Giáo trình ngữ nghĩa học

SEMANTICS AND ITS RELATED ASPECTS “Semantics is technical term used to refer to the study of meaning, and since meaning is part of language, semantics is part of linguistics.. Chapter If

SEMANTICS 00

Semantics is the study of meaning in language, focusing on the relationships between linguistic forms and real-world entities It explores how words literally connect to things in the world, providing a foundation for understanding language's role in representing reality Semantic analysis aims to establish whether verbal descriptions accurately reflect states of affairs, determining their truthfulness regardless of the speaker This discipline is essential for comprehending how language conveys meaning and how to evaluate the accuracy of communication.

SEMANTIC MEANING AND PRAGMATIC MEANING c:ccccsssssesssssssetscseeeeeeees 1 1.4 SEMANTICS AND ITS RELATED ASPECTS cccccsccssssssssesecssscesescsssscssesnseeesseseees 2 lôi: 49 010L0)/9)498./127.0010) 0c

Semantic meaning refers to the inherent linguistic interpretation of a sentence, regardless of context, representing its core message In contrast, pragmatic meaning is context-dependent, capturing the intended message of an utterance within a specific situation Understanding the difference between semantic and pragmatic meaning is essential for accurate communication and language comprehension.

Eg 1: A: Would you like to go out with me?

B: Ihave a lot of homework to do

In the sentence “I have a lot of homework to do” has two types of meanings + Semantic meaning: the teacher gave me a lot of assignments to do at home

+ Pragmatic meaning: I am sorry I am afraid that I have to refuse your invitation

Eg 2: Oh! It’s too noisy + Semantic meaning: there is a lot of noise here

+ Pragmatic meaning: Please, keep silent!

1.4 SEMANTICS AND ITS RELATED ASPECTS

“Semantics is technical term used to refer to the study of meaning, and since meaning is part of language, semantics is part of linguistics Unfortunately,

"Meaning" encompasses various aspects of language, with no universal agreement on its nature or how it should be described within semantics According to Palmer (1981), understanding meaning involves exploring its different facets, including word or lexical meaning, sentence meaning, and the relationships between sentences This article aims to highlight these three core aspects that are commonly associated with semantic study: lexical meaning, sentence meaning, and the relationships connecting words and sentences.

Word meaning is what a word means, i.e “what counts as the equivalent in the language concerned.” [Hurford and Heasley, 1984: 3]

SEMANTIC FEATURE / PROPERTY / COMPONENT :ccsccscsessssssessestessesseeseeeaes 3

Same semantic feature in diferrent WOTS .- . <5 s x3 EkEiEEsssrerserree 4 2.1.2.4 Same semantic fearture in diferrent part of speech . ‹- + < + s< stress 4 2.1.2.5 Semantic feature in semantically anomalous senfence - - ô<< ô<< ss+2 5 „900 ,/049)02)09//.0070.)/ 004) 651 7

Different words may share the same semantic feature In other words, the same semantic feature can be found in many different words

Exl: Father, mother, son, daughter, teacher, baby all share the same semantic feature [+hunam]

EX2: Doctor, engineer, teacher, physicist, chemist, tailor, hairdresser, etc All share the same semantic feature [+professional]

Ex3: Mother, father, son, daughter, brother, sister, grandparent, aunt, uncle, etc are all [+kinship]

2.1.2.4, Same semantic fearture in diferrent part of speech

The same semantic feature can occur in words of different parts of speech In other words, words of different parts of speech may share the same semantic feature

EX1: [+female] is part of the meaning of the noun mother, the verb breast-feed and the adjective pregnant

Ex2: [+educational] is a semantic feature found in the nouns school, teacher, textbook, etc And in the verbs teach, educate, instruct, etc

2.1.2.5 Semantic feature in semantically anomalous sentence

According to Fromkin and Rodman (1993: 148-149), "the semantic properties of words determine what other words they can be combined with," emphasizing that meaning plays a crucial role in word compatibility They illustrate this with examples of grammatically correct and syntactically perfect sentences that, despite their correctness, remain semantically anomalous, highlighting the importance of semantics in language comprehension This underscores how the meaning of words influences sentence coherence and overall communication effectiveness.

(1) My brother is an only child

(1) is strange, or semantically anomalous, because this sentence represents a contradiction: brother is [+having at least one sibling] while an only child is [+having no other sibling];

(2) is semantically anomalous for a similar reason: bachelor is [+male] whereas pregnant is [+female]

Here, Fromkin and Rodman also cite Noam Chomsky’s famous classic example of semantically anomalous sentences:

(3) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously

The sentence "colorless green ideas sleep furiously" appears to follow all grammatical rules, with "colorless green ideas" as the subject and "sleep furiously" as the predicate However, semantically, it is problematic because "colorless" (a [-colour] attribute) conflicts with "green" (a [+green] attribute), making the description inherently contradictory Additionally, "ideas" is an abstract noun, which is incompatible with the verb "sleep," typically associated with concrete and animate subjects Furthermore, the adverb "furiously" used with "sleep" is semantically incoherent, as living beings cannot sleep in a state of violent anger This example highlights how syntactic correctness does not guarantee semantic coherence in language.

Understanding the semantic features of words is essential for constructing meaningful linguistic units By recognizing these features, we can effectively combine semantically compatible words to form coherent phrases, clauses, and sentences This knowledge enhances language comprehension and communication clarity.

Fromkin and Rodman [1993:134] also believe that “because we know the semantic properties of words, we know when two words are antonyms, synonyms or homonyms, or are unrelated in meaning.”

In analyzing the semantic properties of the given word groups, we observe that group (i) shares core attributes related to [insert shared property, e.g., "living organisms" or "physical objects"], while group (ii) exhibits properties associated with [insert shared property, e.g., "abstract concepts" or "non-physical entities"] The primary semantic distinction between classes (i) and (ii) lies in their [insert distinguishing property, e.g., "tangibility," "concreteness," or "existence in physical space"], which sets apart concrete items from abstract concepts, thus clarifying their semantic categorization.

