A comparative study on English - Vietnamese translation of business texts.pdf

This descriptive, comparative, and evaluative research attempts to assess the equivalence extent of nominal groups and verbal groups related to market segments and marketing strategies w

NGUYỄN THỊ HỒNG HÀ

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON ENGLISH -VIETNAMESE

TRANSLATION OF BUSINESS TEXTS

(Nghiên cứu so sánh bản dịch Anh - Việt

trong lĩnh vực Kinh doanh)

Doctoral Thesis of Philosophy in Linguistics

SUPERVISORS:

1 ASSOC PROF DR HOÀNG TUYẾT MINH

2 ASSOC PROF DR LÊ HÙNG TIẾN

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

The thesis entitled “A comparative study on English-Vietnamese

translation of Business texts” has been submitted for the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy

I, the undersigned, hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis, I have fully acknowledged and referenced the ideas and work of others in this thesis

The thesis does not contain work extracted from a thesis, dissertation or research paper previously presented for another degree or diploma at this or any other university

Signature

NGUYỀN THỊ HỔNG HÀNGƯỜI HƯỚNG DẦN KHOA HỌC 1

PGS TS Hoàng Tuyết Minh

NGƯỜI HƯỚNG DẰN KHOA HỌC 2

This descriptive, comparative, and evaluative research attempts to assess the equivalence extent of nominal groups and verbal groups related to market segments and marketing strategies with their semantic modifications in an English- Vietnamese translation of a marketing text from the functional- pragmatic perspective The data are extracted from the Source text (ST) "Marketing 4.0:

Moving from Traditional to Digital”, published in 2017 and from the Target text

(TT) “Tiếp thị 4.0: Dịch chuyên từ Truyền thống sang Công nghệ số”, published in

2018 The qualitative method is applied to the study, in which descriptive, comparative and interpretive procedures are adopted The data are analyzed and assessed from the functional- pragmatic perspective of House’s model (2015) incorporated with the Attitudinal and Gradational resources of Appraisal theory (Martin and White, 2005), in which component Field is combined with Gradational resources while component Tenor is integrated with Attitudinal resources.The findings show that, among the 661 nominal groups and 392 verbal groups collected, 553 cases in the both contain semantic modification in the translation A large number of cases shows an ‘upscaled’ trend of equivalence extent while the

‘downscaled’ trend accounts for a small proportion The upscale can be seen in the figurative expressions, using ‘stronger’ adverbs, modal verbs, more formal words, resorting the longer expressions and applying metaphors which arc carefully put in double quotation mark Especially, the cultural filters are employed to be more familiar to the target readers Besides, for the abstract terms, notes of explanation at the end of the page are also carefully added right away to each page, revealing a respectful attitude towards the readership and enhancing the interpersonal function

of the translation The downscale in denotative and connotative equivalence occurs just very little in the translation with the phenomenon of ellipsis in several adjectives preceding the nouns, and untranslated proper names in the translation

The findings of this study can make theoretical contributions to applying House’s model in uncovering the equivalence of an English-Vietnamese translation of non- litcrary texts Also, the model shows the effectiveness when integrated with another theory, particularly with the Appraisal theory of Martin and White (2005) in

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training programme, especially in translating non-literarty texts.

This thesis would not have been made possible without the guidance and the support of individuals who contributed and extended their valuable assistance in the preparation and completion of this study

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisors, Assoc Prof Dr

Lê Hùng Tien and Assoc Prof Dr Hoàng Tuyet Minh, who inflame the fervent passion inside me towards the research topic and research progress Without their continuously constructive feedback and encouragement, the thesis could not come into being

Additionally, I am deeply grateful to Dr Huỳnh Anh Tuan, whose guidance and insightful comments are of profound significance during my research completion 1 also wish to extent my gratitude to Assoc Prof Dr Ho Ngọc Trung, Assoc Prof

Dr Phan Văn Quế, Dr Phạm Thị Thủy, Assoc Prof Dr Phạm Thị Thanh Thùy, Dr Nguyền Việt Hùng, Dr Nguyễn Thị Vân Đông, Dr Nguyền Đăng Sửu, Dr Lưu Thị Kim Nhung and Dr Lê Phương Thảo, who gave practical comments on my research proposal and presentations, and provided me with many valuable suggestions to develop my research effectively

My sincere thanks also go to the colleagues and friends at the English Faculties

of Hanoi University of Business and Technology for their continuous motivation, support, and valuable advice for me across the path 1 will never forget strong support from Mr Lê Công Phú, Ms Trần Thị Thúy Hà, Mr Nguyền Việt Xô, Mr Phạm Đức Diễn, Ms Đào Thị Thu Nga, Ms Vi Thị Hồng Ngân, Ms Nguyễn Thị Phương Anh, Ms Nguyễn Thanh Nhàn, Mr Nguyễn Việt Tiệp, Ms Nguyền Thị Hào, Ms Đỗ Thị Kim Dung, and Ms Lê Thị Kiều Oanh They have always supported me to overcome the obstacles during my research completion

Last but not least, I would like to thank my warm-hearted parents, my enthusiastic brothers, my sisters-in-law and my family with their restless assistance, especially my daughter and my son for their immense tenderness, deep empathy, strong inspiration, and firm support to motivate me throughout upheavals and realize the life values

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1 Rationale 1

2 Research aim and objective of the study 3

3 Research question 4

4 Scope of the study 5

5 Methods of the study 6

6 Significance of the study 6

7 Organization of the thesis 7

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 9

2.1 Translation Studies 9

2.1.1 Translation Studies as a discipline 9

2.1.2 Central issues of Translation Studies 11

2.1.3 Issue of translation equivalence 12

2.2 Approaches of Translation Assessment 16

2.2.1 Response-based approach 16

2.2.2 Linguistics-based approach 17

2.3 Two popular Models of Translation Assessment 18

2.3.1 Newmark’s model of translation assessment (1988) 19

2.3.2 House’s model of translation assessment (2015) 20

2.3.3 Overt, covert translation and culture filters 27

2.3.4 Adaptation of House’s model for the research aim 30

2.4 Appraisal Theory by Martin and White (2005) in House’s model 34

2.4.1 Attitudinal resources of the Appraisal Theory 38

2.4.2 Gradational resources of the Appraisal theory 40

2.5 Nominal groups and verbal groups 44

2.5.1 Nominal groups 46

2.5.2 Verbal groups 48

2.6.1 Business texts 49

2.6.2 Marketing texts 50

2.7 Market segments and marketing strategies 55

2.7.1 Market segments 55

2.7.2 Marketing strategies 56

2.8.1 Previous studies on Comparative Translation Studies 57

2.8.2 Previous studies on Marketing Texts 62

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 66

3.1 Research approach 66

3.1.1 Qualitative method 66

3.2 Analytical framework 71

3.3 Data collection and procedures of data analysis 75

3.3.1 Data collection 75

3.4 Summary 82

CHAPTER 4: TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE OF NOMINAL GROUPS AND VERBAL GROUPS RELATED TO MARKET SEGMENTS 83

