Trong bfii bfio nfiy, cfic khfii nifm "ly thuydt vT md", "ly thuydt m e " hay "ly thuyet lon" dugc chflng tdi dung de chi "paradigm" theo nghia cfla Kuhn.. Nhu vfiy, nhung nhfi khoa hgc
Trang 1p i mmmm
^) CAC LYTHUYET VI MO XA H O I HOC: MOT iTNG DUNG XAY DUlSlG KHUNG LYTHUYET CHO NGHIEN CUU THEO QUAN NIEM LY THUYET VT MO CUA THOMAS KUHN
TR|NH VAN TUNG' NGUYEN THI HOAI AN*"
So vdi nhidu khoa hgc khac, xa hgi hgc la mgt khoa hgc tre, cu thd la ra doi tfl giita the ki 19 Tuy mdi phat tridn dugc khoang 1,5 thd ki nhung xfi hdi hgc da kip sfin sinh ra nhieu ddng ly thuydt giup cho cac nhfi khoa hgc, nhit la khoa hgc xa hdi, cd dugc nhieu khung quy chieu khi tidn hanh tim hidu vfi giai thich thuc td xS hgi Vfiy chung ta cd thd s i p xdp cac ly thuydt xfi hdi hgc tfl thdi ki cd didn ddn nay thfinh nhtmg ly thuydt vi md khdng? Nhung tieu chi nfio cho phep chung ta thyc hifn dugc cdng vifc nfiy?
Dya vfio dinh nghia "Iy thuyet vi md"' cua Kuhn (1962), trong bai bao nay chung tdi cd y dinh sap xep mdt sd ly thuyet xfi hdi hgc theo cac ddng ly thuydt vt md iy Tren
CO sd do, chung tdi thao Iuan ve kha nang ung dyng cfic ddng Iy thuydt trong qua trinh xay dyng mgt vfii khung Iy thuydt nghien cuu c a bfin vd thyc td xa hgi Khai nifm "ly thuyet vT md" khac vdi "Iy thuyet trung md" vfi "ly thuydt vi mo" theo quan nifm ciia Merton (Akoun & Ansart, 1990: 536) Tac gia nay cho rang, nhung ly thuyet tnmg md vfi
ly thuyet vi md khdng co tham vgng giai thich khai quat hoa hifn tugng xa hgi, mfi chi cd tham vgng dd xuat cac gia thuyet cue bg cd the Idem chiing dugc bing each "ma hda" cfic ket qua nghien cuu thyc dia Trong khi do, theo Kuhn, ly thuyet vT md hay ly thuyet ldn mang tinh khai quat cd tham vgng gifii thich mgt each phd quat thuc td xfi hdi (thuydt tidn hda, thuyet duy vat bien chflng, thuydt cau true, thuyet chflc nang, thuyet hanh dfng ) Nhung Iy thuydt nay chi tra thfinh vT md khi vfi chi kW quy tu nhieu nha khoa hgc ciing chia sd quan nifm vd thyc td xfi hgi, ddi tugng, phuang phap lugn, phuang p h ^ nghien cuu va cfich thflc Ii gial chfin li khoa hgc Tat cfi nhflng dieu fiy cfiu thfinh mdt ddng I^ thuydt hay mdt truomg phfii n h a vao ly thuyet vT md Trong bfii bfio nfiy, cfic khfii nifm "ly thuydt vT md", "ly thuydt m e " hay "ly thuyet lon" dugc chflng tdi dung de chi "paradigm" theo nghia cfla Kuhn
PGS TS, Dgi hgc Khoa hgc Xd hgi vd Nhdn vdn, Dgi hgc QuSc gia Hd Ndi
' NCS Dgi hgc Khoa hgcXd hgi vd Nhdn vdn Dgi hgc Qudc gia Hd Ngi
Thu&t ngff "paradigm" trong tiing Anh hoSc "paradigme" trong tiing Phap dugc nhieu tic gia d6 xu^
diuyen ngit ra tiing Vi|t khfic nhau nhu "khung mlu", Ind thurc", "md hinh", "ciu binh", "lif J nifm",
"chu thuya" Dk 1 ^ phong phO them ngdn ngit ly thuylt trong tiing Vi|t, chiing toi dl xuit them cich
djch "ly thiQ'et vT mo", ''ly thuylt ldn" dl gidi khoa hpc rpng dudng phe binh va sir dyng
Trang 21 Ly thuyet vi mo theo quan diem cua Thomas Kuhn
Trong truydn thdng tridt hgc cua Platon, ly thuydt vT md la phuang thflc dien dat diln hmh vfi cu thd vd mgt thyc td trim tugng (Berthelot, 1999: 382) Tuy nhien, tfl khi
Thomas Kuhn xuit ban cudn Cdu true cua cdc cudc cdch mgng khoa hgc (Structure des
revolutions scientifiques) (1962: 15)thi thugt ngft nay da nhanh chdng tro nen ndi tieng
vai nhidu each dich khfic nhau a trong cfic thfl tidng Dfl dugc dich the nfio di chang nua thi mgi ngudi ddu thdng nhit ring, ly thuyet vT mo la mdt md hinh ly thuyet dien hinh cho mdt tiudng phai tu duy khoa hgc Ndi ddn ly thuydt vT md tuc la ndi ddn khung quy chidu
dd hidu thyc td dugc quan sat bdi nhfi khoa hgc Cac ly thuyet vT md dugc phfin bift vdi nhau chu ydu qua ddi tugng, phuong phfip, ngdn ngu bidu dgt, nguydn tic, gia tri va quan
didm di tim chfin li khoa hgc Hay ndi cfich khfic, "ly thuyit vTmd hay ly thuyit ldm Id mot
h^ thdng khdng dinh khoa hoc hogc mot he thdng dinh di cua mgt cgng dong khoa hoc "
