education teachers in early childhood programs Abstract This paper examined the effects of team teaching in early childhood programs.. Evaluating the Effectiveness of Team-Teaching Invol
INTRODUCTION
During the 1950s, the education system faced significant challenges, including the rapid increase in student populations due to the American baby boom and a severe shortage of teachers To address the growing demand for education in the 1960s, the Commission on Curriculum Planning was established to develop strategies for expanding and improving the curriculum to meet these demographic pressures.
Development by the National Association of Secondary School Principals was established The Commission was led by J Lloyd Trump The Commission submitted, A
A proposal was developed to demonstrate how enhanced teacher utilization could address the high school teacher shortage across the United States, supported by funding from the Fund for the Advancement of Education The initiative involved creating and testing innovative teaching techniques, notably team-teaching, which was implemented in over 100 schools nationwide Trump anticipated that team-teaching would enable shared classroom responsibility among teachers, facilitate large-group presentations, and support follow-up sessions with small groups of 12-15 students, as well as individualized student learning This approach aimed to optimize teacher resources and improve educational outcomes amidst ongoing staffing challenges.
Woodward, 1964), diagnostic, planning, and evaluative procedures developed by a team of teachers are generally superior to those developed by a single teacher
Team teaching is centered on the core principles of cooperative planning, continuous collaboration, close unity, open communication, and sincere sharing, rather than specific organizational details It emphasizes the importance of functioning as a single, unified team rather than just a group of individuals working together The approach promotes flexibility in grouping policies and practices, allowing for adjustments in group size and structure, fostering a spirit of freedom and opportunity to adapt programs to meet diverse educational needs (Bair & Woodward, 1964, p 22).
The emphasis on co-teaching increased significantly following Trump's Commission, highlighting its growing importance in education Historically, the 1960s saw the development of various team-teaching models, with England adopting a approach that combined large-group lectures with subsequent traditional classroom instruction (Friend et al., 1993) This evolution underscores the progressive integration of collaborative teaching strategies to enhance student learning outcomes.
Another variation involved joint planning by teachers on units, but individual instruction to students (Geen, 1985)
Geen (1985) found that team-teaching occurred in both elementary and secondary schools It was observed in teaching many subjects and in different countries by the 1970s
The term "team teaching" has been used to describe many different approaches, often leading to confusion and inconsistency Most reports on team teaching are limited to describing specific programs without assessing their overall effectiveness This makes it challenging to determine whether team teaching successfully enhances educational opportunities for students (Friend et al.,., 1993, p 7)
During the 1980s, as mainstreaming children with disabilities became widely promoted, it was found that general education teachers lacked sufficient training to support students with special needs This gap in preparation encouraged special education and general education teachers to collaborate more closely, fostering a growing interest in co-teaching models to better serve diverse student populations (Reinhiller, 1996; Stainback and Stainback).
According to 1984, integrating general and special education fosters a shared responsibility for providing effective educational programming for all students, regardless of individual differences This collaborative approach emphasizes the importance of teamwork between general education and special education teachers, with various terminology used to describe their partnership Such an inclusive model promotes equitable educational opportunities and encourages a unified effort to support diverse student needs.
However, "team-teaching was not a commonly acknowledged role for special education and general education teachers" (Friend et al., 1993, p 7)
Team-teaching has gained recent popularity among general education teachers, primarily to provide students with personalized learning experiences and to enable teachers to leverage each other's expertise within a professional support system (Friend et al., 1993) As educators explore various instructional strategies to meet the diverse needs of students, team-teaching has become increasingly recognized for its effectiveness It is also commonly referred to as cooperative or co-teaching to distinguish it from other teams of general education teachers sharing instructional responsibilities (Friend et al., 1993).
This study aims to explore the impact of both general and special education teachers working collaboratively in team-teaching settings on early childhood students and educators The research investigates how these combined teaching approaches influence student learning outcomes and teacher effectiveness Key questions addressed include the benefits of team-teaching for young learners and the effects on teacher collaboration and professional development Understanding these dynamics can inform best practices in early childhood education, promoting inclusive and effective teaching environments.