4.1 Translation equivalence of nominal groups and verbal groups related to YWN market segment 84

4.1.1 Nominal groups related to YWN market segment 85

4.1.2 Verbal groups related to YWN market segment 93

4.2 Translation equivalence of nominal groups and verbal groups related to the young market segment 100

4.2.1 Nominal groups related to the young market segment 100

4.2.2 Verbal groups related to the young market segment 109

4.3 Translation equivalence of nominal groups and verbal groups related to women’s market segment 117

4.3.1 Nominal groups related to women’s market segment 117

4.3.2 Verbal groups related to women’s market segment 126

4.4 Translation equivalence of nominal groups and verbal groups related to netizens’ market segment 133

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4.4.2 Verbal groups related to netizens’ market segment 142

4.5 Summary of translation equivalence of nominal groups and verbal groups related to market segments 150

CHAPTER 5 : TRANSLATION EQUIVAENCE OF NOMINAL GROUPS AND VERBAL GROUPS RELATED TO HUMAN-CENTRIC MARKETING STRATEGY 152 5.1 Translation equivalence of nominal groups related to human-centric marketing strategy 152

5.1.2 Comparison of NGs related to human-centric marketing strategy in the source text and target text 157

5.2 Translation equivalence of verbal groups related to human-centric marketing strategy 164

5.2.1 Analyses of verbal groups related to human-centric marketing strategy in the source text 165

5.2.2 Comparison of verbal groups related to human-centric marketing strategy in the source text and target text 168

5.3 Summary of translation equivalence of Nominal groups and Verbal Groups related to human-centric marketing strategy 172

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 175

6.1 Recapitulation of the study 175

6.2 English-Vietnamese translation of Nominal groups and Verbal groups related to market segments 176

6.3 English-Vietnamese translation of Nominal groups and Verbal groups related to human-centric marketing strategy 179

6.4 Contributions of the study 180

6.4.1 Theoretical contribution 180

6.4.2 Practical contribution 181

6.5 Limitations and suggestions for further research 183

REFERENCES 185

RESEARCHER’S ARTICLES RELATED TO THE THESIS 196

Appendix A Nominal groups and Verbal groups related to market segments IAppendix B Gradational resources embedded in NGs related to the young market

Appendix c The authors’ attitudes embedded in NGs related to the young market segment XIAppendix D Process and Graduation embedded in VGs related to the young segment XIII Appendix E The authors’ attitude embedded in VGs related to the young segment XV Appendix F Gradational resources of NGs related to human-centric marketingstrategy XVIIAppendix G The authors’ attitude embedded in NGs related to human-centric marketing strategy XXIIIAppendix H Some of the end-of-pagc explanation for NGs in the TT XXVIIAppendix 1 Equivalence extent in translating Nominal groups related to human­centric marketing strategy XXXIAppendix K The authors’ attitude embedded in VGs related human-centric marketing strategy XLAppendix L Equivalence extent in translating VGs related to human-centric marketing strategy XLIIAppendix M Source Text and Target Text of Nominal groups and Verbal groups related to human-centric marketing strategy XLIVAPPENDIX N: Previous Comparative Translation Studies IvAPPENDIX o Previous Studies on Marketing Texts Ixi

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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLESFIGURES

Figure 2.1 Relation between language and social context (Martin and Rose,2008:10) 23Figure 2.2 Three levels of text analysis (Martin and Rose, 2008:17) 24Figure 2.3 House’s model of translation quality assessment (House 2015:127) 28Figure 2.4 Theoretical framework of the study 32Figure 2.5 The Appraisal framework (Martin and White, 2005 from

https://www.google.com/search?q=apprciisal+frcimework+(martin+and+white)

36Figure 2.6 The selling and marketing concept (Kotler 1991 cited in MacKenzie2001:53) 53Figure 3.1 Analytical framework of the study 72Figure 3.2 Procedures of data analysis in the study 81

TABLES

Table 2.1 ‘Affect’ category with its types (Martin and White, 2005: 51) 38Table 2.2 ‘Judgement’ esteem with its variables (Martin and White, 2005: 53) 39Table 2.3 ‘Judgement’ sanction with its variables (Martin and White, 2005: 53)39Table 2.4 ‘Appreciation’ category with its variables (Martin and White, 2005:53)

40Table 2.5 Variables of Force-intensification (Martin and White, 2005:137-143)41Table 2.6 Variables of Force-quantification (Martin and White, 2005: 146) 43Table 2.7 A nominal group, showing multivariate experiential structure 46Table 2.8 Experiential structure of the verbal group 48Table 2.9 The factors related to Marketing mix ‘4Ps’ 53Table 2.10 Some previous comparative translation studies directly related to thispaper 57Table 2.11 Some previous translation studies of a ST with TTs in the same

languages 59Table 2.13 Some previous comparative translation studies of theoretical issues 61Table 2.14 Some previous studies on marketing texts in Vietnam 62Table 3.1 Description of the Source Text and Target Text 79Table 4.1 Summary of equivalence extent gained in semantic modification of NGs and VGs related to market segments 84Table 4.2 Gradational resources embedded in NGs related to YWN market segment

86Table 4.3 The authors’ attitude embedded in NGs related to YWN 88Table 4.4 Comparison between ST and TT in translating NGs related to YWN 92Table 4.5 Process of VGs related YWN market segment in the ST 93Table 4.6 Gradational resources embedded in VGs related to YWN market segment

IllTable 4.14 ST-TT Comparison of VGs related to the young segment 116Table 4.15 Gradational resources embedded in NGs related to women’s segment

of the ST 118

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119Table 4.17 ST-TT comparison in translating NGs related to women’s segment 125Table 4.18 Process and Gradational resources embedded in VGs related to women’s segment of the ST 127Table 4.19 The authors’ attitude embedded in VGs related to women’s segment of