(Ansart, 1999: 382) Ly thuydt vT md dugc "hda thfin" vao cac nghidn ciiu, cfic kinh nghiem hogt ddng khoa hgc dien hinh va dugc neu trong cfic cudn sfich dugc cho la "kinh didn" Khi fip dung vfio khoa hgc xfi hgi, ly thuyet vi md mang trong minh hucmg tiep can thyc tien va giup cho cac nhfi khoa hgc co nhidu su lya chgn Mgt 1^ thuyet vT md bao gid ciing mang bdn dfic tnmg: (1) tinh bat kha quy ("irreductibiUte"), (2) tinh quy uac cua ngdn ngfl ("incommensurabilite"), tflc la moi ly thuyet vT md cd mdt hf thdng ngdn ngfl bieu dat khfic nhau; (3) tinh dien hinh ("exemplarite") tflc la mdi ly thuyet cung cap mgt
md hinh phfin tich, vfi (4) tinh khdng uu trdi ("non superiorite") so vdi cac ly thuyet vi md khfic, tflc la khdng ly thuyet vT md nfio cao hon ly thuydt vT md khac Theo dfic trung thfl
tu, mgi ly thuydt vT md ddu la tuong ddi vi chua co ly thuyet nfio khing dinh ring, nd la duy nhfit mfi chfin li khoa hgc da dugc khfim phfi Tit ca cac ly thuydt vT md ddu hfim y nhd no ma ehan li khoa hgc dugc kham pha vai tu cfich lfi tinh xac thyc, nhung khdng cd
ly thuydt vT md nfio la duy nhit dem lgi kidn thflc khoa hgc (Trinh Vfin Tung, 2001:250) Khi nghien cflu khoa hgc lugn, Kuhn cho ring, ly thuydt vT md la mdt sy d^ng thufin cao cfla cgng ddng khoa hgc khi hg chia se ve each quan nifm va tim hidu thyc td xa hfi (Giraux Natalie, 2008: 237) Nhu vfiy, nhung nhfi khoa hgc dugc xdp vao mdt trudng phfii hay ly thuydt vt md nao dd thudng chia sd nhung didm nhu ddi tugng, phuong phfip Iuan, phuang phfip nghien cuu (dinh tinh, dinh lugng hay hdn hgp), co chd li lufin va quan nifm
ve chfin li khoa hgc Ly thuydt vt md phai thl hifn dugc each thflc rieng cfla mgt nha khoa hge quan niem vd hogt ddng khoa hgc cua chinh minh Dya tren dinh nghta iy, dd sip xdp dugc cfic ly thuydt xfi hdi hgc tiifinh cfic ly tiiuydt vt md khac nhau, Giraux tdm lugc hai khia cgnh cau tiianh ly thuyet vi md gdm: (1) cd sy chia se, ddng tiiuan vd each xem xet thyc td xa hgi, vd nhftng gi cd thl hidu dugc vd thyc td xfi hdi, va (2) cd sy ddng tiiuan vl phuang phfip luan cung nhu phuong phap tim hilu thyc td xa hdi iy Tfl hai chidu cgnh cau thfinh ly tiiuydt vt md theo quan nifm cfla Kuhn, Giraux dd xuit hai tieu chi dd sfip xdp cfic ly thuydt xa hgi hgc tu xua ddn nay nhu sau:
Thfl nhfit, quan nifm cua nha xfi hdi hgc nhu thd nfio vd thyc td xfi hfi cin tun hieu? Ddi vdi moi mdt ly thuydt vt md, dilu quan ti-gng la xac dinh ddi tugng nghien cuu cfla minh
Trang 3Thfl hai, quan hf cua nhfi xa hdi hgc ddi voi ddi tirgng nghien cuu ma mmh dugc xac dinh nhu the nao? Hay noi cy till hon, phuang phap luan va phuang phap nghien cflu nao dugc nha xa hgi hgc uu tien sfl dung? Vai trd cfla nha nghien cflu duoc quan nifm nhu thl nao? (Giraux, 2008: 238)
Nhu vgy, hai tieu chi ti-en dugc Giraux dua ra tiidng qua nhung cau hdi khoa hgc luan ("epistemological questions") thd hien chilu cgnh nhan tiiuc ("cognitive dimension")
ve ly thuylt vt md Ben cgnh chilu canh nhan tiiflc, ly thuylt vt md cdn cd mdt chilu canh
xa hpi ("social dimension") Chilu cgnh xa hdi ehi cho ta tiiiy mdt thyc t l la, vifc tiiam gia vfio mdt ly tiiuydt vt md nao dd hoac viec hi mdt ly tiiuylt vt md nao dd tiiuylt phuc cho phep tap hgp cac nhfi nghidn cuu xa hdi hgc thfinh mdt mgng luai, mgt hgc phfii ("scientific school") chia sd each xem xet va phuong phfip tun hilu thyc t l xfi hdi Dya vfio thuat ngu ly thuylt vt md cua Kuhn, phfin vilt tilp theo cfla bai bao nay cd gang "sap xep" mgt sd nha xa hgi hgc lon tien t h l gidi tfl cd diln d i n nay d l hilu dugc each tiiflc vfi phuang phfip nhin nhfin thyc t l xa hgi cfla hg cd nhung dilm khfic nhau nhu the nfio Dd lfim dugc cdng vifc khd khan nfiy, ehung tdi chgn hai giai dogn phfit triln cua xfi hdi hge d l so sfinh cfic tfic gia cd diln cudi t h l ki 19 d i n d i u t h l ki 20 (Durkheun va Weber) vfi so sfinh cac tfic gifi hifn tgi vdi nhau theo huong ddng dai (Bourdieu, Gof&nan, Godbout vfi Sennet) Cach sip xep nfiy ciing cho phep chung tdi chiing minh dugc ring, theo hudng tich dai, cac nhfi xfi hdi hgc dgi dien cho cfic ly thuylt vt md ngay nay, tren co
