Biofuel Technology Handbook Dominik Rutz & Rainer Janssen 2008 This handbook is published by: WIP Renewable Energies Sylvensteinstr 81369 München Germany www.wip-munich.de Dominik.Rutz@wip-munich.de Copyright: © WIP Renewable Energies Autors: Dipl.-Ing Dominik Rutz M.Sc Dr Rainer Janssen Version: 2nd Version, January 2008 Project: Biofuel Marketplace www.biofuelmarketplace.com With the support of: Contract No EIE/05/022/SI2.420009 Content Content Introduction PART A: COMMON ASPECTS OF BIOFUELS 10 Biomass Potential 11 Biofuel Policies 15 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Biofuel Policy in the EU 15 Market Barriers of Biofuels 17 Biofuel Standardization 18 International Trade of Biofuels 19 3.4.1 Trade of Biodiesel and Related Products 21 3.4.2 Trade of Bioethanol 21 Biofuel Life Cycle 24 4.1 4.2 Energy Balance Methodologies 26 Biofuel Emissions 28 4.2.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 28 4.2.2 Vehicle Emission Standards 30 4.3 4.4 4.5 Sustainability of Biofuels 35 Economy of Biofuels 35 Consideration of Co-Products 36 PART B: TYPES OF BIOFUELS 38 Bioethanol 40 5.1 Feedstock Production 40 5.1.1 Sugar Crops 42 5.1.2 Starch Crops 45 5.1.3 Cellulosic Feedstock 47 5.2 Bioethanol Production 50 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 Sugar-to-Ethanol Process 52 Starch-to-Ethanol Process 52 Cellulose-to-Ethanol Process 54 Distillation and Dehydration Process 55 BioFuel Technology Handbook Content 5.3 5.4 Properties of Bioethanol 56 Technology Applications for Bioethanol 57 5.4.1 Spark Ignition Engines .57 5.4.2 Compression Ignition Engines 58 5.4.3 Fuel Cells 59 5.5 5.6 5.7 Standardization of Bioethanol 60 Energy Balance of Bioethanol 64 Bioethanol Emissions 65 5.7.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 65 5.7.2 Toxic Exhaust Emissions 66 5.8 Sustainability of Bioethanol 68 5.8.1 Water Issues 68 5.8.2 Land Use and Biodiversity 69 5.8.3 Human Health 70 5.9 Economy of Bioethanol 71 Lipid Derived Biofuels 74 6.1 Feedstock Production 74 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.2 Oilseed Crops .75 Microalgae 82 Animal Fats 83 Waste Oils 84 Fuel production 85 6.2.1 Oil Extraction .85 6.2.2 Oil Refining 87 6.2.3 Transesterification 89 6.3 Properties and Use of Lipid Biofuels 92 6.3.1 Properties of Pure Plant Oil (PPO) .92 6.3.2 Properties of Biodiesel 93 6.4 Technology Applications for Lipid Biofuels 94 6.4.1 Compression Ignition Engines for Biodiesel Use .94 6.4.2 Compression Ignition Engines for PPO Use .95 6.5 Standardization of Lipid Biofuels 95 6.5.1 Standardization of PPO 95 6.5.2 Standardization of Biodiesel .96 6.6 6.7 Energy Balance of Lipid Biofuels 98 Emissions of Lipid Biofuels 99 6.7.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 99 6.7.2 Toxic Exhaust Emissions 100 6.8 Sustainability of Lipid Biofuels 103 6.8.1 Water Issues 103 6.8.2 Land Use and Biodiversity .105 6.8.3 Human Health 105 BioFuel Technology Handbook Content 6.9 Economy of Lipid Biofuels 106 BtL Fuels 108 7.1 7.2 Feedstock Production 108 BtL Production 109 7.2.1 Gasification 109 7.2.2 Gas Cleaning 111 7.2.3 Synthesis Process 112 7.3 Properties and Emissions of BtL Fuels 112 Biomethane 113 8.1 8.2 Feedstock Production 113 Biomethane Production 115 8.2.1 Digestion Process 115 8.2.2 Digester Types 115 8.2.3 Biogas purification 117 8.3 8.4 Properties and Use of Biomethane 118 Technology Applications for Biomethane 118 8.4.1 Infrastructure Requirements for Biomethane 118 8.4.2 Vehicle Technologies for Biomethane 119 8.5 8.6 Standardization of Biomethane 119 Biomethane Emissions 120 8.6.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 120 8.6.2 Toxic Exhaust Emissions 121 8.7 8.8 Sustainability of Biomethane 122 Economy of Biomethane 123 Biohydrogen 124 9.1 9.2 Biohydrogen Processing 124 Use of Biohydrogen 126 PART C: THE FUTURE OF BIOFUELS 127 10 1st vs 2nd Generation Biofuels 128 11 Integrated Refining Concepts 130 12 Strategies for New Vehicle Technologies 132 13 Glossary and Abbreviations 133 BioFuel Technology Handbook Content 14 List of Figures 144 15 References of Pictures 146 16 List of Tables 147 17 References 148 BioFuel Technology Handbook Introduction Introduction This comprehensive handbook is the revised version of the “BioFuel Technology Handbook” developed under the Biofuel Marketplace project, supported by the Intelligent Energy Europe Program of the European Commission It was created in order to promote the production and use of biofuels and to inform politicians, decision makers, biofuel traders and all other relevant stakeholders about the state-of-the-art of biofuels and related technologies Thereby, the large variety of feedstock types and different conversion technologies are described Explanations about the most promising biofuels provide a basis to discuss about the manifold issues of biofuels The impartial information given in this handbook further contributes to diminish existing barriers for the broad use of biofuels Emphasis of this handbook is on first generation biofuels: bioethanol, biodiesel, pure plant oil1, and biomethane However, it includes also second generation biofuels such as BtLfuels and bioethanol from lingo-cellulose as well as biohydrogen The whole life cycle of biofuels is assessed under technical, economical, ecological, and social aspects Characteristics and applications of biofuels for transport purposes are demonstrated and evaluated This is completed by an assessment about the most recent studies on biofuel energy balances GHG balances and sustainability aspects are important issues in the current discussion about biofuels This handbook describes the current discussion about these issues and summarizes results