Eg: i/ widow, mother, sister, aunt, seamstress ii/ widower, father, brother, uncle, tailor

= The shared semantic properties are [+animate], [+human]

=> The different is: (i) => [+female]; (11) => [+male]

1 i Bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, uncle ii bull, rooster, drake, ram, boar

2 i bitch, hen, doe, mare, ewe, vixen ii actress, maiden, widow, woman, girl

3 i doctor, dean, professor, bachelor, parent li teenager, child, boy, baby, infant

4 i table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, car ii milk, alcohol, rice, soup, mud oo gre ee eo 0 Bue ce ee pe ee eee

5 1 book, temple, mountain, road, tractor ii idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear

6 i pine, elm, ash, wiping, willow, sycamore ii rose, dandelion, carnation, tulip, daisy

7 i book, letter, encyclopedia, novel, notebook, dictionary ii typewriter, pencil, ballpoint, crayon, quill, charcoal, chalk

8 i walk, run, skip, jump, hope, swim ii fly, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, hang-glide

In Semantics, componential analysis is “an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components or semantic features.” [Richards et al, 1987: 53]

The semantic difference between "boy" and "man" can be understood through specific feature combinations: "boy" is characterized by [+human], [+male], and [—adult], indicating its status as a male child In contrast, "man" shares the features [+human] and [+male] but includes [t+adult], signifying an adult male Therefore, the primary distinction between "boy" and "man" lies in the primitive semantic feature [+adult], which defines adulthood.

Generally speaking, componential analysis is applied to a group of related words which may differ from one another only by one or two semantic features

A semantic fieldis “the organization of related words and expressions into a system which shows their relationship to one another.” [Richards et al, 1987: 53]

A semantic field can also be defined as “a set of words with identifiable semantic affinities.” [Finegan, 1994: 164]

Egl The semantic field of kinship terms: father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, etc

Bachelor Father Mother Baby Uncle Sister

Hypernym is a word whose referent covers all the refrents of its hyponyms

ExI plant tree bush flowering plant moss grass seaweed

Colour blue red yellow green black turquoise aquamarine royal blue

In this context, the word "blue" functions as both a hyponym and a hypernym simultaneously Shades like turquoise, aquamarine, and royal blue are specific variations of blue, making them immediate hyponyms of the broader color category Understanding this hierarchical relationship enhances vocabulary precision and semantic clarity in language usage.

The word blue in its turn is, along with many other colour terms, an immediate hyponym of colour We thus obtain a hierarchy of terms related to

Chapter I: Word Meaning each other through hyponymic relationships Similar hierarchies can be established for many lexical fields:

Eg3 physical entity plant animal rock fish bird insect bug reptile mammal sparrow hawk crow fowl human animal (beast) chicken turkey quail dog cat cow

The word "animal" has multiple meanings in English, referring to both living organisms distinct from plants and rocks, and to mammals (generally excluding humans) as distinct from humans This dual usage highlights the importance of context when interpreting the term "animal" in different discussions Understanding these different referents enhances clarity in communication about biological classifications and human-animal relationships.

Hyponymy is a semantic relationship where the meaning of one word is completely included within the meaning of another word This relationship exists between hyponyms (more specific terms) and hypernyms (more general terms), illustrating how specific concepts fall under broader categories Understanding hyponymy is essential for grasping hierarchical structures in language and improving semantic clarity.

Hyponym is a word whose referent is totally included in the referent of another term (Its hypo-means below) (Finegan, 1994: 165) |

Cook cook grill toast fry boil roast bake smoke stir-fry sauteù deep-fry

Hyponymy is one-way relaton between hyponyms and hypernym so that A(hyponym) is a kind of B (hypernym) We say:

A bachelor is a kind of human Not: A human is a kind of bachelor

A boy is a kind of human Not: A human is a kind of boy

Boy Brother Uncle Ram Stallion Ox Bull

Eg 2 The semantic field of adjectives describing human emotional states: angry, sad, happy, exuberant, depressed, afraid, etc

Eg 3 The semantic field of drinking vessels: cup, mug, tumbler, wine glass, beer glass, etc

Exercise 2: Each of the following sentences presents a pair of words Which of them is a hypernym, which is.a hyponym? |

1 She reads books all day — mostly novels

3 There’s no flower more beautiful than a tulip

4 He likes all vegetables except carrots

Exercise 3: Draw a chart to show the relationship between a hypernym and a hyponym

1 luggage and suitcase 7 plant and rose

2 green vegetable and bean 8 vocal organ and tongue tip

3 animal and foal 9 head and eyelash

4 animaland child 10 furniture and dressing table

5 fowl and rooster 11 vehicle and convertible

6 plant and coconut 12 vocalize and croon

Ways of organizing semantically similar items in to semantic fields

(i) Items related by topics: ¢ Types of fruit: apples, oranges, grapes, bananas, pears, plums, etc

* Pieces of furniture: seats, tables, beds, storage, etc ¢ Terms of colour: blue, red, yellow, green, black, white, etc

Discover various ways of cooking, such as stewing, boiling, frying, steaming, roasting, grilling, and smoking, to enhance your culinary skills Explore different ways of looking, including gazing, glancing, peering, squinting, and staring, to better interpret non-verbal cues Understand how liquids escape from containers through dripping, leaking, oozing, running, and seeping, which is essential for managing spills and household maintenance Incorporate these descriptive terms to enrich your vocabulary and improve your content's SEO effectiveness.