sd tiep thu di sfin cua hai hgc phai xa hgi hgc cd diln, da gdp cdng ldn cho khoa hgc xfi hdi ndi chung va xa hdi hgc ndi rieng nhiing thdi quen tu duy mai v l thyc t l xa hgi Chfic hfin rang, khi dgc den day, mdt sd nha xa hdi hgc sd thic mac rang, Marx dugc bai bao nay xep 6 dfiu? Va Parsons lfi mdt ly thuyet gia lon ve thuydt ciu tnic - chflc nang niia? Thyc ra, day chi la nhung thfic m i c phu vi khung ket luan sau cflng cfla bai bao sd gifii tda dugc nhflng cfiu hdi nfiy neu chiing ta ludn can cu vao hai tieu chi sip x i p neu tren
2 L^ t h u y l t cau true cua Durkheim so vdi 1;^ thuyet hanh d f n g cua Weber
De cd the Iam ndi bgt sy khac bift giira hai ly thuyet nfiy vfi dya vfio hai tieu ehi dinh nghta ly thuyet vt md a tien, chung tdi lya chgn dat hg ke canh nhau nhu sau:
2.1 Durkheim va Weber ddi v&i quan niem ve thuc tixa hpi chn tim hiiu
Durkheim
Ddi tugng dfic thfl cua khoa hgc xa hgi la
"sy kien xfi hdi" (social fact) tdn tai ngofii
y thflc ca nhan N h u vfiy, cai gi mang den
cho nd mgt ban chat ridng bift, tflc la khfic
vdi ban chat cua cfic sy kifn cfi nhfin? Tfic
gifi nay xac dinh ban chit cua sy kifn xa
hfi theo hai tidu chi:
Weber Ddi tugng nghien cflu cua Weber la thuc
te xa hdi dugc xem xet bit dfiu tfl hfinh dgng ea nhan va y nghta mfi cfi nhan ay gfin cho nd tiong mdi quan he, tuang tfic vai ca nhan khfic Xufit phfit diem nghien eflu cfla tac gifi nfiy rd rfing la tu cfi nhfin Myc dich xuyen sudt eiia xfi hdi hgc, khi
' Trong van hda Vift Nam, ngu&i ta hay ndi rang "g^ de ra tning", bilt ring gi \k ckxi trtic, thilt chl, chu^
Trang 4Sy kifn xa hdi tdn tgi mdt cfich ddc lap
ngoai mgi y thflc ca nhan, tflc la khdng
mdt cfi nhfin nfio fip dgt len dugc su kien xa,
hgi Theo tieu chi nay, su kidn xfi hdi mang
tinh khach quan nen can xem xet no nhu la
"sy vfit" (things)
Sy kifn xa hdi tgo nen mgt sfle cuong che
hay mdt sy rang budc ddi vol mgi y thflc
cfi nhfin Hay ndi cfich khfic, tiong mgi td
chflc xa hgi, mgi hfinh vi cfi nhan dugc
quyet dinh hay bi phu thudc bci hfinh vi
chung dugc mgi ngudi chap nhgn, tflc lfi
chuan myc cua thiet che.^
Vi vfiy, sy kien xa hgi mang tinh khfich
quan: "su Men xd hdi Id cdch thiic hdnh
ddng Id bieu hi^n cu the hay trieu luang duac
thita nhgn chung vd cd khd ndng tgo nin mot
siiC rdng budc khdch quan ddi vdi moi cd
nhdn Hoy noi cdch khdc, sic kiin xa hoi
mang tinh khdi qudt vd tdn tgi khdch quan
dpc lap vdi mgiy thUc cd nhdn" (1963:14)
Ndi nhu vgy khdng co nghta la, su kifn
xfi hgi ludn ludn phfii tao ra sfle cuong ro
rang ddi vdi cfi nhfin Thyc ra, sfle cuang
cfla sy kifn xa hgi (chuan myc hfinh vi
dugc thiet che hda hay dugc mgi ngudi
thfla nhgn) chi bieu hifn rd khi ca nhan
dinh chdng lgi nd Vi du: chuin myc hfinh
vi chung cua sinh vidn tiong mgt ldp hgc la
chi phfit bieu khi dugc cho phep Nhung
neu ai do cfl ty dgng phfit bieu nhieu thi ca
ldp hgc se cam thay khd chiu Tu dd, thilt
che tao ra mdt hinh thflc che tai (sanction)
ddi vdi sinh vidn dd Che tai nay khdng bfit
budc mang tinh phfip li, tflc la chi mang
tinh xfi hdi (do tap the sinh vien thda thugn
vdi nhau dan dan dugc nha trudng dua vfio
ndi quy ldp hgc)
mudn h i l u thyc t l xa hdi, la phai hieu dugc (understanding, comprehension) cfic hanh ddng ca nhfin cho phep lien ket
y nghta mfi cfi nhan nham tdi vai cfic hanh vi thyc sy cfla hg Tfic gifi nfiy djnh
nghta: "Hdnh dgngxd hgi Id mgi biiu dgt
cu thi hay trim tugng, vgt chdt hay bieu trtmg, ciia mdt y chi cd nhdn hay y chi tap thi trong mgt tinh huong xa hgi nhdt dfnh" (Ankoun vfi Ansart, 1999: 4)
Nhu vgy, mgi hfinh dgng chi mang tinh
xa hdi (tinh nhan ban) khi hfinh dgng do dfip ung ba tieu chi sau: (1) tac nhfin dua
ra hanh dgng cfla minh tiong tu the chu dfng, nghta lfi khdng bi dgng; (2) tap hgp hanh vi c i u thanh hfinh dfng cfla tac nhan phai CO y nghta vdi tac nhfin dd vfi (3) hfinh ddng cua tac nhan phai co y nghta vai nhflng tfic nhan khac tucmg tac vdi ban thfin minh