of several studies GHG calculation methods are presented and potential impacts of biofuel production characterized: deforestation of rainforests and wetlands, loss of biodiversity, water pollution, human health, child labor, and labor conditions Finally, future developments in the biofuel sector are outlined This includes discussions on 1st versus 2nd generation biofuels, integrated refining concepts and strategies for new vehicle technologies Although the name „pure plant oil“ (PPO) refers to a vegetable origin, also oils from other resources, e.g waste oil and animal fat, are defined by this term Nevertheless, it is evident to keep in mind that all types of oil have to fulfil certain requirements to be used in transport engines In other publications PPO is also defined as „straight vegetable oil“ (SVO) BioFuel Technology Handbook Part A PART A: COMMON ASPECTS OF BIOFUELS Today, applications in the transport sector are based on liquid fuels The advantage of liquid fuels is that they are easy to store Furthermore, today’s infrastructure for transport is mainly based on liquid fuels Gaseous fuels are less utilized in the transport sector Even less applications exist for solid fuels They were only used in the past e.g for trains However, today transport fuels are classified into two basically different categories: fossil fuels which are mainly based on crude oil and natural gas, and biofuels made from renewable resources Biofuels have some common characteristics although processes for biofuels can be very different These common aspects are jointly described in three chapters of Part A of this handbook: potential of biomass, biofuel policies and biofuel life cycles The use of biofuels largely depends on the potential of available feedstock sources The overall biofuel potential which largely depends on climate, land availability and the productivity of dedicated energy crops is discussed in chapter Biofuel policies on regional, national, European and global level largely influence the success of biofuel market penetration In the EU several targets have been introduced to promote biofuels A summary of these policies is given in chapter Finally, the basic life cycle of biofuels is described in chapter 4: feedstock production, biofuel production, biofuel transport and biofuel use This includes general discussions about energy balances, emissions, sustainability, economy and the use of co-products 10 BioFuel Technology Handbook Glossary and Abbreviations the risk of fire Biodiesel has an abnormally high flashpoint (for a fuel), making it very safe to handle and store Flexible-Fuel Vehicle (FFV): A Vehicle with a common fuel tank designed to run on varying blends of unleaded gasoline with either ethanol or methanol Fluorinated Polyethylene/Polypropylene: Two types of plastic that have been specially modified to withstand certain chemicals, including biodiesel Fossil Fuel: A hydrocarbon deposit, such as petroleum, coal, or natural gas, derived from living matter of a previous geologic time and used for fuel Combustion of fossil fuels emits large amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere Fuel Cell: An electrochemical engine with no moving parts that converts the chemical energy of a fuel, such as hydrogen, and an oxidant, such as oxygen, directly to electricity The principal components of a fuel cell are catalytically activated electrodes for the fuel (anode) and the oxidant (cathode) and an electrolyte to conduct ions between the two electrodes FT: Fischer-Tropsch process for making synthetic fuels reaction process, combining together with the catalyst to form glycerin soap, the by-product of making biodiesel GMO: Genetically modified organisms Greenhouse Effect: A warming of the Earth and its atmosphere as a result of the thermal trapping of incoming solar radiation by CO2, water vapor, methane, nitrogen oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and other gases, both natural and man-made GTL: Gas-to-Liquid GWP: Global warming potential H2: Hydrogen HC: Hydrocarbons Heat of Combustion Gross: Total heat evolved during complete combustion of unit weight of a substance, usually expresses in BTU per pound Heat of Combustion Net: Gross heat of combustion minus the latent heat of condensation of any water produced Heavy crude: Crude oil with a high specific gravity and a low API gravity due to the presence of a high proportion of heavy hydrocarbon fractions and metallic content Fusil alcohol (fusil oil): Fusel alcohols, also sometimes called fusel oils, are higher order (more than two carbons) alcohols formed by fermentation During distillation, fusel alcohols are concentrated in the "tails" at the end of the distillation run They have an oily consistency, which is noticeable to the distiller, hence the other name fusel oil If desired, these heavier alcohols can be almost completely separated in a reflux still HHV: Higher heating value Gas to Liquid Technology: Gas-to-liquid conversion technologies use chemical or physical means to convert natural gas to a liquid form suitable for ready transport or direct use Homogenizer: A mechanical device which is used to create a stable, uniform dispersion of an insoluble phase (asphaltenes) within a liquid phase (fuel oil) Gasohol: In the United States, gasohol (E10) refers to gasoline that contains 10% ethanol by volume This term was used in the late 1970s and early 1980s but has been replaced in some areas of the country with E10, super unleaded plus ethanol, or unleaded plus Gasoline Gallon Equivalent (gge): A unit for measuring alternative fuels so that they can be compared with gasoline on an energy equivalent basis This is required because the