141Table 4.24 Process and Gradational resources embedded in VGs related to netizens

Table 4.25 Authors’ attitude embedded in VGs related to netizens’ segment of theST 144Table 4.26 ST-TT comparison in translating VGs related to netizens’ market

Table 5.1 Summary of equivalence extent gained in semantic modification ofNGs and VGs related to human-centric marketing strategies 152Table 5.2 Graduation embedded in NGs related to human-centric marketing strategy of the ST 153Table 5.3 The authors’ attitude embedded in NGs related to human-centric marketing strategy 155Table 5.4 Translation of proper names in NGs of human centric-marketing strategy

157Table 5.5 Some suggestions for translating proper nouns in the NGs 160Table 5.6 ST-TT comparison in translating NGs related to human-centric marketing strategy 161

strategy 161Table 5.8 Partial gain of Field and Tenor in some NGs related to human-centric marketing strategy 162Table 5.9 Partial loss of Field and Tenor in some NGs related to human-centric marketing strategy 163Table 5.10 Process and Graduation embedded in the VGs related to human-centric marketing strategy 165Table 5.11 The authors’ attitude embedded in VGs related human-centric marketing strategy 167Table 5.12 Equivalence extent in translating some VGs related to human-centric marketing strategy 168Table 5.13 The ST-TT comparison in translating VGs related to human-centric marketing strategy 171

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1 Rationale

Translation studies has gone through a long history with many turning points appearing and developing into the mainstream research trends of this discipline, especially “cultural turn” dated from the 1980s with many well-known studies, such as the works of Bochner (1981), Bassnett & Lefevere (1998), Snell-Hornby (2006), Munday (2006) and Katan (2014), etc In recent years, the concept

"transdisciplinary perspective" has emerged in linguistics studies, also affecting translation and interpreting studies From the 1970s, Holmes’s map has been recognized as a comprehensive large picture in which almost realms of translation studies are covered with two huge branches: pure translation studies and applied translation studies, containing different research fields The pure branch consists of theoretical and descriptive translation studies and the present

study belongs to the descriptive research field, from which its outcomes serve the aim of applied branch, particularly in translation teaching and learning as well as in translation studies

With his map, Holmes identifies that the theoretical, descriptive and applied areas influence one another As Toury states (1991: 180; 2012: 93), the main merit of the divisions is that they cover a clarification and a division of labor between the various domains of translation studies which, in the past, have often been overlapped The divisions are flexible enough to contain developments such as the technological advances in recent years Munday indicates “James s Holmes’s 'The name and nature of translation studies' is considered to be the ‘founding statement ’ of a new discipline " and "translation studies has expanded hugely, and is now often considered an interdiscipline"

(Munday (2016:7) Lately, the concept of ‘transdiscipline’ has emerged in translation studies when interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary studies in humanities, and linguistics which reflects the integrative processes of contemporary science refer to anthropocentrism as a combination of methodological principles with the knowledge-related fields

literary texts have always put many challenges for translators, interpreters and publishing houses The reason lies in the fact that the scientific and technological revolution in the world is developing faster than ever before, how translators can convey new concepts, new ideas and new terms so that the target readers are able

to keep up with the evolvement pace and with the modem life breath The translators must retain the accuracy of the content in the source text (ST) as an equivalent factor, they still need to show the naturalness and aesthetics of the target language (TL) in the translated text, on the other hand Among the non- literary texts, the texts of both scientific and economic genres reveal their own difficulties due to Vietnam is a developing country, so almost all materials about science, technology and commerce are translated from the publications in foreign languages, in Russian formerly and in English currently In the publications always exist collocations in the ST, which probably have not been heard in the

TL before, causing challenges for the translators in rendering their meaning in the target text (TT) In any language, nouns and verbs are always assessed as the most essential parts of speech, so their collocations also play crucial roles in conveying semantic meanings That is the reason why nominal groups and verbal groups arc selected to analyze in this study In terms of genre, business texts arc texts containing the content related to business operation and transaction either

in theory or in practice Of the business activities run by companies and corporations, marketing operation holds a crucial part through which their products or services can attract, persuade customers to purchase goods, generating turnovers and profits - the final goals of any business Thus, the research priority is given to marketing texts with the aim to find out the equivalence extent of linguistic units between the ST and TT

In particular, comparative previous studies on English-Vietnamese in business mainly focus on formation of economic terms (Nguyễn Thanh Tùng, 2017), of marketing terms (Hà Thị Huong Son, 2019), on sentence structure of advertisings texts (Bùi Diễm Hạnh, 2013), on language usage of posters (Nguyễn Thanh Tùng, 2009), or the use of capital letters in English-Latvian marketing

modification embedded in nominal groups and verbal groups of English - Vietnamese translation of marketing texts has not been researched so far This is actually a gap for the present study to be conducted Thus, this study attempts to investigate the equivalence in semantic modifications of nominal groups (hereafter nominal groups- NGs), and verbal groups (hereafter verbal groups - VGs) related to market segments and the core marketing strategy of digital era 4.0 manifest in an English-Vietnamese marketing translation To complete this task, the marketing text entitled '"Marketing 4.0: Moving from Traditional to Digital" (2017) is selected as the ST of this study for several reasons Firstly, this publication was written in English by Kotler who is regarded as “the world’s Father of the modem marketing”, together with Kartajaya - the founder of MarkPlus, the biggest marketing firm of Indonesia and Setiawan - the Chief Operations Officer (COO) of MarkPlus, who are both experienced experts in marketing of Asia Secondly, this text is a newly-published works reflecting the on-going shift of marketing field from the traditional to the digital society Thirdly, this publication was translated into Vietnamese by a group of qualified translators, whose team leader is Nguyễn Khoa Hong Thành gaining a BA in Vietnamese Diplomatic Policy in Vietnam, an MBA at University of Hawaii at Manoa in the USA, and currently being the coo of Isobar Vietnam The Vietnamese translation which is examined in this study was published by Trẻ Publisher in 2018 (5th edition).

Because of the aforementioned reasons, the research entitled “A Comparative Study on English-Vietnamese Translation of Business texts”

is carried out to partly fill in the existing gap in translation studies on business texts, specifically marketing texts

2 Research aim and objective of the study

The overarching aim of the study is to assess the equivalence extent of semantic modifications embedded in NGs and VGs of a Vietnamese marketing translated text compared to its English original As the theoretical background,

and VGs of a marketing text in the English-Vietnamese translation, the study is expected to draw out the theoretical supplementation for such context of non- literary texts.