Nhu vgy, de tim hieu thyc te xa hdi, tfic gifi nay chgn dcm vi phan tich mfi ta hay ggi la ddi tugng nghidn cflu lfi hanh dfng Cfic thiet che nhu nhfi nuac, nha thd, trudng hgc, gia dinh chi tdn tai ttong dfiu cua cac cfi nhfin nhu la nhiing cau true ve tinh than (spiritual structures) Tuy tac gia thfla nhan ring, cfic cfiu true fiy cd anh hudng den cfi nhan, nhung sy finh hucmg i y dugc y thflc cua cfi nhan tilp nhfin qua khau d i l n giai chung (interpretation)
Hay ndi each khfic, do quan nifm ring,
xa hdi lfi tdng the cfic ca nhan nen mudn hilu thyc t l xa hgi thi phfii h i l u t i t ca cfic
ca nhan Tu dd, tac gifi nfiy fip dung phuang phap lufin ca nhfin, nghta lfi hfinh
vi khfii qufit cfla xfi hgi chinh lfi tgp hgp
Trong van hda Vi?t Nam, ngudi ta cung hay ndi rSng "trung nd ra ga", bilt rang "tning" 14 dfng co, cfim
Trang 5Dac <fi^ CO ban ciia su kidn xa hgi chmh
lfi tao ra sy rfing huge va chi thuc sy dugc
hilu khi Dmkheun quan niem ve con
nguai Theo tac gja nay, trong thih trgng ty
nhien (chua dugc xa hdi hoa), con ngudi
cd vd sd ham mudn va nhu cau; con nguai
luon trong tinh trgng khdng dugc thda man
nhu cfiu neu kfadng cd ki luat, nghta la
khdng cd luan li (moral) hay khdng cd
dmin muc xa hgi (social norms); ban chit
con ngudi la ich ki; khdng dgo dfle va luan
Ii, con ngudi se khdng dgt dugc nhan bfin
vfi nhan van (humanity) Vi vfiy, ca nhfin
khdng nen nhm nhgn su rang huge
cua xa"hgi tinh"("society"), chufin myc xfi
hdi, thilt che dudi gdc nhm tieu cue
Ngugc lai, nhcr vao nhflng ydu td nay, con
ngudi "trd nen con ngudd hon", tflc lfi con
nguai thn dugc y nghia tdn tgi ciia rninh
trong thiet che
Ve mat phuong pha^ lugn, Durkheim
chgn "cai xa hgi"(the social), cai tdng the
(the total), cau tnic, thiet chd de Ifim dan vi
phfin ti'ch Tgi sao lai nhu vay? Tfic gifi cho
ling, "xa hgi tinhliay "cai xa hgi", cfiu
true, thiet che, "cai teng the"(the total), tuc
la he gifi tri, chuan myc ddng vai trd then
chdt trong vifc giai tiu'ch mgi sy kien xay
ra doi vdi ca nhan
Do vgy, vl mfit phuang phfip n ^ e n cuu,
tiieo chu thuylt Durkheun khi xay dung
mdt khung Iy thuyet, mgi tac gia ddu phai
dli rd ba nhom bien sd (variable): (I) bien
sd dgc lap tuc la biln sd thugc ve teng the,
ciu true, thilt chl, he thdng, chuan myc
(causal variables) ma khong mgt ca nhan
dan le nao can thifp vao chung dugc: (2)
bidn sd can thiep tflc la biln sd xuc tfic
Gntervention/catalysor variable) va (3)
bien so phy thugc (tiic la bien sd thanh
l^iin hay ca nhan)
hanh vi ca nhan
Ro rang la, khdng dugc phep nghien cuu cfi nhan nhu lfi nhfing dc dao, mfi cin nghien cflu cfi nhan tiong sy tuong tac giiia hg vi mdi cfi^ nhan diu mang troi^ minh nd mgt each thflc ddc dao de xfiy dyng xa hgi Tfl do, tac gifi nfiy khdng tim cfich giai thich thyc tl xa hdi theo thuylt nhan qua mfi theo phuang p h ^ xac suit
Vi du: tai sao smh vien lgi i^di "i^oan ngofin" trong ldp hgc? Tac gifi nay se dua
ra rfit nhieu Ii do dai loai nhu: (1) tgi vi
hg thich hgc; (2) tgi vi hg thich nhfin cfich cua ngudi thay; (3) tai vi hg khdng mudn thua bgn be: (4) tgi vi hg mudn cd kien thflc va kl nang tdt de de xin vifc
Ca nhan dt day khdng trai ngugc vai xa hgi, mfi lfi xuit phfit diem, la don vj nghien cflu dugc Weber quan tam vi hanh dgng ca nhfin Ifi hfinh dgng trung gian tgo
dl tgo nen "xa hgi tinh" (social) Vi khdng nghien cflu cfi nhan vdi tu each la chu thl tam Ii (psychological subject) nen tac gifi khuyen cac hgc gifi nghien cuu ca nhfin trong sy tuong tfic vdi nhieu cfi nhfin khac dd hieu cai tdng the xfi hfi Khi xfie dinh con i^:uai bfing each tim hilu y thuc vfi nfing lyc dinh hud'ng hfinh ddi^ cua nd, dieu quan trgng (^i vai nha nghien cflu la thiu hieu y nglua cfla hfinh dgi^ do Tuy nhien, do nhfi nghien cflu ciing la con nguoi, cho nen y nghia cua cac cfi nhan khac khdng phfii de dang dugc hieu ngay lap tflc vi bfin than con ngudi cua nhfi n ^ e n cuu cimg mang tinh chfl quan (subjectivity)
Vi le do, nhfi nghien cflu phfii no lyc thuong xuyen bing each xfiy dyng dw minh cfic "diln hinh U tuoi^' (ideal-type) roi tren co so do lam sang te y
Trang 6Tac gia nay cho rfing, tinh tdng the, tmh