different fuels have different energy densities GE: genetic engineering (or genetically engineered) High Compression Ignition Engine: Also know as Diesel engine Unlike gasoline engines which use a spark plug to ignite the fuel, there is no external ignition spark in a high compression engine Air is compressed, driving its temperature up to a point that it ignites fuel which has been injected into the chamber HP: Horsepower HTU: Hydrothermal upgrading Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV): A vehicle powered by two or more energy sources, one of which is electricity HEVs may combine the engine and fuel of a conventional vehicle with the batteries and electric motor of an electric vehicle in a single drivetrain Hydrocarbons: Compounds containing various combinations of hydrogen and carbon atoms Hydrocarbons contribute heavily to smog GHG: Greenhouse gas Hydrogen (H2): A colorless, highly flammable gaseous fuel Global Warming: The theoretical escalation of global temperatures caused by the increase of greenhouse gas emissions in the lower atmosphere Hydrometer: An instrument for determining the gravity of a liquid Glycerin: (CH2OHCHOHCH2OH): The "thick" component of all biodiesel feedstocks It is separated from the esters during the biodiesel 138 Hydrous alcohol: Alcohol that contains some water and usually has a purity of 96% In Brazil, this ethanol is being used as a 100% gasoline substitute BioFuel Technology Handbook Glossary and Abbreviations in cars with dedicated engines The distinction between anhydrous and hydrous alcohol is of relevance not only in the fuel sector but may be regarded as the basic quality distinction in the ethanol market vehicles as CNG fuel, generally at the correct pressure and temperature (i.e., the temperature effect of compression is factored into the design) LPG: Liquefied petroleum gas IBP: Initial Boiling Point LRP: Lead replaced petrol Infrastructure: In transportation, this term generally refers to the charging and fueling network necessary to successful development, production, commercialization, and operation of alternative fuel vehicles It includes fuel supply, public and private charging and fueling facilities, standard specifications for fueling outlets, customer service, education and training, and building code regulations Lubricity: Capacity to reduce friction The higher the lubricity, the easier a fuel can move through an engine, resulting in longer engine life Lubricity is measured as "kinetic viscosity." Initial Boiling Point (IBP): In a standard laboratory distillation, the temperature on the distillation thermometer at the moment the first drop of distillate falls from the condenser JI: Joint Implementation Joint Implementation (JI): Countries can engage under the Kyoto Protocol in projects through which an entity in one country partially meets its domestic commitment to reduce GHG levels by financing and supporting the development of a project in another country JI projects are between two industrial countries Kinematic Viscosity: The ratio of the absolute viscosity of a liquid to its specific gravity at the temperature at which the viscosity is measured Expressed in Stokes or Centistokes Latent heat: Heat required changing the state of a unit weight of a substance from solid to liquid or from liquid to vapor without change of temperature Layering: This occurs in tanks when a high density fuel is mixed with a low density fuel LH2: Liquid hydrogen temperatures) (stored at very low LHV: Lower Heating Value Light crude: Crude oil with a low specific gravity and high API gravity due to the presence of a high proportion of light hydrocarbon fractions and low metallic compound Light Ends: The more volatile products of petroleum refining; e.g butane, propane, gasoline Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG): Compressed natural gas that is cryogenically stored in its liquid state Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG): A mixture of hydrocarbons found in natural gas and produced from crude oil, used principally as a feedstock for the chemical industry, home heating fuel, and motor vehicle fuel LNG to CNG Station: A station, supplied with LNG, that pumps and vaporizes the liquid supply to M100: 100% (neat) methanol M85: 85% methanol and 15% unleaded gasoline by volume, used as a motor fuel in FFVs Mercosur or Mercosul: (Spanish: Mercado Común del Sur, Portuguese: Mercado Comum Sul, English: Southern Common Market) is a trading zone between Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, founded in 1991 by the Treaty of Asunción Its purpose is to promote free trade and the fluid movement of goods, peoples, and currency Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru have associate member status On December 2005, Venezuela was accepted as a new member, but it will be publicized in late 2006 Methane (CH4): The simplest of the hydrocarbons and the principal constituent of natural gas Pure methane has a heating value of 1,012 Btu per standard cubic foot Methanol (Methyl Alcohol, Wood Alcohol, CH3OH): A liquid fuel formed by catalytically combining CO with hydrogen in a to ratio under high temperature and pressure Commercially, it is typically manufactured by steam reforming natural gas Also formed in the destructive distillation of wood It is commonly used in biodiesel for its reactivity Methoxide: In biodiesel production, methoxide is a product of mixing methanol and sodium hydroxide (or potassium hydroxide) This is then mixed with the vegetable oil in a reaction known as transesterification Methyl Alcohol: See Methanol Methyl Ester: A fatty ester formed when organically derived oils are combined with methanol