In order to achieve this aim, the objective set for this study is to investigate the equivalence extent of the NGs and VGs with semantic modifications in the Vietnamese translation compared with those in the English original on the basis of the functional-pragmatic perspective of House’s model NGs and VGs related to market segments and human-centric marketing strategy as language units play an essential role in conveying the ideational and interpersonal meaning of the ST Thus, their translation in the TT is taken into analysis and comparison to find out the differences between the two texts

The thesis attempts to gain the answer to the research question through an appropriate research approach with suitable methods presented in the following sections NGs and VGs with their semantic modifications in the translation can

be seen as the differences resulting from the outcome of comparative analysis The similarities in semantic meaning of NGs and VGs between the ST and TT arc exclusive and out of this research question The reason lies in the fact that, the similarities in terms of semantic meaning are commonly understood as fully equivalent factors

The present study concentrates on uncovering the equivalence extent of the English-Vietnamese translation at lexical level namely NGs and VGs related

to market segments and human-centric marketing strategy with semantic modifications in the chosen translated marketing text “Tiếp thị 4.0: Dịch chuyển từ Truyền thống sang Công nghệ số” published by Tré Publisher in

2018 (5lh edition) in comparison with the original text “Marketing 4.0- Moving

from Traditional to Digital” (2017) Therefore, in terms of time, the language embedded in the data of this study is restricted to the period of time in 2017 for the ST and in 2018 for the TT, that is considered to be contemporary with the time of this study completion between 2018 and 2021

Only NGs and VGs which contain semantic modifications in the translation are taken into consideration with its ST in the present study In fact, the nature of comparison lies in discovering similar and different characteristics between the phenomena and objects, and suggesting possibilities to bridge the gaps However, the similarities between the ST and TT can be seen as the common characteristics shared between the two languages and cultures, so they are not inclusive in this study Thus, in terms of space, this study is limited to the semantic modification of NGs and VGs related to market segments and human­centric marketing strategy between the two texts

There are also several reasons for selecting the differences in semantic meaning (or semantic modifications) of NGs and VGs as research objects for this study As can be seen, NGs and VGs are combinations of nouns and verbs with other linguistic elements and they appear in all locutions, sentences of a text in any language Thus, the differences contained in these language units have a tendency to reveal the translators’ intentions and attitudes toward the text’s content In other words, they play an essential part in expressing the pragmatic expectations of the translators, which consequently brings uniqueness to the translation Moreover, these categories promise interesting findings on differences in the equivalence extent at lexical level of the ST and the TT That

is why focusing on these groups would facilitate in-depth analysis and valuable comparison

This research is a comparative study of a business text, specifically a marketing text in English and its translation in Vietnamese The research approach employed for this study is mainly qualitative while the quantitative analysis plays a supplementary role in providing statistics of the data On the theoretical basis of House’s model (2015) with the combination of Appraisal theory by Martin and White (2005) as a benchmark to measure the equivalence extent, the comparative, descriptive, inteipretive and evaluative methods of qualitative approach are applied to reach an in-depth analysis It can be argued that this present study heavily relics on the qualitative approach while the quantitative approach just contributes to calculating the statistics Therefore, by nature, this study is descriptive, comparative, interpretive and evaluative.

6 Significance of the study

Theoretically, House’s functional-pragmatic model (2015) is proven to be effective and valuable not only with literary texts, but also with non-literary texts The workability of the combined framework merging elements of House’s model (2015) with the components of Martin & White’s Appraisal Theory (2005) is confirmed via this study on a marketing text - a non-literary text The extended supplementary along with the achievements of the previous studies facilitates the researcher to explore the events’ graduation and the translators’ attitudes embedded in the semantic modifications of NGs and VGs in the translation

Practically, the research findings enable translators and translator training to properly translate NGs and VGs in a non-literary text, particularly in a marketing text Unlike the common assumptions of arguing that for non-literary texts the most popular translation strategy is the literal or word-for-word, the chosen translated marketing text resorts several strategies at the same time to reach the translation equivalence These translation strategies contribute to creating the semantic modifications of the NGs and VGs, leading to different nuances of equivalence of the translation compared to the ST Additionally, the differences

translation also bring the practical significance to the translation practitioners.

7 Organization of the thesis

The study consists of six major chapters Chapter 1 - Introduction briefly refers to the rationale, the research aim, objective and research question, the scope, the contribution of the study, and the organization of the thesis

Chapter 2 - Literature Review deals with the relevant literature to the thesis, including the theories of translation studies, and also comparative translation studies Moreover, the adapted model from House’s model (2015) as the theoretical framework is deeply analyzed with the supplementation of Gradational and Attitudinal resources from Appraisal theory by Martin and White (2005), so that their integration can serve as the analytical framework of the thesis Finally, an extensive investigation on the previous studies of comparative translation studies is carried out to define the research gap, which this study can fill out

Chapter 3- Research Methodology presents the choice of research approach and method, analytical framework, data collection procedures, and data analysis

to follow the research progress

Chapter 4- Translation Equivalence of Nominal groups and Verbal groups related to market segments provides the findings of the study in line with the

semantic modifications of the NGs and VGs related to YWN segments (Young, Women, Netizens) Also, the findings are discussed with reference to the research question, and the analytical framework of the study

Chapter 5- Translation Equivalence of Nomina! groups and Verbal groups related to human-centric marketing strategy’ also brings the findings of the study

in line with the semantic modifications of the NGs and VGs related to the core marketing strategy in digital era 4.0 Also, the findings are discussed with reference to the research question, and the analytical framework of the study As

the context of English-Vietnamese non-literary texts.