hf thdng, tinh ciu true, tinh thiet che
quan ttgng han tinh bd phan hay tinh ca
nhan Le duong nhien, tfic gifi kfadng phu
nhgn hfinh vi ca nhan, nhung tfic gia cho
rang, mgi hanh vi cfi nhan phu thugc vao
chuin mue hfinh vi ma tap the thfla nhan
Tfl dd, nhflng nfafi xa hdi hgc theo chfl
thuyet cfla Durkheim deu dugc khuydn
rang nen tap trung xem xet cfii tdng the,
tflc la thiet che (gia dinh, nhfi trudng, lufit,
tdn giao, quan dgi ) Dd gifii thich hanh
vi cfi nhfin, nhat thiet phfii tap trung nghien
cuu thiet chd bfing thdng ke xa hdi vi thdng
ke xa fadi se vd hifu hda (neutialize) mgi
tinh don Id cfla cfi nhan (individuality) Tfl
do, phuong phap dinh lugng dugc tfic gia
uu tien su dung Bing chiing la, trong Tu
sdt, tac gifi gifii thich hien tugng nfiy bfing
cfic cdng cu thdng ke xa fadi, nghta la thuin
tfly dinh lugng
Ddi vdi tfic gifi nay, su kien xa fadi t6n tai
bdn ngoai mgi y thflc cfi nhan (lin khfich
quan thfl nhfit) Vi nd ben ngoai cho ndn nd
dugc coi nfau lfi mgt su vfit Tren ca so dd,
xa fadi fagc dugc coi nhu la mdt khoa hgc
ty nfaien vi nfafi xfi hgi hgc su dyng cac
pfauong phap khfich quan dl hilu dugc sy
kifn xa hdi nfau la su vat iy (lin khacfa
quan thfl hai) Xa hgi hgc cua Durkheim lfi
xa fadi fagc khficfa quan (objective
sociology)
Hon nfla, vi sy kien xfi fadi mang tinfa
cuong chl vfi rfing budc voi mgi cfi nhan
nen cd thl kit lugn ring, cfii tdng thl quylt
dinh (determine) cfii timg phin, cai xa hdi
quyet dinh cfii cfi nhfin Dd ciing la mdt co
so de ta ggi chfl thuylt cua tac gia nfiy la
cfau thuylt "xfi hgi quylt dinfa ca nfaan"
(detemimism) Vgy mudn frd tfafinh nfaa xfi
hgi fagc tfai phai tim each giai tfaicfa nfafin
cfaflng dan xen vao nhau vfi rat da dang Bdn cgnfa pfauong pfafip luan cfi nhan, phuong phfip lufin dua tren "didn fainfa li tudng" cung lfi diln fainh ddi vdi tac gia nfiy Trai vdi xfi hdi hgc khfich quan cua Durkheim, xa hdi hgc cua Weber lfi xa hdi fagc chfl quan (subjective sociology) chinh vi xufit phfit dilm vfi don vi phan tich cua faai tfic gifi nay khfic nhau, mac
du hg deu mudn hieu va gifii thich thyc te xfi fadi
Rd rfing lfi, giai thich nguyen nhan kfadng pfafii lfi muc dich diu tidn cfla Weber vi ddi vdi dng, giai thich chi mang tinh xac suat va dng khdng cd tham vgng
di tim nhflng quy luat khfii qufit nhit Trai vdi Durkheim, Weber cho ring, tmh chu quan lfi mgt dilu kifn cfla hogt ddng kfaoa hgc, vi du tinh dgc dfio (singularity) cua nhung cau hdi do nha kfaoa fagc d$t ra hay mdj quan faf gifla nha kfaoa fagc va kfafich thl mfi minh liy thdng
tm Trong qufi trinh nghidn curu, tinh cfau quan cua nhfi nghien cflu cd mdt dia vi trung gian thl hien net ridng cua tflng nguai Vi quan niem ring, faanh dgng xfi hgi khdng pfafii la nfafing sy vfit ma do tfic nhan gfin cho nd mdt y nghta nao dd tiong mdi tuong tfic vdi cfic tac nhan khfic ndn y nghla cua tit ca hfinh ddng xa hgi chi phin nfio dugc sfing td theo quan nifm cfla tung nfaa nghien cflu va nhifm
vu cfla nhfi nghien curu la phai hilu dugc
y nghta ciia chung
Ve mat phuang phfip lugn, m|c du cong nhgn vai Durkheun ring, cai dicfa sau cflng cua kfaoa hgc la di din gifii tiu'ch nhan quA thyc tl xfi hgi, nfaung dng cung cfao rfing cin pfafii tim thiy mgt hay nhieu nguyen nhan tiiuydt phye dl gifii tiiich cfao mgt faay nfailu fae qua Do vay^ff^
Trang 7qufi xufit pfafit tfl xa hgi tinh, tfl thiet cfad,
tuc la di tim cfic quy lugt xfi hgi (muc tieu
cua kiln thflc)
hieu "tinh xa hdi" faay "cfii xa hdi", cin thidt phai do hanh vi rit nhilu ca nfafin
Vi y ngfata cua hanh dgng chi cd t h l dugc hieu tfadng qua su tuong tac gifla cfic chfl the, ndn phucmg phfip tim faiiu
nd chinfa lfi phai coi nha nghien cflu trudc fadt lfi mgt con ngudi Tfl do, vai tu cacfa chfl the nghien cflu, nhfi nghien cflu tiep can nhftng gi tao ra y nghta ddi vdi cfi nhan Tfl quan nifm nay, Weber sfl dung phdi hgp phuong phap do ludng (dinfa lugng) vfi cfic phuong pfafip dinh tinfa kfafic (pfadng vfin sfiu ket fagp vdi quan sfit )