in the presence of a catalyst Methyl Ester has characteristics similar to petroleum-based diesel motor fuels Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE): A fuel oxygenate used as an additive to gasoline to increase octane and reduce engine knock Middle Distillate: Term applied to hydrocarbons in the so-called "middle range" of refinery distillation Examples: heating oil, diesel fuels, and kerosene MJ: Megajoule MON: Motor Octane Number BioFuel Technology Handbook 139 Glossary and Abbreviations Motor Octane: The octane as tested in a singlecylinder octane test engine at more severe operating conditions Motor octane number (MON) affects high-speed and part-throttle knock and performance under load, passing, climbing, and other operating conditions Motor octane is represented by the designation M in the (R+M)/2 equation and is the lower of the two numbers MTBE: Methyl tertiary butyl ether Mutagenicity: The property of chemical or physical agents inducing changes in genetic material that are transmitted during cell division Fundamentally, a measure of cancer risk The mutagenicity of biodiesel emissions is 75% - 90% less than its petroleum counterpart N2O: Nitrous oxide Natural Gas: A mixture of fossil gaseous hydrocarbons, primarily methane, occurring naturally in the Earth and used principally as a fuel Natural Gas Distribution System: This term generally applies to mains, services, and equipment that carry or control the supply of natural gas from a point of local supply, up to and including the sales meter Natural Gas Transmission System: Pipelines installed for the purpose of transmitting natural gas from a source or sources of supply to one or more distribution centers Natural Gas Vehicle: Vehicles that are powered by compressed or liquefied natural gas Neat Alcohol Fuel: Straight or 100% alcohol (not blended with gasoline), usually in the form of either ethanol or methanol Neat Fuel: Fuel that is free from admixture or dilution with other fuels Neutralization number: The number that expresses the weight in milligrams of an alkali needed to neutralize the acidic material in one gram of oil The neutralization number of an oil is an indication of its acidity NH3N: Ammonia nitrogen Nitrile: Also called "Buna-N." Nitrile is a low grade rubber common in older vehicles' fuel systems and is not as ideal for use with biodiesel as the higher grade synthetics For this reason, it is recommended that nitrile and natural rubber fuel system components be replaced with more suitable fluoropolymers NOx: Oxides of nitrogen OECD: Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development OEM: Original equipment manufacturer Octane Enhancer: Any substance such as MTBE, ETBE, toluene, or xylene that is added to gasoline to increase octane and reduce engine knock 140 Octane Rating (Octane Number): A measure of a fuel's resistance to self-ignition, hence a measure as well of the antiknock properties of the fuel Olefins: Class of unsaturated paraffin hydrocarbons recovered from petroleum Typical examples include: butene, ethylene and propylene Open-Loop Fuel Control: System in which the air/fuel mixture is preset by design with no feedback correction signal to optimize fuel metering Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM): The original manufacturer of a vehicle or engine Oxidation: Combining elemental compounds with oxygen to form a new compound A part of the metabolic reaction Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx): Regulated air pollutants, primarily NO and NO2 but including other substances in minute concentrations Under the high pressure and temperature conditions in an engine, nitrogen and oxygen atoms in the air react to form various NOx Like hydrocarbons, NOx are precursors to the formation of smog They also contribute to the formation of acid rain Oxidizing agent: Any substance (oxygen, chlorine) that can accept electrons When oxygen or chlorine is added to wastewater, organic substances are oxidized These oxidized organic substances are more stable and less likely to give off odors or to contain disease bacteria Oxygenate: A term used in the petroleum industry to denote fuel additives containing hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen in their molecular structure It includes ethers such as MTBE and ETBE and alcohols such as ethanol and methanol Oxygenated Fuels: Fuels blended with an additive, usually methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) or ethanol to increase oxygen content, allowing more thorough combustion for reduced carbon monoxide emissions Oxygenated Gasoline: Gasoline containing an oxygenate such as ethanol or MTBE The increased oxygen content promotes more complete combustion, thereby reducing tailpipe emissions of CO Ozone(O3): Tropospheric ozone (smog) is formed when volatile organic compounds (VOCs), oxygen, and NOx react in the presence of sunlight (not to be confused with stratospheric ozone, which is found in the upper atmosphere and protects the earth from the sun's ultraviolet rays) Though beneficial in the upper atmosphere, ground-level ozone is a respiratory irritant and considered a pollutant Ozonation: The application of ozone to water, wastewater, or air, generally for the purposes of disinfection or odor control PAH: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAN: Peroxyacetyl nitrate BioFuel Technology Handbook Glossary and Abbreviations Paraffins: Group of saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons, including methane, ethane, propane, and butane and noted by the suffix "-ane" Particulates: Very small liquid and solid particles floating in the air and a component of smog Particulate