(iii) Terms describing people whose weight is below:

Normal: thin, bony, skinny, scrawny, underweight, emaciated, slender, slim, etc

(iv) Items which form pairs of antonyms: long/short, light/heavy, alive/dead, love/hate, approve/disapprove, approve/disapprove, begin/end, inside/outside, upstairs/downstairs, etc

(v) Items which form pairs or trios of synonyms:

Smart/bright/intelligent, conserve/preserve/safeguard, fix/repair/mend, kind/short/type/variety, happy/glad, etc

(vi) Items grouped as an activity or a process: ¢ Do the housework: clean the rooms, do the washing, iron the clothes, get the food, prepare a meal, wash up, etc

* Do research: make hypotheses, collect data, analyze data, get results and come to conclusions

(vii) Items classified according to:

— male: waiter, tiger, actor, host, landlord, sir, etc

The article explores various terms used to describe females, including roles such as waitress, tigress, actress, hostess, landlady, and madam It highlights different age groups, from children and infants to teenagers, adults, middle-aged, and elderly individuals Additionally, it discusses how age and sex are associated in animals, such as a stallion representing a fully grown male horse and a male dog, or dog, indicating a mature male dog This overview emphasizes the importance of context when referring to gender and age in both human and animal descriptions.

LEXICAL GAPS cccsssesssessesssscecessesscesscescestestessessucssesscceseasseesssceesensessessesssetesenecsaeens 12 2.5 REFERENT, REFERENCE AND SENSE .- - G4 te, 12

Distinction between referent, reference and sense

In Semantics, a distinction is often made between referent, reference and sense:

2.5.1.1 A referent is an object or an entity in the real world or in the world of your imagination, e.g your school, your classmates, your teacher, any thing you can see in the classroom right now, the idealistic working conditions you have ever dreamed of, etc that is talked about

Several words, especially the so-called function words, have no obvious referents: the, could, in, since, and, etc

2.5.1.2 The reference of a word or a linguistic expression is the relationship between that word or expression and the thing, the action, the event, the quality, etc it refers to

Function words such as prepositions (of, in), articles (the, a/an), conjunctions (if, however, or), and auxiliary verbs (may, should, will) are often believed to primarily signal grammatical relations within sentences According to Finegan (1994), these words play a crucial role in linking different parts of a sentence, helping to establish relationships and clarify meaning Understanding the importance of function words enhances comprehension of sentence structure and linguistic function in English language usage.

Peter’s house exemplifies the relationship between an English noun phrase and its real-world referent Specifically, "Peter’s house" is a possessive noun phrase that indicates the house belonging to Peter Understanding this relationship helps clarify how language connects words with real-world objects, making it essential for effective communication and accurate reference in English.

2.5.1.3 The sense of a word or a linguistic expression shows the internal relationship between that word or expression and others in the vocabulary of a language

The teacher-student relationship is fundamental to education, with the teacher serving as the instructor and the student as the recipient of knowledge The teacher delivers lessons, guiding and instructing, while the student engages actively, absorbing the information This dynamic creates a vital educational exchange that fosters learning and development for both parties Effective communication and cooperation between teachers and students are essential for a successful learning experience, emphasizing the importance of understanding and interaction in the educational process.

Eg 3: A dog is chasing a cat has some sense However, a dog is human has no sense

Eg 4 The King of Vietnam is bald has some sense: its sense is constructed by its individual lexical components and its syntactic structure However, this sentence has no reference: it does not refer to any real person because the King of Vietnam does not exist nowadays Consider the following table and identify referent, reference and sense via their main features

In this article, the terms "sense" and "meaning" will be used interchangeably to refer to the core concept of an expression's significance According to Hurford and Heasley (1984), the "sense" of an expression constitutes its essential core of meaning, highlighting its importance in understanding language semantics.

REFERENT REFERENCE SENSE in the external world between a language and in a language the external world either real or imaginary abstract abstract

Word referent reference sense bachelor | a man who has not ever | the relationship unmarried been married between the word man bachelor and a certain unmarried man

Bach | the lovely princess the relationship | Tuyet trang Tuyet |in a fairy tale which I| between the name have already read Bach Tuyet and the very princess 2.5.2 Type of reference

Same expression may refer to different objects Or when the same linguistic expression refers to different referents, it has variable reference For example:

“My mother” (referring to the mother of the speaker) may refer to many different ladies depending on different speakers

“Here” in the sentence “I am here” (referring to the place where the speaker is standing) also can refer to different places depending on different speakers

Some clues of Variable Reference e Possessive adjectives: My sister, your brother, the government’s decision

An exception to referential expressions is "John’s hat," which specifically refers to the hat belonging to John, regardless of who is speaking Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns such as "this," "that," "these," and "those" are used to point out specific objects or locations, like "this page" or "that car is mine." Personal pronouns including "I," "you," "he," "me," and "him" are used to refer to individuals directly Adverbs of place and time, such as "here," "there," "then," "today," "yesterday," and "now," help specify when and where actions take place, e.g., "at the station." Articles like "the" and "a" are essential in nouns: "the boy in the corner" or "I want to buy a car," providing clarity and specificity in sentences.

Different expressions refer to the same object

Numerous examples highlight how different terms can refer to the same entity or concept For instance, Uncle Ho, Ho Chi Minh, Nguyen Ai Quoc, Nguyen Cung, and Nguyen Tat Thanh all denote the same person, showcasing various names used to identify one individual in different contexts Similarly, terms like Nia dém (midnight), Gid Ty (midnight), and Canh ba (midnight) all refer to the same time period during the night Furthermore, words such as Vg tdi (female), Con gai (female), Dan ba (female), and Nit nhi all describe the same gender, emphasizing the diversity of vocabulary used to refer to women across different dialects and regions Understanding these equivalents enhances language comprehension and cultural awareness.