3 Sy trai ngugc ttong quan nifm ve thyc te xa hfi va phuong phfip gifii thich thyc
tl xfi hfi gifla hai nhfi xfi hfi fagc cd dien nay dfi tgo ra faai ly thuyet vt md tifii ngugc nhau: (1) ly thuydt xfi fagi hgc c i u trflc hay ly^ thuyet xa hdi hgc khfich quan cua Durkheim, vfi (2) ly thuylt xfi fadi fagc faanfa ddng faay ly tfauylt xfi hg: fagc chfl quan cua Weber Hai cgng ddng khoa hgc theo hai li thuyet vT md nfiy cfafic cfafin ciing kfafic nfaau nhu hai "dng td" mfi hg bi tfauylt phuc Nhu vfiy, van tten ca sd hai tieu ehi dfi neu ve ly thuylt vt md, nhflng nfaa xa hgi hge ngfiy nay dugc sap xdp nhu the nfio? Vfi dgc bift, hg ddng gdp nhung gi cho xfi hgi hgc d l hai nhfi xfi fagi fagc nfiy khdi "tianh cfii' vdi nhau nfta?Ly tfauylt ciu tnic vd thflc (hay ly tfauylt tuong tac gifla cfiu trflc vfi cfi nfaan) cfla Bourdieu vfi ly thuylt hanh ddng mdi (ly thuylt tuong tfic giiia ca nhfin va ea nhfin) cua Gof&ian
3.1 vi chu thi cm trUc vo thiec cua Bourdieu
Bj finfa hudmg bdi tfauylt c i u true tiong nhfin hgc cfla Levi-Strauss, Bourdieu quan nifm r i n g , thyc t l xfi fagi c i n tim h i l u cua cfic nhfi xfi hdi hgc chinh Ifi cfic cfiu true vd thflc (inconsciencious structures) Day chinh la don vi phfin tich cfla tfic gifi nay C i u true dugc dinh ngfata Ifi mdt tap hgp cac y l u td tgo thanfa mdt tdng the vfi ting t h l i y dugc xfie dinh bdi nfaGng quan hf gifla cac y l u td Theo dinfa nghta nfiy ve tiiyc t l (facts), Bourdieu dinh ngfaia giai c i p xa hfi cfla mdt cfi nhan xuit pfaat tii vi tfae cua cfi nhan i y ttong hai Iogi c i u tnic: (1) c i u tnic khfich quan (objective structiire) va (2) c i u tiiic dugc tiiim tiiiu (incorporative structure) vao tung cfi nhan tao cho ca nhan
ay mdt vi the
* Theo Giraux Natalie, trong cufc song, hai nha xS bfi hpc niy khdng tranh cSi trvc tilp S\r tranh cai d day
Trang 8Tuong tu nhu vay, mot cau tnic mang ludi xa hpi ma tac gia nay goi la "trucmg" duoc dinh nghia nhu sau: trudng la qua trinh thlm thiu theo thoi gian cua cac ca nhan giong nhu cac khong gian duoc cau tnic boi cac vi the Dac diem ciia nhiing khong gian
ay phu thuoc vao chinh vi the ciia cac ca nhan (Bourdieu, 1980: 86) Hieu mot each don gian la, cac ca nhan dugc vi nhu cac "electron" tham gia vao mot truong luc (magnetic
field) de vira bi anh huong ciia cau tnic tmong va vira gop phiin lam cho truong ky tro
nen m ^ hon Vi du, mot ca nhan tham gia vao mpt mang luoi xa hpi manh chac ehan sg
CO nhieu ca hpi thanh cong hon khi tham gia vao mpt mang lucri xa hpi y^u Doi lai, neu
ca nhan ay chiem dupc mpt vi the thuan loi o trong mang luoi ay, tiic la cac tir vi tri mang tinh "mit that" 6 trong mang luoi thi chac ehan se gop phan quan trpng xay dung mang luoi ay ngay cang m ^ hon Vcri tu each la ca nhan co vi thl trong mang luoi, mpi cd nhan deu gop phin lam cho mang luoi ma minh thupc ve manh hon
De vupt qua dupc cac vi tien boi trong xa hpi hpc co dien (Diukheim va Weber),
dong gop lcm lao nhat cua Bourdieu cho xS hpi hpc ducmg dai chinh la da ih xult dupc
dinh nghla "truang" va "habitus" (Trinh Van Timg, 2009: 87-92).Mpt mat, Bourdieu rdt
bi anh huong boi thuyet cau tnic cua Levi-Strauss hoac Durkheim Miit khac, ong da vupt qua ly thuyet nay bSng each ket noi hai vi tien b6i thong qua phucmg phap luan bi$n chiing Vay cai gi bien chiing vcri cai gi qua thuat ngii "habitus"? Hay nhic lai hai ngfl- nghia cua "habitus" nhu sau: (1) d ngii nghia khach quan, "habitus" duac hilu 14
mpt cau tnic vo thiic vod nhiing chuin mvc hanh vi chung dupc kiln X^o trong qua trinh
ho?it dpng cua cac tac nhan; clu tnic vo thiic ly chinh la mpt khuon khfi hanh vi, mJc dii kho xac dinh bien gioi, nhung dupc clu thanh tir nhiing nguySn tic van dpng nglm ngam hay to ro ("expressive"), co kha ning cho phep sinh ra mpi suy nghi, mpi nhan bi6t va mpi hanh dpng dac thu cua mpt nhpm xa hpi, mang luoi xS hpi va cua mpt nSn v5n hoa; theo nghia nay, clu tnic vo thiic tao ra nhung quy luat hanh vi ap dJt len mpi
ca nhan trong do va ca nhan a thS bi dpng; (2) 6 ngtt nghia chu quan, mpi ca nhan khi