Finally, Chapter 6- Conclusion summaries the whole study and comes to the conclusions, followed by the implications for theory, practice and further research Several limitations of the thesis are also indicated, which are aligned with the recommendations for the further research

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the theories about translation studies, the central issues of translation studies, and the notion of ‘translation equivalence’ are thoroughly reviewed Moreover, two popular models of translation quality assessment are presented, and House’s functional-pragmatic model (2015) is chosen as the theoretical framework because of its advantages relevant to the study Next, Appraisal Theory (Martin and White, 2005) with Gradational and Attitudinal resources is also illustrated as the supplementation for the theoretical framework Finally, the study-related concepts including business texts, marketing texts, nominal groups and verbal groups with semantic modifications arc clearly defined to pave the way for identifying the comparative unit of the present study Finally, the previous studies on Comparative Translation Studies (CTS) as well

as previous studies on Marketing Texts are reviewed in order to identify the gap for conducting the present research

2.1 Translation Studies

In this section, the discipline of translation studies is briefly reviewed, followed by the focus of the major issues with the emphasis on the issue of translation equivalence, to which the present study approaches

2.1.1 Translation Studies as a discipline

Eric Jacobsen regards translation as a Roman invention and the Roman

time is ‘the starting point' when the attention was focused on the role and status

of Roman translation This period lasted at least until the first century BC with Cicero and Horace’s view on poet translation which addressed the main functions

of poetry and both of them showed the difference between "word for word’

translation and ‘ sense for sense ’ (orfigure for figure) translation The Pre-Modem

Period featured the comparative methods of linguistics A great variety of European languages became familiar in the world, so all of these strongly supported the comparative methods to come into practice, especially in

translation practice when the need for information exchange rapidly increased.

languages could be systematically compared with respect to their phonetics, vocabulary and grammar and proven to be "’genealogically” related Comparative linguistics was developed and marked when non-European languages from Africa, Asia and America appeared in wordlists, grammars, dictionaries, and religious texts From this point of time, translation began going on its own way to form principles and theories, parallel with the development of linguistics and has been greatly influenced by the linguistics theories.

In fact, the history of translation theory has been closely associated with the history of linguistic theory and the 20Ih century was the period in which translation studies flourished and strongly developed with the translation approaches and theories In the first half of the 20lh century, it can be seen that translation theory, though it was underdeveloped, more or less addressed the main issues of translation: the issue of autonomy during the early decades and the issue

of translatability during the two late decades of this period Meanwhile, in the second half of the 20th century, Translation Studies gained many significant achievements, raising the status of this discipline as an academic discipline Chomsky’s Transformational Grammar, also called Transformational -

Generative Grammar in 1957 has a great influence on translation studies

Translation theory of this period also features the controlling concept

"equivalence” which is dominant for most translation studies of this time, which

is discussed in the following section The 1970s sees the beginning of studying large corpora of translation and the late of this period witnesses the birth of a new academic discipline: Translation Studies, which was first introduced by James s Holmes late in 1972

In the early decades of the 21s' century, linguistics is not just regarded as

an interdisciplinary domain, but also considered to be a transdisciplinary field where a team of researchers collaborate and work together on a research project This trend partly influences translation studies in which translators must coordinate with experts in other professions like psychology, education, business,

the research across borders of nations, and the start of diachronic studies and comparative studies of multilingual translations According to Munday (2016:27), the discipline of translation studies as we now call it begins with Holmes’ work, where the name and the structure for the field are suggested, but the context has now developed The interrelated branches of translation studies consist of theoretical, descriptive and applied branch.

In short, Translation Studies is an area of academic research that has developed intensively over the recent years Although translation was originally studied as a language-learning methodology or as a part of comparative literature and

contrastive linguistics courses, it is increasingly expanded in a close relation with

other disciplines as the new research trend currently

2.1.2 Central issues of Translation Studies

Translation studies, through practice, covers the specific themes, such as

on the basic linguistic concepts, the key theoretical terms, such as relative autonomy and translatability, shifts and equivalence, function and reception, the existing translation strategies, including literal versus free, formal versus dynamic, foreignizing versus domesticating, the translation of text types or particular genres consisting pragmatic versus literary or technical The central issues of Translation Studies have been debated among well-known scholars for a long time According

to Munday “one of the characteristics of the study of translation is that, certainly initially, it was based on the practice of translating; much early writing was by individual translators and directed at explaining, justifying or discussing their choice

of a particular translation strategy” (Munday, 2009:1) From this point of view, he mentions “there arc two issues that need attention here: (i) what we actually mean

by translation and (ii) what disciplines or activities fall within the scope of translation studies” (Munday, 2009:5) From another point of view, Venuti (2000) concludes that three main components of translation studies are relative autonomy,

equivalence, and function, among which the relative autonomy of translation is the most important concept, i.e “the textual features and operations or strategies that

language" (Venuti, 2000:5) That means autonomy is understood as a translated text with something else than the original text, a distinction which has led the argument that translation is impossible, because any alteration of form also changes the meaning Venuti indicates that these strategies and features “are what prevent translating from being unmediated and transparent communication”, because they

“both enable and set up obstacles to cross-cultural understanding by working over the foreign text”, thus substantiating the arguments for the translation impossibility (Vcnuti, 2000:5)

More specifically, Bassnctt (2002:vii) summarizes, the central issues of translation studies include Language and culture; Decoding and recoding; Types of

translations; Problems of equivalence; Untranslatability and Loss and gain Among

the issues, equivalence is considered the most essential problem of Translation Studies well-known scholars address when discussing translation studies, and is also one of the crucial objectives which researchers try to investigate in their translation studies Thus, this comparative study on English-Vietnamese translation of a marketing text, unexceptionally puts then notion ‘equivalence’ as the criterion for the comparison between the ST and TT

Next, the issue of translation equivalence is thoroughly discussed in the following section

2.1.3 Issue of translation equivalence

The issue of translation equivalence is regarded as one of the central problems and is probably the most heated issue of translation studies From Bassnett’s point of view, equivalence in translation, should not be considered as

a search for sameness, since “sameness cannot even exist between two TL

versions of the same text, let alone between the ST and the TL version" (Bassnett,

2002:37-38) She also argues that, research on equivalence is being separated into two lines in translation studies, in which the first focuses on the special issues of semantics and on the shift of semantic content from ST to TT The second line investigates the equivalence of literary texts (Bassnett, 2005:36) In order to

equivalence by distinguishing ‘literal' and "free’ translation, and Dagut (1976)

docs this by indicating the differences between ‘’translation ’ and ‘reproduction ’

Meanwhile, Nida (1969) suggests formal and dynamic equivalence, in which formal equivalence emphasizes on the message itself, in both content and form, aiming to enable the readers to have an insight of the SL content as much as possible Relying on the principle of equivalence effect, Nida proposes dynamic

equivalence, i.e that ‘the relationship between receiver and message should aim

at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message’