TST and Ho Chi Minh City, also known as Saigon, are different names for the same vibrant metropolis in Vietnam Similarly, Thang Long, Dong Do, and Hanoi all refer to the capital city of Vietnam, highlighting its historical and cultural significance The sentence "My father is a teacher" demonstrates how the underlined words both refer to the same individual, emphasizing clarity in pronoun usage In the case of "We chose John as our leader," the names John and leader both refer to the same person, illustrating how titles and names can be interchangeable in context Additionally, "The Morning Star" and "The Evening Star" are two phrases that both refer to the same celestial object, emphasizing the importance of synonyms in descriptive writing These examples showcase the importance of understanding different references and synonyms to maintain coherence and clarity in communication.

A key principle in semantics is that a specific expression consistently refers to the same object, regardless of who is speaking Proper names, especially geographical locations like Vietnam, England, Russia, and China, as well as unique entities such as the sun, the moon, and Halley's Comet, exhibit constant reference Examples include organizations like the United Nations, FIFA, and UNESCO, which reliably denote the same entities over time This concept highlights how certain linguistic expressions maintain a fixed reference to specific objects or entities, ensuring clarity and consistency in communication.

An expression that is meaningful yet refers to nothing exemplifies the concept of imaginary characters and objects that do not exist now These include fictional figures like Batman, Superman, Snow White, Tam Cam, and mythical creatures such as dragons, which captivate our imagination Function words like "and," "but," "if," and "almost" help structure sentences about these不存在 objects and characters, emphasizing their unreal nature Such language allows us to discuss fantastical stories and characters that have no real-world referent, enriching our narrative possibilities and creative expressions.

Eg 1: The king of France is bald (France does not have any king nowadays)

Eg 2: The Queen of Vietnam nowadays is a French (there is no Queen in

Exercise 4: What is identified by the word mean or meaning in the _ following examples, i.e Reference or Sense? Write R for reference and S for sense |

1, When Albert talks about “his former friend”, he means me

2 Daddy, what does logic mean?

3 Purchase has the same meaning as buy

4 Look up the meaning of democracy in your dictionary

5 If you look out of the window now, you'll see who I mean

Exercise 5 Answer the following questions

1 Does the moon normally have constant reference? Yes/No |

2 Does The People 5 Republic of China normally have constant reference Yes/No 3 Does Angola normally have constant reference? Yes/No

4 Does Haley’s Comet normally constant reference? Yes / No

S If we are talking about a situation in which John is standing alone in the Conner, can John have the same referent as the person in the corner? Yes/No

What is intended by the word mean, meaning, meant in the following exam ples, reference (R) or sense (S)?

1 When Helen mentioned “the fruit cake”, she meant that rock-hard object in the middle of the table R/S

2 When Albert talks about “his former friend” he means me * RIS

3 Daddy, what does unique mean? R/S

’ 4 Purchase has the same meaning as buy R/S,

5 Look up the meaning of apoplexy in your dictionary R/S

6 Ifyou look out of the window now, you’ll see who I mean R/S

7 Iam sorry to have disturbed you when I said ‘will you move your chair’ I didn’t mean you, I meant John here” | R/S

8 Ifyou look up ochlocracy, you'll find it means government by the mob R/S

1 Give an example of an expression that could have variable reference

2 Give an example of an expression that always has constant reference

3 Give an example of different expressions that having one referent

4 Give an example of an expression that has no reference

Exercise 8: Which of the following is a correct description of ‘reference’?

(a) arelationship between expressions and other expressions which have the same meaning

(b) the set of all objects which can potentially be referred to by an expression

(c) arelationship between a particular object in the world and an expression us ed in an utterance to pick that object out

Exercise 9: Which of the following is a correct statement about ‘sense’?

(a) All words in a language may be used to refer, but only some words hav e sense

(b) Iftwo expressions have the same referent, they always have the same sense

(c) The sense of an expression is its relationship to semantically equivalent or semantically related expression in the same language

Exercise 10: Answer the following questions by choosing Yes or No

1 Imagine that you and I are in the room with a man and a woman, and making no visual signal of any sort I say to you, “the man stole my wallet” In this situation, can you identify the referent of the expression the man? Yes / No

2 Can the referent of the pronoun J be uniquely identified when this pronoun is uttered? Yes / No

3 Can the referent of the pronoun you be uniquely identified when this is pronoun is uttered? Yes / No

REFERRING EXPRESSIƠNS - ĐGQQ Họng HH HH HH ng HH Hà Hy rệt 18

A referring expression ‘is any expression used in an utterance to refer to someone or something particular (Hurford & Heasley, 1983: 35) (on the part of the speaker)

Ex: + When a speaker says, ‘My father” he has a particular person in mind

=> my father is a referring expression

+ The name Fred in the utterance “Fred hit me”, where the speaker has a particular person in mind, is a referring expression

+ Fredin “There is no Fred at this address” is not a referring expression because in this case the speaker would not have a particular person in mind

Referring expressions play a crucial role in effective communication and include various types such as possessive forms like "my friend" or "Paul’s hat," demonstratives like "this book" or "that machine," proper names such as "Smith," "David," or "Vietnam," and personal pronouns like "I," "you," and "he" (used when uttered) They also encompass constant references to unique entities like "the sun," "the moon," "the earth," or specific regions like "the east" and "the west," as well as celestial objects like "Halley’s Comet." Additionally, past tense constructions assist in recognizing referring expressions, as exemplified in sentences like "I saw a boy yesterday" or "I want to go fishing on the lake," enhancing clarity and coherence in communication.

My sister is a singer Yesterday, I met a singer I’m looking for a car to buy

I bought a car in a showroom on Nguyen Hue Street

2.6.3 Not a referring expression e Something general: family, society, people, e Representative of social classes or species: the poor, the rich, the elephant, dogs, cats, e Profession/ Job: singer, teacher, lawyer,

Ex: The singer in “The singer I admire most is SilkBlack” is a RE because it refers to a particular person

A singer in “My sister is a singer” is not a RE because it is a job in general

Note: Whether an expression is a referring expression or not heavily dependent linguistic context and on circumstances of the utterance

Could the following possibly be used as referring expressions?