1 What are the variations of team-teaching?
2 What are the benefits of team-teaching for students and teachers?
3 What are the disadvantages of team-teaching for students and teachers?
4 What are the necessary elements required for successful team- teaching?
Meeting the diverse needs of all children in a classroom presents significant challenges for educators Regular teachers often express the necessity of support personnel to assist with instructional activities, especially for students requiring additional help (Giangreco, Dennis, Cloninger, Edelman, & Schattman, 1993) Special education teachers are concerned about how to serve students with disabilities who are no longer eligible for pull-out programs, highlighting the need for alternative instructional methods (Baker & Zigmond, 1990) As the population of at-risk and special needs students grows, developing and evaluating innovative delivery models becomes essential (Morsink, Thomas, & Correa, 1991) Co-teaching, a team-based service delivery approach, offers a promising solution to ensure all students receive appropriate educational programs, regardless of traditional diagnostic categories (Bauwens, Hourcade, & Friend, 1989) It is crucial for teachers to understand and effectively incorporate co-teaching into their classrooms to meet these evolving educational demands.
Most research on this topic focuses on the collaboration between general education and special education teachers, highlighting the significant impact of team-teaching While these studies provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of co-teaching models, there are limitations in their scope that must be acknowledged.
Five studies do not address collaboration between general education teachers and speech pathologists or ESL teachers, highlighting a gap in the existing literature According to the Encyclopedia of Education (1971), team teaching involves two or more teachers sharing responsibility for lesson planning, presentation, and evaluation for the same student groups This review specifically focuses on literature related to team-teaching between general and special education teachers, with limited access to some relevant studies that could have provided additional insights The available literature on variations of team-teaching is also limited, with Vaughn, Schumm, and Arguelles (1997) serving as the primary reference in this area.
In the reviewed literature, the term "team-teaching" is often used interchangeably with "cooperative teaching," "co-teaching," and "collaborative teaching." For clarity and consistency, this paper will adopt "team-teaching" to encompass all these related concepts Clear definitions of each term will be provided to enhance understanding.
Cooperative teaching is an innovative educational approach where general and special educators collaborate closely to jointly instruct diverse student groups with varying academic and behavioral needs within integrated classroom settings This coactive and coordinated method enhances inclusive education by promoting teamwork between teachers to support all learners effectively Implemented in general classrooms, cooperative teaching ensures that students with different learning styles and abilities receive tailored instruction, fostering a supportive and inclusive learning environment.
Effective collaboration between general education and special education teachers is essential for developing tailored lesson plans that address the diverse needs of students, including those with disabilities, gifted learners, students with limited English proficiency, and students not receiving special services (Schumm, Vaughn, & Harris, 1997) This partnership promotes collegiality, shared decision-making, and shared responsibility, fostering common goals and accountability to enhance student success (Reinhiller, 1996).
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Team-teaching offers several effective strategies, including grazing and tag-team-teaching Grazing involves one teacher delivering instruction while the other monitors student engagement and comprehension, ensuring all students stay on track Tag-team-teaching, as described by Vaughn et al (1997), involves one teacher presenting information to the entire class while the other teacher observes or participates in a different activity, then taking over once the first lesson concludes Both methods require adaptations to optimize classroom collaboration and enhance student learning outcomes.
Vaughn et al (1997) identified five alternative models for team-teaching, moving beyond traditional grazing or tag-team approaches One effective method is "teaching on purpose," where one teacher delivers whole-class instruction while the other provides targeted mini-lessons to individuals or small groups This approach allows for review and reinforcement of the current lesson or previous content Additionally, teachers utilizing "teaching on purpose" maintain detailed logs to track each special education student's needs and follow-up requirements, ensuring personalized support and improved educational outcomes.
The second variation of team-teaching involves two groups, with both teachers delivering the same content, which promotes increased student interaction and engagement Small groups enable students to have more opportunities to communicate with peers and teachers, while allowing teachers to closely monitor and support individual responses Vaughn et al (1997) recommended that educators bring the two groups together at the end of the lesson for a wrap-up, providing a valuable opportunity to summarize key points and reinforce learning.
The next evolution of team-teaching involves dividing students into two groups based on their skill levels, with one teacher re-teaching the material and the other presenting alternative information According to Vaughn et al (1997), the special education teacher does not always instruct the group requiring re-teaching, as alternating groups has been found to enhance the effectiveness of this approach This method promotes targeted instruction and improves learning outcomes by leveraging strategic group assignments.