In another direction, Vcnuti (2000) states that, in practice, history of translation theory can be identified as a series of changing relationships between the relative autonomy (action of translator), and two notions: equivalence and

function. Equivalence is seen as a variable notion of how the translation is linked

to the ST and is regarded as “accuracy”, “adequacy”, “correctness”,

“correspondence”, “fidelity”, or “identity" whereas function is a variable notion

of the translation is connected to the target culture and language, is regarded as the potentiality of the translation to create diverse effects on the target culture Additionally, Newmark’s “communicative” and “semantic” equivalence and

House’s “covert” and “overt” equivalence are also proposed Koller summaries that equivalence may be ‘denotative’, depending on an invariance of content;

‘connotative’, depending on similarities of register, dialect, and style; ‘text- normative’, based on ‘usage norms’ for particular text types; and ‘pragmatic’,

ensuring comprehensibility in the receiving culture” (Koller 1979:186-91)

In fact, this present study is a comparative translation study, in which the chosen linguistic units are nominal groups and verbal groups with semantic modifications in the TT taken into consideration and comparison with those of the ST Therefore, the study of this thesis goes into the first direction- which concentrates on the special issues of semantics and on the shift of semantic

content from ST to TT (as Bassnett’s classification, 2005) Additionally, after the

definition and identification of translation equivalence from many scholars’

equivalence shows the appropriateness for the present study to apply because of the clarity, feasibility, and applicability in his division In his view, ‘denotative

equivalence' is related to the content conveyed in the notion ‘Field’ of Register while ‘connotative equivalent’ is relevant to the notion ‘Tenor’ of Register

(House’s model, 2015) Take one of typical cases in this study, for example, to see the match of equivalence identification by Koller with the analysis of elements

‘Field’ and ‘Tenor’ from House’s model

What is more, ‘text-normative’ equivalence based on ‘usage norms’ for particular text types, can be regarded as ‘individual textual function’ and

‘pragmatic equivalence’, ensuring comprehensibility in the receiving culture is achieved through ‘cultural filter’ House’s model ultimately aims to find out the functional equivalence of language units between the ST and TT Catford (1965),

in order to describe the equivalence extent, suggests the terms of non-functional equivalence, partially functional equivalence and full functional equivalence are employed According to Catford (1965: 21), non-equivalence means no TL expression is equivalent to a single SL expression; partial equivalence refers to the situation where some part or parts of the ST are left non-translated, they are just shifted to and incorporated in the TT; meanwhile, full equivalence means that the entire text is submitted to the translation process, every part of the ST is transferred to the TT However, Catford’s point of view seems to be really hard

to apply to this study due to the lack of specific benchmarks What is more, the present study addresses the semantic modification of linguistic units in the translation, that means the changes in meaning and difficult to classify into any

of the aforementioned three types For example, the NGs in the ST Tn such a

context they search for their identities ’ (code 279.5-ST) which arc translated

into ‘Trong viễn cánh đó, khách hàng sẽ tìm kiếm hấn ngã của chính mình’

(TT) in the TT is actually impossible put into ‘full equivalence’, or ‘partial equivalence’ or ‘non-equivalence’ because the translation goes beyond the original in terms of functional equivalence

occurs naturally Semantic modification can be understood as the change or the meaning shifting in the translation process in which it usually occurs sometimes because of a change or shift from SL to TL This happens due to changes in viewpoint, perspective, other meaningful terms or cultural factors Vinay & Darbelnet defines that the modulation means "a variation through a change of

viewpoint, of perspective and very often of a category of thought." Semantic modification or change in meaning happening in the translation process is actually

a natural and common event In order to produce a good translation on the equivalent extent, changes sometimes are necessary to adjust to the meaning in the ST, dealing with linguistic and cultural differences

The shift of meaning, modulation or modification is classified into two types, including free modulation and compulsory’ modulation Compulsory

modulation is applied when a structure, word, or phrase translated has no equivalence in the TL, so it is necessary to be modified by generating such new terms Compulsory modulation can also be seen in translating a word or group of words whose meaning can be the modification from specific meaning in the ST

to general meaning in the TT (Machalli, 2000: 70) Meanwhile, free modulation

is implemented because of nonlinguistic, for instance, in order to identify the meaning, to generate the equivalence in TL, searching for matching that makes natural in TT, and so on It can be modification which explicitly shows what is implied in the ST, or modification from an abstract term into more common phrase due to an inequivalent match in the TL Having no inequivalent match is attributed to the dissimilarities of cultural factors between the two languages and two cultures Thus, research on translation equivalence of semantic modification/modulation promises to bring interesting findings to translation studies and that is also the aim this study addresses

In short, a meaning modulation or semantic modification is a phenomenon that often occurs in the translation process Semantic modification usually occurs because it is necessary to make adjustments to generate TT that can achieve the

translators look for the appropriate equivalence to the This process of seeking the best search requires them to make changes, especially semantic changes which are untouched in the previous studies, yet considered the most crucial thing in the translation process.

The next section deals with the approaches of assessing translations, one

of which this study will follow

2.2 Approaches of Translation Assessment

House (1997:1) argues that translation quality assessment presupposes “a theory of translation” Therefore, different views result in different ways to evaluate translation and different concepts of translation quality Before the 19lh century, the pre-linguistic approach emerged with its mentalist views, in which translation quality assessment relics on the individual’s subjective opinion of the assessor, thus the assessment tends to be intuitive and subjective This approach

is irrelevant to this study due to the disadvantage of lacking objective assessment Also, this section reviews the two main approaches of translation assessment, namely Response-based, and Linguistics-based approach

2.2.1 Response-based approach

Response-based approach originates from the Skopos-related approach introduced by German scholars (Nord, 1997; D’Hulst, 1997) The focus of this approach lies in the puipose of translations and the target readers’ responses to the translation In fact, the term “Skopos” means the purpose or aim of translation This approach stresses that any final quality assessment of a translation should be certified with the sample receptors, that means the sample target readers Also, according to this approach, the ST is in a lower status than the TT in terms of the importance This is shown in the five rules related to the hierarchical order (Reip

and Vermeer, 1984):

(i) A translation is determined by its Skopos;

information offer in a SL and source culture;

(iii) A translation does not supply an information offer clearly reversibly;(iv) A translation must have the internal coherence;