4 the girl sitting there yes/no

Exercise 12: Underline the referring expressions in the following sentences

A man was in here looking for you last night

The first sign of the monsoon is a cloud on the horizon no bigger than a man’s hand

Forty buses have been withdrawn from service by the Liverpool Corporati on

This engine has the power of forty buses

My sister also wants to marry a Norwegian

John is looking for a car to buy

Dick believes that a man with a limp killed Bo Peep

The police officer said that a man with a limp killed Bo Peep

10 Every evening at sunset, a swan flew over my house.

DENOTATION AND CONNOTA TIƠN - 5 Gà HH1 4141121151181 re 20

Definition 0

The denotation of a word represents its core, central, or referential meaning as defined in a dictionary In English, content words often have their denotation described through a set of semantic features that help identify the specific concept associated with the word, ensuring clarity in communication and understanding.

The connotation of a word is the additional meaning that the word has beyond its denotative meaning It shows people’s emotions and/or attitudes towards what the word refers to

Eg 1 Child is denotatively described as [+human], [—mature] and [+male]

Under a certain circumstance, child may positively be connoted as [+affectionate] or [+innocent]

Under another circumstance, child may negatively be connoted as {+noisy] or [+irritating]

Eg 2 Woman is denotatively described as [+human], [+mature] and [+female]

Under a certain circumstance, woman may positively be Connoted as [+devoted] or [+patient]

Under another circumstance, woman may negatively be connoted as [+wicked] or [+talkative].

Distinction between denotation and connofatiOr . - s5 55s s2 << <+ssessesssees 21

The denotation of a word is easily identified in a dictionary, whereas its connotations depend on factors such as the user’s cultural background, family and educational influences, social and political class, and speech or ethnic community These connotations are shaped by personal and cultural associations, which influence how words are understood beyond their basic definitions Recognizing the difference between denotation and connotation is essential for effective communication and nuanced language use.

Consider the following table and identify denotation and connotation via their main features

DENOTATION CONNOTATION what a lexical item means emotions and/or attitudes towards what.a lexical item refers to core, central referential peripheral social, affective

WORD | DENOTATION | CONNOTATION bachelor - still single after the usual age for marrying unmarried man | - decided by himself to stay single

- enjoying freedom, friendship, life, etc

- ready for his impending marriage

Spinster | unmarried - still single after the usual age for marrying woman - not decided by herself to stay single

- left in an unfavorable state

- a symbol for some failure in life

December, the twelfth month of the year, is often characterized by bad weather, including rainy or snowy days, and features dark evenings, grey skies, and slippery streets As the winter season advances, it marks the time after November when many experience feelings of loneliness and separation from loved ones, especially amid the upcoming holiday season This month is also closely associated with Christmas and winter break, bringing a mix of festive cheer and introspection.

Eg 1 The word fox almost always has a negative connotation in English when it is associated with any person who is cunning or deceitful

Ex2 Some English words usually have positive connotations (+); others usually have neutral connotations (©); still others usually have negative connotations(—):

Ch apter IT: Word Meaning

- father/dad (+), man (@), the old man (—);

Eg 3 Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do not always have the same emotional meaning For example, the words stingy and frugal both mean ‘careful with money.’ However, to call a person stingy is an insult, while the word frugal has a much more positive connotation Similarly, a person wants to be slender but not skinny, and aggressive but not pushy

Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many so-called synonyms are not really synonyms at all

Exercise 13: Identify all the possible connotations associated with the word Christmas

Sem wea eee eraser ener sere see Bese e et eHESES ESE eEE REESE REFEREE ERE OEE HH OED HEEB ODE HHO THETA ED ER DBO ROS

MULTIPLE SENSES OF LEXICAL ITEMS . 5 SG S tt Sseereeexee 23

Primary meaning vs secondary m€aniing - - + - + sssstssrsrerstrrekrrerrrree 23 2.8.2 Literal meaning vs Fipurative me€aning - ‹- +5 + tt vn xxx 24

2.8.1.1 The primary meaning of a word (or, to be more precise, a lexical item) is the first meaning or usage that the word will suggest to most people when it is said in isolation The primary meaning of the English noun wing, for instance,

Is ‘either of the pair of feathered limbs that a bird uses to fly?’

2.8.1.2 Secondary meanings of a word are the meanings besides its primary meaning They’re said to be not central but peripheral

Secondary meanings of a word are context-dependent, while its primary meaning remains consistent regardless of context For example, in the sentence "He usually plays on the wing," the word "wing" refers to the "side part of the playing area in football or hockey." This secondary meaning is derived from the context provided by the verb "plays," demonstrating how context influences word interpretation.

2.8.2 Literal meaning vs Figurative meaning

It is time to distinguish then within all the possible meanings of the English noun wing, for example, those that are literal and those that are figurative

2.8.2.1 “The basic or usual meaning of a word” [Crowther (ed.), 1992: 527] is usually referred to as its literal meaning

Some literal meanings are identified via context in the noun wing:

+Part that projects from the side of an aircraft and supports it in the air: the two wings of an airplane;

+Part of a building that projects from the main part: the east/west wing of a house;

+Projecting part of the body of a motor vehicle above the wheel: The left wing of his car was damaged in the collision;

+Part of a political party that holds certain views or has a particular function: the radical wing of the Labour Party

2.8.2.2 The figurative meaning of a word is one which is different from its usual (literal) meaning and which create vivid mental images to readers or listeners

Below are some figurative meanings of the noun wing:

- We hope college life will help him to spread his wings a bit

(= extend his activities and interests)

- Having a new baby to look after has clipped her wings a bit

(= has prevented her from achieving her ambition)

- She immediately took the new arrivals under her wing

(= looked after the new arrivals)

- He retires as chairman next year; his successor is waiting in the wings

(= is ready to replace him) Wing is an English word that has several closely related but slightly different meanings It’s said to be polysemous

Sentence meaning is what a sentence means, regardless of the context and situation in which it may be used (Hurford and Heasley, 1984: 269)

3.1 PROPOSITION, SENTENCE AND UTTERANCE 3.1.1 Proposition

A proposition represents the core meaning of a declarative sentence, describing specific states of affairs involving the persons or objects referenced within the sentence When a speaker utters a declarative sentence, they typically assert a proposition, conveying information about particular situations or facts This relationship between language and meaning underscores how declarative statements function to communicate specific claims about the world.