da chap nhan "luat choi" bang each tham gia mpt nhom xa hpi, mpt mang luoi xa hpi hay mpt nen van hoa nao do, bing vi thS ciia minh, bang tam thS hanh vi dat dupc (systeme de dispositions acquises), ca nhan ly ddng thcri ciing chu dpng tham gia qua
trinh xay dimg nhom, mang luai va nSn van hoa ly, va ca nhan a thS chu dpng
(Bourdieu, 1976: 152) Vcji phuong phap bien chirng nhu vay, chu thuylt cua Bourdieu
da Cham diit cupe tranh cai miy chuc nam giila hai "ong t5" Phuang phap luan bien chiing cua Bourdieu dong nghla vdi tuong tac luan giita clu tnic va ca nhan khi tim hiiu thuc te xa hpi (Trinh Van Tung, 2009: 87-92)
3.2 Ly lhuyet m&i vi hanh dong ciia Goffman
Ve phan nunh, ten tu6i cua Goffman gin nhilu vdi tnrong phai Chicago Blumer Hughes ^ Don vj phan tich thuc tl xa hpi cua tac gia nay la "tuong tac mJit dli m^t" v4 nhihig dien giai ma cac ca nhan co vl nhau dl hilu hanh d6ng (Giraux, 2008: 249) Nhu vay, quan ni?m nay rit gin gui vdi quan niem vl "hanh dpng xa hpi" cua Weber Chi c6 mpt chlit khac biet do la Goffman iJiln manh ylu tl "tuong tac mat dli mat", ti^one khi Weber khong quan trpng tinh chit dli mat hay khong
Trang 9Vdi phuong phap luan tucmg tac hay phuong phfip luan bien cfaung, dien giai ngfl ngh& tuong tac tiieo cfich cua Goffinan chinh la mdt trudig hgp dgc bift cua Weber vl hfinh ddng xfi hgi, vdi viec xem xet tu do ca nhfin tfl cfic tucmg tac iy Mgt dilm khac nua cua Goffinan la thn hieu cac tuong tac trong mgt trfit ty xa hdi Hay ndi cfich khac, tuong tac ciii^ cd nhung nguyen tac cua nd can dugc tdn trgng Va nhiing nguyen tie tuong tac bupc mgi ca nhan tham gja tuong tac ay pfafii tdn ttgng chinfa lfi mgt dang thflc ciia "sy kien xa hgi" hay dung ra la "thiet che xa hgi", "chuan myc xfi hdi" Vfi tit nhien, nhung chuan myc tuong tfic fiy cung tdn tai ngofii bfit ki y thflc ca nhan nao theo nghia ciia Duikheim Vi du, mdt trong nhung nguyen tac, cfauan myc ttong tuong tac ma ai cung phfii tuan thu do lfi "gifl the dien cho nguoi ddi difn" (to maintain the honnor), tflc la tdn trgng ngudi khac
Nfau vay, tu don vi phan tich la "sy tuong tfic hen ca nhan ttong tinfa hudng mat doi mat", tfic gia nay cung da phdi hgp dugc phuang phfip luan cfi nhfin cfla Weber vfi di din phat hifn nguyen tac va chuan myc xa fadi nfau Durkfaeim Tuy nhien, do lay don vi phfin tich la tuong tac vdi tu each la mdt trucmg hgp dfic biet cfla hanh dgng xfi hdi va do sfl dung phuang phap Iuan bien chflng ndn ta cd the ggi ly thuyet vt md cfla GofBnan la Iy thuyet tuong tac hay ly thuyet mdi ve hanh ddng
3.3 Godbout vd iy tht^ret "chdng duy loi kinh ti"
Dau nhung nfim 1980, mdt phong trfio mang ten "Phong trfio chdng duy lgi kinh te trong khoa hgc xa hgi" (Mouvement Anti-Utilitariste dans les Sciences Sociales, Tfae
MJV.U.S.S.) da ra ddi va hi anh huong nhieu boi Ludn vi biiu tgng (Essai sur le tion) cua
Marcel Mauss Don vi phan tich faay ddi tugng ngfaien cflu cua cha dd ly thuyet "chdng duy lgi kinfa te", Godbout, chinh la qufi tang hogc dflng hon lfi "sy trao doi" Phuong p h ^ luan cfla tac gja nay la so sfinfa cac logjc trao ddi: (1) logic trao ddi trong gia dinfa, nguoi thfin; (2) logic trao ddi tren thi trucmg vfi (2) logic trao ddi giua Nfaa nudrc va tu nfafin (Giraux, 2008: 250) So vdi hai ly thu>it vt md cd diln, trao ddi hay cho nhfin dugc dinfa
vi nfau the nao? Dya tren phfin ti'ch \e nguyen tfic fauong den cfin bang trong trao ddi, nghm la hudng din trat tu xa hdi, tac gia nay chi ra rfing, "cho" di kem vdi mgt nguyen tic - nguyen tfic cd di cd lai hay nguyen tic sdng phfing (reciprocity) Hay ndi cfich khac,
cd mgt nguyen tic ba buac "cho - nhfin - tra Iai" tfl trao ddi Nhu vfiy, ta cd the thfiy rang, flao ddi lfi mdt "thuc tl xa hgi" (social fact) theo nghia cfla Durkheun vi nd chua dyng troi^ do nhiing bd chufin myc vfi nguyen tic faanh vi; "thuc te xfi hdi" nay ^ dat bg chuin myc hanh vi cho mgi ca nhan tham gia trao ddi Vi du, ttong tiing Vift cd cum tfl
"ng ddng lin" (generational debt) 6h chi hien tugng la, khi ta cdn tre dugc cha me nudi