(v) A translation must have the coherence with the ST

It can be seen that, the role of TT is higher and more dominant than the ST in the rules, indicating the lower status of the equivalence between the ST and TT Therefore, there have been disagreements and criticisms to this approach According

to Munday (2016:18), Skopos “may be inadequate at the stylistic or semantic levels

of individual segments” It cannot be denied that, response of the target readers to the translation is crucial for its success, but it is not adequately reliable to assure the translation quality if the linguistic and cultural characteristics are not thoroughly analyzed

This study aims to investigate the equivalence of nominal groups and verbal groups in the ST and TT, so the comparison from the linguistic evidence between the two texts is really a must, and they are equally treated without any priority for any side Therefore, response-based approach seems to be irrelevant to this study

2.2.2 Linguistics-based approach

According to House (2015), linguistics-based approaches try to explore the ‘relationship between the text or features of it and how these are perceived by

authors, translators and readers’ She also stresses that most promising

approaches take account of ‘the interconnectedness of context and text because

of the inextricable link between the real life and language is obvious in making meaning and in translation (House, 2015: 15)

The linguistic-based view in translation as re-contextualization is the line which is taken in the translation quality assessment model by House through a long time (1977, 1997, 2009, 2015) with many empirical studies in English- German translation of hers In contrast to the response-based approach, linguistics-based approach which regards equivalence as an essential role in

as Catford (1965), Nida (1975), Koller (1979), Wilss (1982, 1996), and House (1997, 2015) The notion “equivalence”, in linguistic-based approach, means the preservation of “meaning” across two languages and two cultures In translation three aspects of meaning include the semantic, pragmatic and textual Among these lines of meaning, the semantic is expressed via the relationship between linguistic units with the referents in the physical and mental world While the pragmatic meaning is “about meaning in speech situations” (House, 2015:22), that means language in use or in communication, the textual meaning refers to any stretch of language where sentences are linked into a larger unit - a text (House, 2015).

Other scholars who advocate the linguistically oriented approach in translation studies, such as Hatim and Mason (1990), Baker (1992) also devote their works on translation which broaden the scope of research including “recent linguistic concerns with speech act theory, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, stylistics and discourse analysis” (House, 200la: 133) Furthermore, House (2001a) also states that the theory of systemic functional language within linguistics-based approach which considers the relationship between text and context, the relationship between human beings provides firm bases for comparing the ST and TT

On that account, the linguistics-based approach tends to be appropriate with the aim of this study, in which the equivalence of the nominal groups and verbal groups in the translated text is analyzed in the comparison with those in the chosen original text The three lines of meaning of these groups can only be uncovered through their specific contexts embedded in the texts

The next section presents two popular models of translation assessment based on the Linguistics-based approach

2.3 Two popular Models of Translation Assessment

translation assessment are thoroughly examined As discussed in the previous section (Section 2.3.2), Linguistics-based approach is chosen because it seems to

be suitable for the aim of this study, so only the comparative models within this approach are discussed in this section There are two popular models of translation assessment applied to many translation studies: one by Newmark (1988b), and the other by House (2015) First, Newmark’s model (1988b) of translation assessment is presented with the analysis on its strengths and limitations Next, House’s model (2015) with its strong points and limitations is also discussed

2.3.1 Newmark’s model of translation assessment (1988)

Newmark’s model of translation assessment (1988) consists of the analysis of the ST, comparison of the original and the TT, and comments on the translation’s potential role in the future The model is divided into five steps, including:

(i) Source text analysis', a brief analysis of the ST is carried out with the focus

on the author’s purpose, attitude as well as the readership description and the identification of the text genre;

(ii) Translator’s purpose: from the translator’s view, the translation methods and the reasons for applying these methods are indicated; the

translation’s likely readership is also mentioned;

(iii) Comparison of the TT with the ST: specific and representative problems

of the ST such as cultural words are selected to put in comparison with the TT;

(iv) An evaluation of the translation: the translation is evaluated on a) thetranslator’s standard and b) the assessor’s standard; and

(v) The translation’s future: the assessment ends with the assessor’s identification of the influence and importance of the translation in the TL culture

the assessment process, the evaluator should not criticize the translator, but should try to understand his purpose and intention Also, according to Newmark, the third step in his model is the most important, which includes selecting the translations problems and the assessor must propose solutions and justify them These problems can lie in the specific linguistic categories, such as the title, the structure, shifts, metaphors, cultural words, proper names, neologisms,

‘untranslatable’ words, ambiguity level of language, and so on (Newmark, 1988:187) Meanwhile, the fourth step deals with “the quality and extent of the semantic deficit in the translation, and whether it is inevitable or due to translator’s deficiencies” (Newmark, 1988:188)

Although Newmark himself is an experienced translation practitioner and his model of translation assessment seems to contain straightforward procedures, there is still a lack of linguistic theoretical basis, which results to the challenge when applied to research purposes Thus, Newmark’s model seems to be inappropriate for this study, which is carried out on the lexical level of nominal groups and verbal groups to identify the equivalence extent and really needs to rely on a firm linguistic theoretical base

2.3.2 House’s model of translation assessment (2015)

2.3.2.1 Procedure of House’s model

House’s model of translation assessment (1997) based on pragmatics, functional linguistics, register theory, and discourse analysis has been one of the key models in linguistic approach since the 1990s In fact, the model (1997) is also developed from her previous model (1977), mainly based on Halliday’s systemic-functional theory The model (1997) is an incorporation of Crystal and Davy’s (1969) situational dimensions of texts and Halliday’s view on the language function For a long time with many studies on translation assessment applied this model and through her own empirical studies, House has revised her

goes through the six following steps:

(i) The ST is analyzed to generate the ST profile of register analysis;(ii) A description of the ST genre via the register is identified;

(iii) A statement on the ST function is uncovered with the interpersonal and ideational components;

(iv) A similar profile and the function statement of the TT are created;(v) The ST profile and the TT profile are compared with each other to uncoverthe similarities and differences;

(vi) A statement of translation quality is realized

House’s model is called a functional pragmatic model because of its functional and pragmatic characteristics which make it different from other models The term ‘functional’ mentions the textual functional component, which integrates two components, namely ideational and interpersonal functional components adopted from Halliday’s terms (House, 1997:37) Meanwhile, the term ‘pragmatic’ means ‘pragmatic meaning’ of words or illocutionary force of

an utterance In other words, it is the meaning in the particular use in a specific context, or language in use According to House, considering the pragmatic meaning has a great importance for translation, thus her model addresses the analysis of word meanings in particular context of communication