Matter (PM): A generic term for a broad class of chemically and physically diverse substances that exist as discrete particles (liquid droplets or solids) over a wide range of sizes Particulate Trap: Diesel vehicle emission control device that traps and incinerates diesel particulate emissions after they are exhausted from the engine but before they are expelled into the atmosphere PCB: Polychlorinated biphenyls Petrochemical: An intermediate chemical derived from petroleum, hydrocarbon liquids or natural gas, such as: ethylene, propylene, benzene, toluene and xylene Petroleum: A generic name for hydrocarbons, including crude oil, natural gas liquids, natural gas and their products pH: pH is an expression of the intensity of the basic or acidic condition of a liquid Mathematically, pH is the logarithm (base 10) of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration The pH may range from to 14, where is most acidic, 14 most basic, and is neutral Natural waters usually have a pH between 6.5 and 8.5 Phase Separation: The phenomenon of a separation of a liquid or vapor into two or more physically distinct and mechanically separable portions or layers Phenol: An organic compound that is an alcohol derivative of benzene PM: particular matter Polymer: A chemical formed by the union of many monomers (a molecule of low molecular weight) Polymers are used with other chemical coagulants to aid in binding small suspended particles to form larger chemical flocs for easier removal from water All polyelectrolytes are polymers, but not all polymers are polyelectrolytes Polymerization: Process of combining two or more simple molecules of the same type, called monomers, to form a single molecule having the same elements in the same proportion as in the original molecules, but having increased molecular weight The product of the combination is a polymer Portable Fueling System: A system designed to deliver natural gas to fueling stations Such systems are usually configured as tube trailers and are mobile Fuel delivery usually occurs via over-theroad vehicles Potassium Hydroxide (KOH): A metallic alkaline salt that can be used instead of sodium hydroxide for methoxide production When KOH is used in Biodiesel production the by-product can be used as a fertilizer Pounds Per Square Inch (psi): A unit of measure for pressure Pour Point: Lowest temperature at which an oil will pour or flow under certain prescribed conditions ppm: Parts per million PPO: Pure plant oil Private Fleet: A fleet of vehicles owned by a non government entity Proof: Alcoholic proof is a measure of how much ethanol is in an alcoholic substance, and is approximately twice the percentage of alcohol by volume (ABV, the unit that is commonly used presently) After distillation 190 proof ethanol is received and after dehydration 200 proof ethanol is received Propane (C3H8): A gas whose molecules are composed of three carbon and eight hydrogen atoms Propane is present in most natural gas in the United States, and is refined from crude petroleum Propane contains about 2,500 Btu per standard cubic foot Propane is the principal constituent in liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) Pure vegetable oil (PVO): Oil produced from oil plants through pressing, extraction or comparable procedures, crude or refined but chemically unmodified, which can be used as biofuel when compatible with the type of engine involved and the corresponding emission requirements Purifier: A machine used for a liquid-liquid separation in which the two intermixed liquids which are insoluble in each other have different specific gravities Solids with specific gravities higher than those of the liquids can be separated off at the same time A purifier bowl has two outlets; one for the light phase liquid and one for the heavy phase liquid R&D: Research and development Reagent: A pure chemical substance that is used to make new products or is used in chemical tests to measure, detect, or examine other substances Reducing agent: Any substance, such as the base metal (iron) or the sulfide ion that will readily donate (give up) electrons The opposite of an oxidizing agent Redwood viscosity: The number of seconds required for 50 ml of an oil to flow out of a standard Redwood viscosimeter at a definite temperature; British viscosity standard Refinery: A plan used to separate the various components present in crude oil and convert them BioFuel Technology Handbook 141 Glossary and Abbreviations into usable products or feedstock for other processes Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP): A standard measurement of a liquid's vapor pressure in psi at 100°F It is an indication of the propensity of the liquid to evaporate Renewable Energy: Designated commodity or resource, such as solar energy, biodiesel fuel, or firewood, that is inexhaustible or replaceable by new growth Research Octane Number (RON): The octane as tested in a single-cylinder octane test engine operated under less severe operating conditions RON affects low-to medium-speed knock and engine run-on Retrofit: To change a vehicle or engine after its original purchase, usually by adding equipment such as conversion systems RFG: Reformulated gasoline RFO: Recycled frying oil RFO-ME: Recycled frying oil methyl ester RME: Rapeseed methyl ester (a type of FAME) RVP: Reid vapor pressure Solvent: A substance, normally a liquid, which is capable of absorbing another liquid, gas, or solid to form a homogeneous mixture SOx: Oxides of sulfur Specifications: Term referring to the properties of a given crude oil or petroleum product, which are "specified" since they often vary widely even within the same grade of product