549 ± 4,44 70,226 ± 2,36 60,526 ± 6,21 64,243 ± 3,62
Please cite this article in press as: Harbaoui I et al Experimental study of the rigidity and transparency to ionizing radiation of composite materials used in
Trang 6291 rate Consequently all specimens can be classified into two classes:
292 those with a relatively important maximum stress; higher than
293 100 Mpa as MAT2 with provision A, MAT1 and MAT4, and those
294 having a lower maximum stress; lower than 100 Mpa as MAT2
295 with provision B, C, D and E, MAT3 and MAT5
296 Results, in terms of attenuation of gamma rays and maximum
297 stress, show that these two parameters (transparency and
robust-298 ness) are independent but they should be complementary for the
299 realization of an efficient detector enclosure This complementarity
300 is evaluated by the calculation of a quality index putting into
301 account the two last proprieties
302 As it is to establish an equation allowing the determination of
303 an index quality according to the needs, which allows the
classifi-304 cation of different composites based on their utility in the
305 described task, the values of HVL and maximum stress are
respec-306 tively normalized on the highest value of each parameter
307
Quality index¼ 0:7 :ðNormalized HVLÞ þ 0:3
ðNormalized maximum stressÞ
309
310 Following the results in Table 4, for the construction of the
311 detector enclosure, bio-composites are globally better than
syn-312 thetic fiber composites By comparing the quality index obtained
313 for all composite specimens (Table 4), MAT4 presents the highest
314 quality index Thus, it gives a good compromise between a largest
315 HVL about 277 mm and a high maximum stress about 136 Mpa
316 In case of bio-composite, compared to MAT4, MAT3 has a low
317 reinforcing rate of alfa fiber (13.2%) and a HVL about 43 mm
know-318 ing that epoxy matrix presents a relatively low HVL (46.5 mm) it is
319 suggested that PMMA matrix is the best solution
320 For other specimens using synthetic and biological fibers like
321 MAT2 with FLC 15% and 10% FV, it was noted that provision A
322 and provision C give a good compromise between robustness and
323 transparency, HVL reach 94 mm for A and 106 mm for C when
324 the Maximum stress is higher for A: 105, 67 Mpa and
325 70,226 Mpa for C Provision of fiber mats can either influence
stiff-326 ness and transparency
327 For MAT1 containing the most important percentage weight of
328 FLC fiber (20 wt% age) shows the maximum fracture stress about
329 147, 29 Mpa Thus, the rigidity increases with the rise of FLC fibers’
330 percentage
331 Conclusion
332 The realization of a new type of detector for nuclear imaging
333 based on gas detection needs an enclosure in composite materials
334 because of the high pressure (6 Atm) The choice of adequate
com-335 position and texture (fiber, matrix) is done through a study of
336 mechanical properties and gamma rate transparency of some types
337 of composites Considered specimens are glass fiber (FV),
lignocel-338 luloses fibers (FLC) and polyester resin, epoxy or PMMA with Alfa
339 fibers In this studied composite family, MAT 4 with Alfa/PMMA
340 shows very interesting proprieties In fact it has a maximum
flex-341 ure stress of about 137 Mpa and half value layer (HVL) of about
342 277 mm In addition, it is not expensive So in terms of quality/
343 price, it is excellent
344 For composites with FV and FLC fiber mechanical properties and
345 transparency of the composites, they seemed to be slightly
influ-346 enced with the provision of mats, with a further increase of
347 mechanical properties along with the increase of FLC fibers
348 The next step of this research involves the choice of the best
349 geometry of a rotating mobile detection system of composite
350 materials around the patient for a better scintigraphic image
351 Moreover the study will focus on the influence of the structure’s
352 vibrations on the transfer of electrons in the Micromegas matrix
353
Acknowledgments
354
The specimens with FV/FLC fibers are prepared and
experimen-355
tally tested under 3 point bending flexural test in laboratory LCBM
356
of FSTG of Marrakech by Dr Hamid KADDAMI
357
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6 I Harbaoui et al / Results in Physics xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
Please cite this article in press as: Harbaoui I et al Experimental study of the rigidity and transparency to ionizing radiation of composite materials used in