Eg 1 The following pair of sentences expresses the same proposition:

1 (a) Harry took out the garbage

1(b) Harry took the garbage out

The following pair of sentences expresses different propositions:

Eg 2 The following pair of sentences expresses the same proposition:

3(b) Mary was given a book by John

The following pair of sentences expresses different propositions:

4(b) George didn’t dance with Ethel

Exercise 14: Do the two following sentences have the same proposition?

Mr Dindlay caused Janet to die

Exercise 15: Explain why the two members of each of the following pairs of sentences do not share the same proposition

1(a) John is the parent of James 3(a) The fly was on the wall

1(b) James is the parent of John 3(b) The wall was under the fly

2(a) The hunter bit the lion 4(a) Jack was injured by a stone 2(b) The lion bit the hunter 4(b) Jack was injured with a stone 3.1.2 Sentence

A sentence is an abstract construct, not a physical event or object, consisting of a string of words organized according to the grammatical rules of a language It represents the ideal sequence of words that underpins various spoken and written realizations, such as utterances and inscriptions This conceptual understanding emphasizes the linguistic nature of sentences beyond their physical manifestations.

Eg: - A house is struck by lightening last night

3.1.3 Distinction between a proposition and a sentence

Propositions differ from sentences in that they do not belong to any specific language Multiple sentences in different languages can express the same proposition if they are accurate translations of each other For example, the English sentence "I am cold" and its French equivalent convey the same underlying meaning, demonstrating that propositions transcend linguistic boundaries Understanding this distinction is essential in semantics and translation studies, highlighting that meaning can be preserved across languages despite differences in sentence structure.

The phrases "J'ai froid," "German Mir ist kalt," and "Vietnamese Toi lanh can" all translate to "I am cold," illustrating how different languages express the same proposition These sentences are perfect translations of each other, highlighting their linguistic equivalence and cultural similarities in conveying the sensation of coldness.

3.1.4 Utterance Utterance is a piece of language (a sequence of sentences, single phrase or a single word) used by a particular speaker on particular situation (Hurford and Heasley, 1983:15)

~ “Utterance may consist of a single word, a single phrase or single sentence They may consists of a sequence of sentences”

SẽIHIÍ€ ôok “HH HT HH TT HH TH T000 T81 10111 001070 30

Semantics is a key branch of linguistics focused on the study of meaning in language To understand semantics, it is essential to first grasp the concept of meaning itself and how it functions within linguistic structures Before delving into the specifics of "meaning," it is important to explore the main branches of linguistics, which provide the foundational framework for analyzing language and communication.

Linguistics is divided into three main branches: semantics, pragmatics, and syntax Syntax focuses on the structure and rules of grammar, including phonology, morphology, syntax, and textual grammar, while semantics explores the study of meaning in language—what language actually means In contrast, pragmatics examines how context influences meaning, focusing on what people intend to communicate beyond the literal words they use.

Semantics is the study of meaning in language, focusing on the relationships between linguistic forms and real-world entities It examines how words literally connect to objects and concepts in the world, providing insights into how language reflects reality Semantic analysis aims to determine whether verbal descriptions accurately represent states of affairs, assessing their truthfulness regardless of the speaker Understanding semantics is essential for comprehending how language conveys meaning and relates to the external world, making it a fundamental aspect of linguistic study.

1.3 SEMANTIC MEANING AND PRAGMATIC MEANING a Semantic meaning is the meaning of a sentence of context/context-free It is the linguistic meaning of a sentence b Pragmatic meaning is the meaning of an utterance in a particular situation Pragmatic meaning is context-dependent

The concept of "meaning" encompasses various aspects of language, yet there is no universal consensus on its precise nature, the elements it includes within semantics, or the best way to describe it According to Palmer (1981), understanding meaning involves exploring how words and sentences convey significance and how different meanings relate to each other This article highlights three primary aspects of semantic study: lexical meaning, sentence meaning, and the relationships between words and sentences These core areas provide a comprehensive framework for analyzing how meaning functions within language, helping to clarify the complex ways in which language conveys and connects ideas.

Semantic features are “the smallest units of meaning in a word.” [Richards et al, 1987: 254] |

Understanding the meaning of a word involves analyzing its semantic features For instance, "father" can be characterized by features such as [+human], [+male], [+adult], [+married], and [+having children], which collectively define its lexical meaning Similarly, "assassin" is described through features like [+human], [+adult], [+killer], and [+kill a VIP], highlighting its semantic properties These features help in precisely identifying and differentiating words based on their inherent meanings, crucial for semantic analysis and NLP applications.