In the normal process of negotiation, seller will guarantee buyer that product or crude to be sold will meet certain specified limits, and will agree to have such limits certified in writing Specific gravity: Weight of a particle, substance or chemical solution in relation to an equal volume of water at 15°C Abbreviated as Sp.Gr Specific heat: The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit weight of a substance by degree; usually expresses as calories/gram/C or BTU/lb./F Smog: A visible haze caused primarily by particulate matter and ozone Ozone is formed by the reaction of hydrocarbons and NOx in the atmosphere Spark Ignition Engine: Internal combustion engine in which the charge is ignited electrically (e.g., with a spark plug) Second generation biofuel: Biofuel which is not yet competitive and available on the fuel market It is made from second generation feedstock, such as cellulosic materials and plants An example is BtL fuel SRWC: short rotation woody crops SHF: Separate hydrolysis and fermentation (technology for cellulosic ethanol production) Straight Vegetable Oil (SVO): Pure oil which is made from plant materials Silicon and Teflon: Fluoropolymers that can withstand high heat, especially useful in replacing older rubber fuel lines STP: Standard Temperature (25°C) and Pressure (300 mm Mercury) SIT: Spontaneous Ignition Temperature The temperature at which an oil ignites of its own accord in the presence of air or oxygen under standard conditions Slagging: Formation of hard deposits on boiler tubes and piston crowns which is usually due to the presence of sodium, vanadium and sulfur Sludge: Deposits in fuel tanks and caused by the presence of wax, sand, scale, asphaltenes, tars, water, etc SME: Soy methyl ester (a type of FAME) SME: Small and medium sized enterprise SNG: Synthetic natural gas Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda, Lye, NaOH): It is a metallic alkaline salt that is extremely corrosive and is used in Biodiesel production to make methoxide Soluble: Matter or compounds capable of dissolving into a solution 142 SSF: Simultaneous saccarification and fermentation (technology for cellulosic ethanol production) Stoke: The unit of kinematic viscosity Sulfur (S): An element that is present in crude oil and natural gas as an impurity in the form of its various compounds Surfactant: Surface-active agent It is the active agent in detergents that possesses a high cleaning ability SWAP: In finance a swap is a derivative, where two counterparties exchange one stream of cash flows against another stream These streams are called the legs of the swap The cash flows are calculated over a notional principal amount Swaps are often used to hedge certain risks, for instance interest rate risk Another use is speculation Synthetic biofuels: Synthetic hydrocarbons or mixtures of synthetic hydrocarbons produced from biomass, e.g SynGas produced from gasification of forestry biomass or SynDiesel Synthetic natural gas (SNG): A manufactured product, chemically similar in most respects to natural gas, resulting from the conversion or reforming of petroleum hydrocarbons that may BioFuel Technology Handbook Glossary and Abbreviations easily be substituted for or interchanged with pipeline-quality natural gas Vehicle Conversion: Retrofitting a vehicle engine to run on an alternative fuel Tag-Robinson Colorimeter: An instrument used to determine the color of oils Also a scale of color values Vehicle Miles Traveled: The miles traveled by motor vehicles over a specified length of time (e.g daily, monthly, or yearly) or over a specified road or transportation corridor Tax Incentives: In general, a means of employing the tax code to stimulate investment in or development of a socially desirable economic objective without direct expenditure from the budget of a given unit of government Such incentives can take the form of tax exemptions or credits Tertiary Amyl Ethyl Ether (TAEE): An ether based on reactive C5 olefins and ethanol Tertiary Amyl Methyl Ether (TAME): An ether based on reactive C5 olefins and methanol Thermal Value: Calories per gram of BTU per pound produced by burning fuels Toluene: Basic aromatic compound derived from petroleum and used to increase octane The most common hydrocarbon purchased for use in increasing octane Topped Crude Oil: Oil from which the light ends have been removed by a simple refining process It is also referred to as "reduced crude oil" Toxic: A substance which is poisonous to a living organism Toxic Emission: Any pollutant emitted from a source that can negatively affect human health or the environment Transesterification: The process by which the vegetable oil molecule is "cracked" and the glycerin is removed, resulting in glycerin soap and methyl/ethyl esters (biodiesel) Organic fats and oils are triglycerides which are three hydrocarbon chains connected by glycerol The bonds are broken hydrolyzing them to form free fatty acids These fatty acids are then mixed or reacted with methanol or ethanol forming methyl or ethyl fatty acid esters The mixture separates and settles out leaving the glycerin on the bottom and the methyl/ethyl ester or biodiesel on the top The glycerin is then used for soap or any one of several hundred other products and the biodiesel is filtered and washed to be used as a fuel in a diesel engine Ullage: The amount which a tank or vessel lacks of being full Viscosimeter: A device for determining the viscosity of oil There are several methods or devices in general use Basically, a fixed quantity of oil is allowed to pass through a fixed orifice at a specified temperature over a measured time span and then compared to a standard liquid