The fourth method of team-teaching resembles cooperative learning groups, where students work in designated centers This approach allows teachers to monitor student progress effectively, deliver targeted mini-lessons to individuals or small groups, and focus on one student while the other teacher oversees activities in the learning centers.
The final form of team teaching is considered "the most difficult to implement and extremely challenging for teachers new to co-teaching" (Vaughn et al., 1997, p 9) This approach involves both teachers instructing the entire class simultaneously and delivering the same lesson together According to Vaughn et al., refining these five team-teaching methods can lead to more effective and efficient use of teachers' time and skills (1997, p 5).
Team-teaching benefits both students and teachers by ensuring students perceive continuous support and receive personalized assistance, as noted by Friend et al (1993) It offers students the opportunity to observe teachers collaborating effectively, modeling positive behavior and teamwork, according to Schailble and Robinson (1995) Additionally, students in team-taught classrooms can enhance their discussion skills through participation in varied group sizes, as observed by Hanslovsky et al (1969) Buckley (2000) highlights that team-teaching facilitates active student participation by dividing students into smaller discussion groups and provides teachers with opportunities to model critical thinking, encouraging independent thought and increased engagement.
Walther-Thomas (1997) identified several key benefits of co-teaching in inclusive special education models, including improved academic performance, increased teacher attention, and a greater focus on cognitive and social skills The study found that students in co-taught classrooms experienced a more inclusive environment that promoted collaboration and communication among students, teachers, parents, and staff, creating a stronger sense of community Additionally, students benefited from diverse teaching strategies brought by two educators, enhancing the overall learning experience These findings highlight the positive impact of co-teaching on student engagement, social development, and classroom cohesion.
Research by Walther-Thomas (1997) highlights four key benefits of team-teaching for students with special needs: enhanced self-esteem as capable learners, improved academic performance, better social skills, and stronger peer relationships Teachers observe that these students develop more positive attitudes, exhibit less self-criticism, show increased motivation to learn, and become more adept at evaluating their own strengths and weaknesses Additionally, Reinhiller (1996) notes that special education students experience increased self-concept and confidence when working successfully at grade level in the regular classroom.
Hadley, Simmerman, and Long (2000) demonstrated that a collaborative, classroom-based model significantly enhances vocabulary and phonological development in kindergarten and first-grade students This model involved co-teaching with a certified speech-language pathologist participating in classrooms two days per week and engaging in weekly joint curriculum planning with regular teachers After six months, students in the team-teaching classrooms showed substantial improvements in vocabulary and phonemic awareness compared to peers in traditional classrooms without co-teaching.
Team-teaching fosters a sense of shared responsibility and collegial support among teachers, enhancing their professional collaboration According to Luckner (1999), this approach is effective in delivering educational services to students with hearing disabilities, as evidenced by data from two co-taught elementary classrooms inclusive of hearing and deaf or hard of hearing students The collaboration between general education teachers and teachers of students with hearing difficulties not only benefits teachers through collegiality but also positively impacts students by providing them with models of healthy adult relationships and friendships.
Team-teaching fosters professional growth by enabling teachers to gain new perspectives and insights from their colleagues, ultimately enhancing teaching effectiveness It encourages the sharing of knowledge and skills, which can invigorate and diversify instructional approaches According to Risko and Bromley (2001), general education teachers reported broadening their instructional repertoire through collaborative learning, particularly by adopting new instructional strategies from their co-teachers This collaborative approach creates opportunities for teachers to learn from each other, leading to more dynamic and effective classrooms.
Working alongside my special education co-teacher has significantly enhanced my ability to meet the diverse needs of my students, as I have gained valuable skills to support their learning effectively Additionally, collaborating with the gifted teacher has introduced me to innovative strategies that I now implement with all students, fostering an inclusive and engaging classroom environment These experiences have enriched my teaching practice and improved student outcomes across the board.