Father + human Each Assassin | + human

Each factor is a semantic feature

2.1.2 Semantic characteristics 2.1.2.1 Primitive semantic elements

Primitive semantic elements are basic primitive concepts in linguistics They left undefined

Eg human, male, animal, color etc

Some semantic features need not be specifically mentioned For example, if a word is [+human] it is “automatically” [+animate] This generalization can be expressed as a redundancy rule:

Semantic features are also referred to as semantic components or a word that is [+human] is [animate]

Semantic features such as [+human] effectively imply other characteristics like [+father], [+girl], or [+professor], so they do not need to be explicitly specified Redundancy rules in linguistics often deduce negative semantic features, leading to the use of binary oppositions—marked as pluses and minuses (e.g., [+], [-])—to clearly represent contrasting characteristics This approach simplifies the expression of semantic information by utilizing binary semantic features to create clear and concise linguistic descriptions.

If father is [+human], it is therefore [- inhuman]; ~

If father is [+male], it is therefore [- female];

If father is [mature], it is therefore [- immature];

If father is [+paternal], it is therefore [- maternal]

We identify the meaning of a word primarily based on its primitive semantic features, such as [+animate], [+human], and [+male] These core features establish the fundamental understanding of the word’s meaning Additionally, we refine this understanding using secondary semantic features like [+parental] and [+paternal], which provide further contextual information This approach ensures a comprehensive and accurate grasp of word meanings by combining basic and contextual semantic features.

2.1.2.3 Same semantic feature in diferrent words

Fromkin and Rodman (1993: 148-149) emphasize that "the semantic properties of words determine what other words they can be combined with," highlighting the importance of word meaning in syntax They illustrate this point with examples of sentences that are grammatically correct and syntactically perfect but semantically anomalous, demonstrating that proper syntax alone does not ensure meaningful communication Understanding the relationship between semantics and syntax is crucial for effective language use and linguistic analysis.

The sentence "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" appears to follow English syntax rules, with "colorless green ideas" as the subject and "sleep furiously" as the predicate However, it is semantically incoherent, as the adjective "colorless" ([-colour]) conflicts with "green" ( [+green in colour]), making it impossible for something to be both [-colour] and [+green] Additionally, "ideas" (a [+abstract] noun) is incompatible with "sleep," which requires a [+concrete] and [+animate] subject, raising the question of how an abstract concept like ideas can sleep Furthermore, the verb "sleep" typically collocates with adverbs such as well, badly, or soundly, and is semantically incompatible with "furiously," since it is illogical for a living being to sleep when furious.

Understanding the semantic features of a word allows us to combine semantically compatible words, creating larger meaningful linguistic units such as phrases, clauses, and sentences Mastering this knowledge is essential for constructing coherent and contextually appropriate language By analyzing semantic features, writers can enhance the clarity and effectiveness of their communication, ensuring that each language element contributes to the overall message Ultimately, leveraging semantic features improves language precision and supports the development of well-structured, meaningful texts.

Please provide the specific groups of words you'd like me to analyze, and I'll craft a coherent, SEO-friendly paragraph summarizing their shared and distinguishing semantic properties.

The semantic distinctions between 'boy' and 'man' can be understood through their core features 'Boy' is characterized by [+human], [+male], and [—adult], highlighting that it refers to a male human who is not yet an adult In contrast, 'man' shares the features [+human] and [+male], but differs by including [t+adult], indicating full adulthood Therefore, the primary semantic difference between 'boy' and 'man' lies in the primitive feature [\+adult], signifying the transition from childhood to adulthood Understanding these fundamental semantic features helps clarify the nuanced meanings of these terms in language and communication.

Blue serves as both a hypernym and a hyponym in the color hierarchy Specific shades such as turquoise, aquamarine, and royal blue are immediate hyponyms of blue, each representing distinct variations within the broader blue spectrum This hierarchical relationship highlights the nuanced categorization of colors in linguistic and semantic contexts, underscoring the importance of precise terminology in color description.

In English, the word "animal" serves multiple referents It is used to distinguish living creatures from plants and rocks, emphasizing animals as a separate category of life Additionally, "animal" often specifically refers to non-human mammals, setting them apart from humans Understanding these different contexts improves clarity in communication about the natural world.

Eupheimisim - 5= s4 vn HT TH HH họ TT cư TT 001 0 35

Semantics is a vital branch of linguistics focused on understanding meaning in language To grasp the concept of semantics, it's essential to first explore what "meaning" entails within linguistic studies Before delving into the "meaning" of meaning, understanding the main branches of linguistics provides valuable context for comprehending how semantics fits into the broader field of language analysis.

Linguistics is divided into three main branches: semantics, pragmatics, and syntax Syntax focuses on the structure and grammar of language, encompassing phonology, morphology, and textual grammar In contrast, semantics explores the intrinsic meaning of language—what words and sentences fundamentally convey Pragmatics, on the other hand, examines how context influences meaning, analyzing what speakers intend to communicate beyond the literal words used Understanding these branches is essential for comprehending how language functions both structurally and meaningfully in communication.

Semantics is the study of meaning in language, focusing on the relationships between linguistic forms and real-world entities It explores how words literally connect to the objects and concepts they represent Semantic analysis aims to establish whether verbal descriptions accurately reflect actual states of affairs in the world, regardless of who produces the description Understanding semantics is essential for analyzing how language conveys meaning and how statements can be evaluated for truthfulness in communication.

1.3 SEMANTIC MEANING AND PRAGMATIC MEANING a Semantic meaning is the meaning of a sentence of context/context-free It is the linguistic meaning of a sentence b Pragmatic meaning is the meaning of an utterance in a particular situation Pragmatic meaning is context-dependent

'Meaning' encompasses various aspects of language, and there is no consensus on its precise nature or how it should be described within semantics As Palmer (1981) notes, debates continue about what aspects of meaning are included and how to effectively analyze them This article will explore three main aspects of meaning in semantics: lexical or word meaning, sentence meaning, and the relationships between meanings and sentences Understanding these core areas is essential for a comprehensive grasp of semantic theory and its application in language analysis.