such as a calibration oil or water Viscosity: Measure of the internal friction or resistance of an oil to flow As the temperature of an oil is increased, its viscosity decreases and it is therefore able to flow more readily Biodiesel is much less viscous than the oil from which it is made Viscosity is measured on several different scales, including Redwood No at 100F, Engler Degrees, Saybolt Seconds, etc The most common method for designation of viscosity is kinematic viscosity, measured in centistokes VOCs: Volatile Organic Compounds Volatile: A volatile substance is one that is capable of being evaporated or changed to a vapor at a relatively low temperature Volatile substances also can be partially removed by air stripping Volatile Organic Compound (VOC): Reactive gas released during combustion or evaporation of fuel VOCs are a major component of air pollution and react with NOx in the presence of sunlight and form ozone A wide range of carbon-based molecules, such as aldehydes, ketones, and hydrocarbons are VOC's Volatility: Ability of a substance (gasoline) to turn from a liquid to a vapor Low volatility refers to low RVP, indicating less light hydrocarbons in the gasoline front end WTO: World trade organization WVO: Waste Vegetable Oil Xylene: An aromatic hydrocarbon derived from petroleum and used to increase octane Highly valued as a petrochemical feedstock Xylene is highly photochemically reactive and, as a constituent of tailpipe emissions, is a contributor to smog formation USDA: US Department of Agriculture Vapor Pressure or Volatility: The tendency of a liquid to pass into the vapor state at a given temperature With automotive fuels, volatility is determined by measuring RVP Variable Fuel Vehicle (VFV): A vehicle that has the capacity of burning any combination of gasoline and an alternative fuel Also known as a flexiblefuel vehicle BioFuel Technology Handbook 143 List of Figures 14 List of Figures Figure 1: Figure 2: Actors, life cycle and horizontal attributes of biofuel production 24 Figure 3: Overview of energy flow and emissions for all process steps in the life cycle of biofuels 25 Figure 4: Simplified chart showing the progression of European emission standards (NOx and PM) for Diesel cars (Source: WIKIPEDIA 2006) 31 Figure 5: Simplified chart showing the progression of European emission standards for Petrol cars (NOx and PM) Note that until Euro 5, there were no PM limits (Source: WIKIPEDIA 2006) 32 Figure 6: Co-products: bagasse from sugarcane (left) and rape seed cake (right) 37 Figure 7: Process chains for fuel production (Source: EC 2006a p 20) 38 Figure 8: Pathways of different biofuels 39 Figure 9: Types of feedstock for ethanol production (examples) 41 Figure 10: Harvested sugar beets (Germany) 42 Figure 11: Sugar cane plantation (India) 43 Figure 12: Plants, seeds and stalks of sweet sorghum 44 Figure 13: Different types of starchy crops for ethanol production 45 Figure 14: Blooming potato plants (left) and their starchy tubes 46 Figure 15: Primary cellulosic wastes, such as forest waste (left) and agricultural residues (right) 47 Figure 16: Willow plantation (left) and poplar leaves (right) 49 Figure 17: Sugar mill for bioethanol production from sugar cane in Brazil 52 Figure 18: Grain-to-ethanol-process 53 Figure 19: Distillery for bioethanol production from sugarcane in Brazil 55 Figure 20: Price difference (October 2007) of more than one Real between petrol (gasolina) and bioethanol (alcool) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 71 Figure 21: Ethanol production in the European Union in 2005 (estimates in tons) (EUROBSERV’ER 2006) 73 Figure 22: Types and classification of lipid feedstock sources (examples) 75 Figure 23: 144 Environmentally-compatible agricultural bioenergy potential (Source: EEA 2006) 13 Rape seeds and rape in flower 76 BioFuel Technology Handbook List of Figures Figure 24: Soy plant and beans (USDA 2006) 77 Figure 25: Fruit of palm oil tree (WIKIPEDIA 2006) 77 Figure 26: Copra drying in the sun (WIKIPEDIA 2006) 78 Figure 27: Sunflower 79 Figure 28: Jatropha curcas fruits (TROPILAB 2006) 79 Figure 29: Small scale press for cold pressing of rape seed, Germany 85 Figure 30: Example for an oil extraction process of rape seeds 87 Figure 31: Chemical plant oil refining process 88 Figure 32: Transesterification reaction of biodiesel production by using methanol 90 Figure 33: Biodiesel plant for animal fat (grease) in Brazil 91 Figure 34: Labels for biodiesel in Germany after AGQM (left) and DIN EN 14214 (right) 97 Figure 35: Average emission impacts of biodiesel for heavy-duty highway engines (EPA 2002) 101 Figure 36: Water use for petroleum diesel, B20, and B100 (SHEEHAN et al 1998) 104 Figure 37: Comparison of total wastewater flows for petroleum diesel and biodiesel life cycles (SHEEHAN et al 1998) 104 Figure 38: Biodiesel production in the European Union in 2005 (estimates in tons) (EUROBSERV’ER 2006) 107 Figure 39: Simplified process of BtL fuel production 109 Figure 40: Slurry produced with the bioliq process 111 Figure 41: Waste materials (waste potatoes) (left) and maize silage (right) for biogas production 114 Figure 42: Biogas installation with two digesters (continuously flow type on the left and pug flow type container on the right) in Germany 117 Figure 43: Labels for gas pumps with natural gas in Germany 120 Figure 44: Energy yield of different biofuels in Germany for one hectare in transport kilometres (COSTA GOMEZ 2006) 122 Figure 45: Future European Roadmap for Biofuels (EC 2006a) 129 Figure 46: General concept of biorefinery (SANDERS 2006) 130 Figure 47: Example of a biorefinery concept for the production of ethanol (PAULI KIEL