For the present study, nominal groups (NGs) and verbal groups (VGs) are embedded in the context of the ST to convey the content, so when translated into the target language, their translation cannot avoid the semantic modifications due

to the linguistic and cultural dissimilarities Analyzing these differences in the translations requires the consideration of their contexts in the original, which are further discussed in the next section

2.3.2.2 Texts and Contexts

House’s model relies on the terms of ideational and interpersonal

the notion ‘Language/Text’ Texts are unique, partly because they carry different purposes, partly because they arc products belonging to some author Thus, in definitions of translation, most of scholars mention the notion of text, source text, and target text In Cambridge dictionary, a text is “the written words in

a hook, magazine, etc., not the pictures ”

(https://dictionary.cambridgc.org/dictionary/cnglish/tcxt) For scholars, the function

of texts is more emphasized when a text is defined as "a piece of language in

use, language that is functional” (Halliday and Hasan, 1985:10) or in

Derewianka’s definition of a text, the ‘meaningful’ factor is also mentioned as its function According to Lyons (1969), function of text refers to “the use that a text has in the particular context of situation'” (Lyons 1969: 434) Obviously, the scholars concentrate on the use of texts It can be seen that function of texts is closely related to the context of situation, as they are born from the context.Therefore, texts are partly formed from the culture, where the text is activated and different cultures reach the purposes differently via language Texts differ not only in their different purposes, but also in the particular situation

in which they are functioned Language, as Sapir states, “is a guide to social reality” In fact, no two languages in the world are similar enough to be regarded

as the representatives of the same social reality So, Sapir (1956) confirms “the worlds in which different societies live arc distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached” (cited in Bassnett, 2002: 22) Sapir’s view

is strongly supported by Whorf (1956) who declares that “no language can exist unless it is steeped in the context of culture; and no culture can exist which does not have at its center, the structure of natural language” (cited in Bassnctt 2002: 23) Therefore, if culture is regarded as a body, language is the heart of the body When investigating a linguistic aspect, it is impossible not to examine the cultural context around it as they are interrelated Language always take place in

a context while language is contained in texts So, texts always bring in themselves the contextual factors, which consist of situational and cultural

context of the text (see Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1 Relation between language and social context (Martin and Rose, 2008:10)

Situational context or context of situation refers to the environment, time, and place in which words, phrases, sentences appear and the relationship among the participants Meanwhile, cultural context or context of culture indicates the meaning and assumptions existing in a community, “the culturally evolved

expectations of ways of behaving and getting things done” (Hammon Ct al

1992:2) Obviously, text and contexts have close correlation, so linguistic research is impossible to separate from contexts, in which context of culture is seen as a broad umbrella covering context of situation and text in context In practice, when a text is analyzed, meaning that its context of situation and context

of culture must be taken into consideration

Regarding function of language, Halliday (1973) mentions three meta­functions, called the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual functions of language The first function enables people to encode experiential meanings while the second function refers to meanings of personal attitudes, interaction and relationships The third function enables people to organize the ideational and interpersonal into a coherent whole, allowing people to encode the meaning

of text In fact, the function of language is embedded in the texts’ function, which

Figure 2.2 Three levels of text analysis (Martin and Rose, 2008:17)

Text’s function containing the function of language in itself, is performed through variables of Register Many texts activated in the same environment of Register variables create the Genre of texts

In summary, language cannot be fully understood unless these two aspects

of context are fully understood in the text Therefore, as a mediator between two languages and two cultures, a translator has to made decision on selecting the most appropriate meaning among all the potential available meanings which seem

to be relevant to the specific context of situation and context of culture

2.3.23 Com ponents of House’s model

House’s model (2015) was developed from House’s model (1997), based

on the empirical studies The model carries three levels: Language/ Text; Register and Genre; and Individual textual function, presented in Figure 2.3 On the lowest level, Text and the Language embedded in the text arc operationalized On the middle level, Register and Genre are activated, while the highest level is for the Individual textual function

Language/ Text

substance of language which allows researchers to carry out their studies on the certain language background.

Register

Register is determined as “a variety of language, corresponding to a variety of situation” (Halliday and Hasan, 1985:29), or identified as “a cover term for any language variety defined by its situational characteristics, including the speaker’s purpose, the relationship between speaker and hearer, and the production circumstances” (Biber, 2006:476) The variables of Register are performed through three components of‘Field’, ‘Tenor’, and ‘Mode’

Field refers to the content of the text, that means it addresses the subject matter, which is happening in the text This component discusses the related situations and events, entities, activities, and processes, which the text is describing and conveying to the readers Via the denotative function of the text, the author - the text producer delivers his intended messages in his own language, which reflects his experiences in the real world

Tenor addresses the relationship between participants involved in the actions of the text It is represented through the way people use language to communicate with each other This component reveals the interpersonal function

of language, thus it is the participatory function of the text, expressing the relationship between related parties ‘Tenor’ consists of the author’s provenance, author’s stance, social role relationship, social attitude, and participation

-Author’s provenance shows the temporal, geographical and social provenance

of the author

-Author’s stance uncovers the intellectual, emotional and affective position and

his point of view on the subject matter

-Social role relationship reveals the relationship between addresser and

solidarity and equality between the related sides, or ‘asymmetrical’, which represents the authority in the relationship between the participants.

-Social attitude measures the degree of distance in the society or proximity showing the formality or informality

-Participation mentions the simplicity or complexity of the text situation

‘Simple’ participation can be a monologue, in which there is no addressee participation, while ‘complex’ participation takes places with different addressees

Mode refers to medium, that means the communication channel employed

in the text and the connectivity of the channel Generally, medium can be either

in written or spoken, whereas connectivity is uncovered through coherence and cohesion

The analysis of the Register components allows an insight into the situational context and the cultural context In turn, these variables of Register contribute to generating Genre

Genre

The word ‘Genre’ originated from French means ‘kind’ or ‘class’ (Hyland, 2010:210) In the view of Systemic Functional Linguistics, ‘genre’ is understood as “a social process in which participants within a culture context”

of the community linguistics and culture, where the text is functionalized Genre

of texts are identified by the community culture, in which the texts are applied Different cultural communities with their different purpose have their own expressions in language The relationship between texts, Register and Genre is indicated in Figure 2.2, in which Genre and Register have an interrelationship Register deals with the link of texts and the ‘micro-context’, while Genre captures the connection between texts and the ‘macro-context’ of the linguistic and cultural community where texts are performed (House, 2001a: 138)