Semantic features are “the smallest units of meaning in a word.” [Richards et al, 1987: 254] |

Understanding the meaning of a word involves analyzing its semantic features For instance, the word "father" can be characterized by features such as [+human], [+male], [+adult], [+married], and [+having children], which collectively define its semantic scope Similarly, "assassin" is described by features like [+human], [+adult], [+killer], and [+kill a VIP], highlighting its specific semantic attributes This method of identifying semantic features helps in accurately capturing the comprehension and categorization of words within language.

Father + human Each Assassin | + human

Each factor is a semantic feature

2.1.2 Semantic characteristics 2.1.2.1 Primitive semantic elements

Primitive semantic elements are basic primitive concepts in linguistics They left undefined

Eg human, male, animal, color etc

Some semantic features need not be specifically mentioned For example, if a word is [+human] it is “automatically” [+animate] This generalization can be expressed as a redundancy rule:

Semantic features are also referred to as semantic components or a word that is [+human] is [animate]

Semantic features like [+human] can inherently imply other attributes such as [+father], [+girl], or [+professor], so it's unnecessary to specify these as separate features Redundancy rules often infer negative semantic features, meaning that if a feature like [+human] is present, the absence of related features can be immediately inferred Semantic features are commonly represented through binary oppositions, expressed as pluses and minuses (e.g., [+] and [-]), to clearly distinguish between the presence and absence of specific attributes.

If father is [+human], it is therefore [- inhuman]; ~

If father is [+male], it is therefore [- female];

If father is [mature], it is therefore [- immature];

If father is [+paternal], it is therefore [- maternal]

Understanding a word's meaning begins with analyzing its primitive semantic features, such as [+animate], [+human], and [+male] These foundational elements help establish the core concept of the word Subsequently, additional semantic features like [+parental] or [+paternal] refine and deepen this understanding, enabling precise and nuanced comprehension This step-by-step approach ensures accurate interpretation of words based on their essential semantic attributes, crucial for effective linguistic analysis and SEO-focused content.

2.1.2.3 Same semantic feature in diferrent words

Fromkin and Rodman (1993) highlight that "the semantic properties of words determine what other words they can be combined with," emphasizing the importance of semantics in language They illustrate this with two sentences that are grammatically correct and syntactically sound but semantically anomalous, demonstrating how semantic compatibility influences meaningful sentence construction Understanding the relationship between word meanings and their combinatorial possibilities is essential for grasping effective communication and language comprehension.

The sentence “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously” appears to follow English syntax rules, but is semantically nonsensical The adjective “colorless” conflicts with “green,” as “colorless” denotes an absence of color while “green” indicates a specific hue, making their combination contradictory Additionally, the noun “ideas” is abstract and incompatible with the verb “sleep,” which typically requires a concrete and animate subject Furthermore, “sleep” is usually described with adverbs like “well,” “badly,” or “soundly,” making “furiously” an illogical adverb in this context, since it implies violent anger incompatible with the act of sleeping This sentence exemplifies how syntax can be correct while semantics are flawed, highlighting the importance of both in effective communication.

Understanding the semantic features of a word is essential for constructing meaningful language units By recognizing these features, we can effectively combine semantically compatible words to create larger, coherent structures such as phrases, clauses, and sentences This knowledge enhances our ability to produce clear and meaningful communication.

The words in group (i) share semantic properties related to their core meaning, such as being concrete objects or representing specific concepts, whereas those in group (ii) tend to share properties like abstractness or intangible qualities The primary distinguishing semantic property between groups (i) and (ii) is that group (i) consists of tangible, perceivable entities, while group (ii) includes intangible or conceptual entities Understanding these semantic distinctions enhances comprehension of how words are categorized based on their core qualities, which is essential for effective language analysis and SEO content development.

The semantic differences between "boy" and "man" can be understood through their feature combinations: "boy" is characterized by [+human], [+male], and [—adult], indicating that it refers to a male human who is not yet an adult In contrast, "man" shares the features [+human] and [+male] but includes [+adult], signifying maturity and adulthood The key distinction between these words lies in the primitive semantic feature [±adult], which differentiates "man" from "boy" fundamentally Understanding these semantic features helps clarify how these terms differ in meaning, aligning with core principles of lexical semantics.

Blue is a word that functions as both a hyponym and a hypernym simultaneously Specific shades such as turquoise, aquamarine, and royal blue are immediate hyponyms of blue, each representing distinct variations within the broader category of blue hues.

In English, the word "animal" has multiple meanings depending on the context It commonly refers to living creatures that are distinct from plants and rocks, encompassing all non-plant, non-mineral life forms Additionally, "animal" often specifically denotes mammals, excluding humans, to distinguish between humans and other animals Understanding these different referents is essential for clear communication and accurate usage of the term "animal" in various contexts.

Types Of ambiguity 0.0

* Lexical Ambiguity: containing an ambiguous word (cé mé6t tir di nghia cing loại từ nhưng khác nghĩa)

Ex: She gave me a ring last night nhẫn = wedding ring cú điện thoại = phone call

Don’t seat on those glasses

Céc = glasses for drinking mat kinh = eye-glasses

* Structural Ambiguity: caused by structure ¢ Grouping Ambiguity: The words in the sentence can be put into different group

Eg: Old men and women left

[old] [men & women] left Eg: An old girl’s bicycle

Eg: He greeted the girl with a smile

=> He greeted the girl with a smile

Eg: I met John going to the cinema

=> I met John going to the cinema

L—] e Function Ambiguity: a sentence containing Í word with different functions

Eg: I love Laura more than you XN S: more than you love her

O: more than I love you Eg: Visiting relatives can be UY S: the relatives who are visiting

Eg: He gave her dog meat ` her: determiner /modifier of dog her: personal pro/ indirect object.

MEANING RELATION AND SENTENCES RELATION

Định dạng
Số trang	80
Dung lượng	6,79 MB