et al 1994) 131 BioFuel Technology Handbook 145 List of Figures 15 References of Pictures RUTZ D.: Figure 6, Figure 10, Figure 11, Figure 13, Figure 14, Figure 15, Figure 16, Figure 17, Figure 19, Figure 20, Figure 23, Figure 27, Figure 29, Figure 33, Figure 40, Figure 41, Figure 42; Picture 1, 2, of Table 10 TROPILAB: Figure 28 USDA: Figure 24 WIP: Figure 12 WIKIPEDIA: Figure 25, Figure 26 146 BioFuel Technology Handbook List of Tables 16 List of Tables Table 1: Global warming potentials (GWP) of 100 years for several greenhouse gases, relative to carbon dioxide (IPCC 2001) 28 Table 2: EU emission standards for light commercial vehicles (category N1), g/km 33 Table 3: EU emission standards for passenger cars (category M1*), g/km 34 Table 4: Properties of ethanol 50 Table 5: Ethanol production steps by feedstock and conversion technique 51 Table 6: Parameters of bioethanol in comparison with petrol (PAUL & KEMNITZ 2006) 56 Table 7: Sekab 99.5% Ethanol specification (www.sekab.se) 62 Table 8: Additional specification for Sekab 99.5% Ethanol (www.sekab.se) 62 Table 9: Estimated fossil energy balances of selected fuel types from several studies (summarized by WWI 2006 p 136) 64 Table 10: Examples for potential oil crops for biofuel production 80 Table 11: Parameters of biodiesel and PPO in comparison with fossil diesel and BtL (PAUL & KEMNITZ 2006) 92 Table 12: Estimated fossil energy balances of selected fuel types from several studies (summarised by WWI 2006 p.136 and MITTELBACH & REMSCHMIDT 2004 p 254) 98 Table 13: Digestion classification by several criteria (adapted from SCHOLWIN et al 2006 p 36) 116 Table 14: Parameters of methane (from biogas or natural gas) (PAUL & KEMNITZ 2006) 118 Table 15: Reductions of toxic emissions (in %) from biomethane combustion in comparison with petrol and diesel 121 BioFuel Technology Handbook 147 References 17 References AGQM (ARBEITSGEMEINSCHAFT QUALITÄTSMANAGEMENT BIODIESEL E.V.) (2006): Internet: http://www.agqmbiodiesel.de/_3 .html [12.06.06] ARMSTRONG S.R (1999): ETHANOL Brief Report on its Use in Gasoline – Internet: http://www.ethanol.org/pdfs/health_impacts.p df [02.08.06] ARNOLD K RAMESOHL S FISCHERDICK M MERTEN F (2005): Synopsis of German and European erperience and state of the art of biofuels for transport – Study commissioned by the German GTZ; Wuppertal Institute; 91 p AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT (2005): Setting National Fuel Quality Standards – Proposed Fuel Quality Standard for Fuel Grade Ethanol – Austrian Government Position; Canberra; July 2005; 13 p ATRAX ENERGY (2005): Assessment of bioethanol and biogas initiatives for transport in Sweden - Background information for the EU-project PREMIA; 58 p BADGER P.C (2002): Ethanol from cellulose: A general review - In: JANICK J & WHIPKEY A (eds.), Trends in new crops and new uses ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA p 17–21; Online: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu02/ v5-017.html [30.05.2006] BIODIESEL (2006): Internet: http://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuelfactshe ets/emissions.pdf [19.07.2006] COSTA GOMEZ C (2006): Notwendige Rahmenbedingungen für die Nutzung von Biogas als Kraftstoff in Deutschland Presentation at the „4 Internationaler Fachkongress: Kraftstoffe der Zukunft des BBE und der UFOP“; 27./28 November 2006, ICC Berlin CRUTZEN P.J., MOSIER A.R., SMITH K.A., WINIWARTER W (2007): N2O release from agro-biofuel production negates global warming reduction by replacing fossil fuel – Atmos Chem Phys Discuss., 7, 11191-11205 148 DREIER T., TZSCHEUTSCHLER P (2001): Ganzheitliche Systemanalyse für die Erzeugung und Anwendung von Biodiesel und Naturdiesel im Verkehrssektor - Energie und Anwendungstechnik; Insttitut für Energeietechnik TU München; 70 p EC (COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES): Directive 2001/116/EC of 20 December 2001 adapting to technical progress Council Directive 70/156/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the type-approval of motor vehicles and their trailers – OJ L 18, 115 p EC (COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES): Directive 2003/30/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of May 2003 on the promotion of the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for transport – OJ L 123, 17.05.2003 p 42-46 EC (COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES): Council Directive 2003/96/EC of 27 October 2003 restructing the framework for the taxation of energy products and electricity – OJ L 283, 31.10.2003 p 51-70 EC (COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES): Directive 2003/17/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of March 2003 amending Directive 98/70/EC relating to the quality of petrol and diesel fuels – OJ L 76, 22.03.2003 p 10-19 EC (COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES) (2005): Biomass Action Plan {SEC(2005) 1573} – Brussels; 47 p EC (COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES) (2006a): Biofuels in the European Union A Vision for 2003 and beyond – EUR 22066; Brussels; 33 p EC (COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES) (2006b): An EU Strategy for Biofuels {SEC(2006) 142} – Brussels; 29 p EC DG ENV (EUROPEAN COMMISSION DG ENVIRONMENT) (2006): Biomass Potential in Europe – News Alert Issue January 2006; Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/ne BioFuel Technology Handbook References wsalert/pdf/5na2.pdf#search=%22biomass%2 0potential%22 [29.08.2006] EEA (EUROPEAN ENVIRONMENT AGENCY) (2006): How much bioenergy can Europe produce without harming the environment? 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