Team teaching helps prevent boredom and burnout by allowing instructors to deliver different materials using varied teaching methods and by organizing students into diverse small and large groups (Buckley, 2000) Collaborative efforts among teachers make the teaching experience more enjoyable and stimulating, fostering opportunities to experiment with new instructional strategies (Giangreco, Baumgart, & Doyle, 1995) Additionally, teachers engaged in team teaching report higher professional satisfaction, especially when witnessing their students' success (Walther-Thomas, 1997) Walther-Thomas also highlighted that having another adult in the classroom provides teachers with emotional support, enabling them to share both the challenges and celebrations of teaching (1997).
Welch (2000) conducted a descriptive analysis of team-teaching in two classrooms through formative experiments, utilizing both formative and summative evaluation methods The study assessed student outcomes, teaching procedures, and teacher impressions using a combination of quantitative and qualitative analyses The findings highlight the effectiveness of team-teaching in enhancing student performance and improving instructional strategies This research emphasizes the importance of ongoing evaluation to optimize collaborative teaching practices and improve educational outcomes.
(2000) found that teachers involved in team-teaching reported several advantages
GUIDELINES FOR TEAM-TEACHING
Effective team teaching enhances the learning experience for both teachers and students, but addressing key issues is essential for success Implementing proven guidelines can facilitate the development of a cohesive and productive team-teaching environment, ensuring that collaborative efforts lead to improved educational outcomes.
Effective teachers must be willing to dedicate time and energy to team collaboration, sharing responsibilities in planning, delivering, and evaluating instruction Successful co-teaching involves jointly managing the classroom, introducing new concepts, monitoring student progress, providing individual support, and communicating outcomes to students and colleagues These essential components of team-teaching demand a strong commitment from teachers to ensure instructional effectiveness and student success.
Research indicates that common planning time significantly enhances the successful implementation of team teaching (Bauwens et al., 1989; Friend & Cook, 1992) Allocating shared planning periods allows teachers to collaboratively discuss instructional strategies and coordinate lesson plans According to Bauwens et al (1989), well-developed cooperative arrangements tailored to specific grade levels and content areas reduce the need for extensive planning time, thereby streamlining the collaboration process.
2 Teachers Should be Willing to Share with Colleagues
Effective co-teaching requires shared classroom status, power, and authority, ensuring both teachers feel comfortable and supported in making important decisions Collaboration involves jointly sharing responsibility for all classroom activities, fostering a cohesive teaching environment Team-teaching is most successful when both teachers equally participate in challenging and routine roles, promoting balanced workload and mutual respect.
Effective team-teaching relies on collaboration and open communication among colleagues, with sharing ideas enhancing each teacher's effectiveness Listening to diverse perspectives fosters professional growth and creates a supportive teaching environment It is essential to establish a culture that values and respects each team member's contributions, promoting a cohesive and productive partnership (Walther-Thomas et al., 2000).
Effective co-teachers collaborate by sharing resources such as student books, teachers' manuals, computers, and duplicating privileges to meet their students' diverse needs Creating a dedicated classroom space—like a desk, bulletin boards, and storage—helps both teachers feel comfortable and respected, fostering a positive co-teaching environment (Walther-Thomas et al., 2000) To prevent territorial disputes, it is recommended that both teachers occupy separate classrooms rather than one moving into the other's space (Bauwens et al., 1995).
3 Teachers Should be Willing to Give, Receive, and Use Constructive Criticism
Creating a supportive atmosphere in the team-teaching classroom encourages questioning, disagreements, and shared enthusiasm, all of which foster a collaborative learning environment Teachers must possess a strong sense of personal security to facilitate open communication and constructive interactions Effective team-teaching relationships offer opportunities for educators to share expertise, refine existing skills, and develop new ones, all rooted in mutual respect When respect is established, honest discussions about challenges, fears, and successes naturally occur, leading to professional growth and skill development for both teachers (Buckley, 2000).
4 Teachers Should be Willing to Cooperate and Solve Problems Together
Effective decision making in team-teaching is a collaborative group process that demands commitment from all partners It requires creativity, resilience, and open-mindedness to navigate challenges successfully Teammates must work together, communicate openly, be willing to compromise, and stay flexible to achieve shared teaching goals.