duong fin hgc tfaanh tai ("nfafin"), thi din khi ta tudng thanfa ta pfaai "trfi ng" cho the he cha me, td tien va dgc bift la thl he con chfiu ("tra ng") Tuy nhien, logic "nghta vu pfafii trfi iy" kfadng phfii la nguyen tic duy nhit, ma trao ddi cfing cho phep cfi nfaan phat huy tinh tu do cfla nunh tren co so tinh tofin cua minh Theo i^hta tiifl faai nay, trao ddi ciing gin vdi nghla fafinh ddng xa hdi cfla Weber Cjodbout nfain mgnh hai logic cua trao ddi,
logic "nghta vy" va logic "tir do" nhu sau: "Qud tgng la mdt tuang tdc thuang xuyin
Trang 10tuong tac thuong xuyen gitta thiet che, chuan muc mang tinh "cuang che" (coercisive
norms) va hanh dpng ca nhan mang tinh tu do Khi so sanh ba logic, tac gia nay chi ra rang, neu dinh nghia "thi trudng la noi gap gd giiia cung va cau" thi ro rang chi tin duy
nhit mpt khia canh kinh te, tire la hai tac nhan tham gia trao dli diu tinh toan trpn ven lpi
ich cua minh va t ^ ra tr^t tu xa hpi Neu v^y, thi khong thS nao giai thich dupc nguygn
nhan cua bao nhieu cupe bieu tinh cua cong nhan chong 1^ cac chinh sach cua gidi chu Cimg vdi CaiUe, tac gid nay cho rang, ly thuylt vl qua tang hay ly thuyet ve trao doi la mpt ly thuyet vi mo mdi vi no da vupt qua dupc phucmg phap l u ^ ca nhan (individual metholcgism) ciia Weber va phuang phap luan clu tnic (hplism methodology) ciia Durkheun (Giraux, 2008: 251)
3.4 Ly thuyet kien too xa hgi cOa Sennett
Nguoi gay anh hudng nhieu nhat cho ly thuyet kien tao xa hpi (social constructivism) ciia Sennet chinh la Bonny vdi ly thuyet "hdu hiSn dai" (post-modernism) Truoc het, can phai thiy ring, tu tudfng h|iu hien dai bat nguin tir kiln tnic, theo do, ngudi ta phe phan ly thuyet chirc nang de dS cao su hien hilu cua con ngudi trong khong gian do thi, dl cao ngh? thuat va quan he cua con ngudi vdi tit c4 nhung gi khac nguoi (the Other) Mpt trpng nhihig nha xa hpi hpc Phap phat triln tu tuong hau hi$n dai nay la Foucault Truong phai hay ly thuylt kiln tao xa hoi quy tu nhttng tSn tuli nhu Berger, Luckmann va tit nhien la Sennet, ngudi dai di$n nli b^t nhit
Dan vi phan tich cua Iy thuylt vi mo nay chinh la cung luc xem xet tinh khich quan
va tinh chu quan ciia thuc te xa hpi bang phucmg phap luan bien chiing Theo quan dilm nhu vay, cac ly thuylt gia phan tich mli lien hp gitta cac quan dilm khach quan va cac quan diem chii quan: ca nhan vita la san phim cia thuc tl (product) vtta la nguoi kiln tao (productor) thuc tl xa hpi (Giraux, 2008: 252) Trong nghien ciiu ciia muih vl do thi tinh, Sennet dong thdi phan tich quan dilm khach quan vl clu tnic do thi, tlie la mpt lo^it chuin muc song ciia do thi cuong chl hanh vi cua nhttng ai muln sing trong do (theo nghla cua Durkheim) va quan diem chu quan, tile la do thj la do con ngudi tjo ra (theo nghia cua Weber), dupc hinh thanh, dupc biln dli la do y nghla ma ca nhan danh cho nd khi ca nhan quan hp vdi tit ca nhttng gi khac (the Other) Theo phuong phap luSn nay, tac gia dong thdi nghien ciru kha nang cua con ngudi kiln tao mpt thl gioi vat chit (physical world) va nhftng y nghia (significations) ma con ngudi gan cho no CJ day Sennet phan bipt khong gian do thi mang tinh vSt chit (ben ngoai) va khong gian con ngudi (bin trong) Ro rang la, hai khong gian ma Sennet phan bipt diu cd thl cho phep cimg liic hai each hieu khach quan (objectivist lecture) va chii quan (subjectivist lecture): d each hilu thli nhat, khong gian do thi la sto phim cua mpt tiln trmh lich sii rit dai v6i nhttng quy lust cua nd, vi dv; ban dau la kilu do thi khep kin (thanh quach), din din la kilu do th)
mo (thanh pho) 0 each hieu fliii hai, mli khdng gian do thi bi biln dli la do con ngucri
tm thay nhttng "le hanh dpng tu do" (acting freedom margins) a thanh phi, Vi du phi cl
Ha Npi la mpt san pham dupc hinh thanh va phat triln theo quy luat tir thoi liha Ly nhung do cd nhttng le tv do nen ca nhan cu cai ndi, md rpng va tir dd bdp meo nhilu dien m»o xua (anciem aspects) Theo chii thuylt nay, xS hpi hpc khong phai la mot khoa hpc