(1996) have defined collaboration as a style of direct interaction that is based on the participation of two or more individuals who are committed to a common goal
Typically, different skills and contributions are made when collaborating which will strengthen and maintain the teaming relationships
Effective teamwork in education requires teachers to share their ideas openly without fear of criticism, fostering a collaborative environment Both partners must be willing to take risks and learn from mistakes to improve their teaching strategies Respecting each other's unique skills, perspectives, and knowledge is essential for building a strong and productive teaming relationship.
Teaching teams are often faced with challenges requiring effective problem-solving and decision-making strategies According to Buckley (2000), a practical eight-step problem-solving system can guide teams through this process This system begins with identifying the problem and its causes, followed by gathering relevant information Next, the team brainstorms potential solutions and assesses their possible outcomes The team then collaboratively selects the most appropriate solution that aligns with their desired values An action plan is developed, implemented, and later evaluated for effectiveness, allowing adjustments to be made as needed to ensure successful resolution.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study investigates the effectiveness of team-teaching in early childhood education and offers practical guidelines for implementing this instructional strategy To achieve these objectives, the research addresses four key questions, aiming to enhance teaching practices and improve learning outcomes through collaborative teaching approaches The findings highlight the benefits of team-teaching, such as increased student engagement and improved instructional quality, making it a valuable strategy for early childhood educators Overall, the study provides actionable recommendations to optimize team-teaching methods, supporting educators in creating more effective and inclusive learning environments.
1 What are the variations of team-teaching?
Five variations of team-teaching have been identified by Vaughn et al (1997)
Team-teaching offers various effective strategies to enhance student learning One approach is teaching on purpose, where one teacher delivers a whole-class lesson while the other provides targeted instruction to small groups or individual students Another method involves two teachers simultaneously teaching the same material to different student groups, promoting differentiation Additionally, students can be divided into ability-based groups, allowing teachers to tailor instruction according to skill levels In a center-based model, one teacher monitors student activities at learning centers, while the other conducts mini-lessons for small groups or individual students The most collaborative approach is co-teaching the same lesson to the entire class at the same time, ensuring both teachers engage students actively Incorporating these team-teaching strategies can improve classroom dynamics and support diverse student needs.
2 What are the benefits of team-teaching for students and teachers?
Research has shown that team-teaching benefits both students and teachers Walther-Thomas (1997) and Hadley et al (2000) found that team-teaching enhances student academic performance, while Walther-Thomas also highlighted improvements in cognitive strategies, study skills, and social skills Additionally, Giangreco, Baumgart, and Doyle (1985), along with Risko and Bromley (2001), discovered that teachers involved in team-teaching expand their instructional knowledge by experimenting with new teaching methods.
3 What are the disadvantages of team-teaching for students and teachers?
While team-teaching offers numerous benefits, both students and teachers may face significant challenges, such as students feeling overwhelmed by classroom variation Conflicting teaching opinions and disagreements on educational materials can lead to student frustration Additionally, when team teachers clash in educational ideologies and lack effective negotiation skills, the collaboration becomes less effective, potentially hindering student learning and overall classroom harmony.
4 What are the necessary elements required for successful team-teaching?
Effective team-teaching programs require teachers to be committed to investing time and energy into the collaboration, sharing classroom ideas and resources openly, and embracing constructive criticism to enhance their teaching skills Additionally, successful team teaching depends on teachers working together to solve problems and making decisions collaboratively (Buckley, 2000).
Conclusions The following conclusions were drawn from this study:
1 Team-teaching is a valuable instructional approach to utilize in early childhood classrooms
2 Team-teaching has the potential to deliver quality instruction with two different perspectives and teaching styles that would not be possible with just one teacher
3 Team-teaching demands a broad knowledge base of student learning styles
4 Collaboration in team-teaching requires both teachers to be open-minded and flexible
5 Early childhood educators involved in team-teaching should schedule a common planning time on a daily basis
Recommendations Based on a review of the literature, the following recommendations are suggested:
1 Additional research is necessary to continue to gauge the effectiveness of team- teaching in early childhood education
2 Early childhood educators involved in team-teaching must be flexible with their instructional style and classroom management
3 Early childhood educators involved in team-teaching must collaborate with their partners to improve their teaching and actively work to include all students
4 Early childhood educators involved in team-teaching must have proficient communication skills in order to create a successful partnership with their team members
5 Support from school administrators is necessary before and during the implementation of team-teaching programs
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