The purpose is to build on the growing body of thought that views opment as a human right that is realized through a process of continuous improvement and seeks to explore areas where th
Technological abundance and exponential innovation
Advances in science and technology have sparked open discussions about their implications for human rights, frequently addressed in international negotiations and UN forums A key example is the emerging debate on artificial intelligence and autonomous weapons in warfare, with calls aimed at banning their use to ensure ethical and human rights protections.
Other emerging areas of concern include the long-term implications of the application of artificial intelligence and machine learning for employment 9
International discussions on this matter are raising new human rights questions that directly impinge on issues such as equity and ownership
The globalized nature of modern industrial production systems has expanded the discussion to an international level Addressing critical human rights issues is essential to ensure society can fully harness the benefits of technological innovation and creativity As many regions transition into the virtual economy, concerns around technological anxiety are increasing, highlighting the importance of ethical and responsible development in a connected world.
The world faces a number of grand challenges that are going to occupy public attention for the rest of this century According to the US National
The Academy of Engineering identifies four primary challenge categories: sustainability, including making solar energy economical, developing fusion energy, advancing carbon sequestration techniques, and managing the nitrogen cycle; health, focusing on improving access to clean water, engineering better medicines, advancing health informatics, and reverse engineering the brain; security, aiming to secure cyberspace, prevent nuclear terrorism, and restore urban infrastructure; these innovative solutions are essential for addressing global issues and promoting sustainable development.
8 Thomas W Simpson and Vincent C Müller, “Just War and Robots’ Killings,” The Philosophical
9 Andrew McAfee and Erik Brynjofsson, Machine, Platform, Crowd: Harnessing Our Digital Future
(New York: W.W Norton & Company, 2017); Vivek Wadhwa and Alex Salkever, The Driver in the
Driverless Car: How our Technology Choices will Shape the Future (Oakland, CA: Barrett-Koehler
10 Calestous Juma, Innovation and Its Enemies: Why People Resist New Technologies (New York,
Oxford University Press, 2016). and life enrichment (enhance virtual reality, advance personalized learning, and engineer the tools for scientific discovery) 11
The international community is increasingly focusing on practical solutions to emerging and persistent global challenges Ongoing debates about balancing technological innovation with human rights are expected to become more widespread across various sectors Lessons learned from climate change discussions, especially around clean technology, will inform future debates in other fields, highlighting the importance of translating experiences into effective policies worldwide.
Emerging markets are now significant sources of new technologies with global implications, transforming the traditional view of "technology transfer" from industrialized nations As Southeast Asian countries increasingly export industrial products and contribute to technological innovation, the focus shifts from merely demanding access to technology to advocating for the development of suitable endogenous capabilities This evolution aligns with principles in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, emphasizing the right to enjoy technological benefits and the importance of local capacity building.
Technological innovation is increasingly recognized as a powerful tool for expanding human liberties and reinforcing human rights The widespread adoption of mobile phones demonstrates how emerging communication technologies can strengthen democracy by enabling more people to exercise their rights and participate actively in societal conversations.
11 National Academy of Engineering, Grand Challenges for Engineering (Washington, DC: National Academy of Engineering, 2008).
Articles 17 of the UDHR and 15 of the ICESCR affirm the fundamental human right to access and benefit from science and technological advancements Using information and telecommunications technologies can promote political discourse and coordinate social movements, contributing to greater societal freedoms While there are risks that new technologies may be exploited to undermine human rights, overall, technological progress tends to support the expansion of liberties Critical concerns regarding the link between innovation and human rights are evolving to focus on key factors that enhance human capabilities and ensure that technological development reinforces fundamental rights.
Today’s world is characterized by exponential growth in scientific and technological knowledge, along with a diverse array of cultural activities and advancements in communication technologies New storage technologies ensure that the past remains accessible and influential, making it increasingly difficult to distinguish between the past, present, and future.
There is widespread awareness of rapid scientific advancements and the global accessibility of scientific and technical knowledge This exponential growth is driven by cumulative innovations, creating a self-sustaining momentum As scientific knowledge becomes more widespread, traditional boundaries between scientists and the public are diminishing, necessitating new approaches in how science and technology advice are conveyed to governments and other stakeholders.
The rapid growth of technical knowledge enables the development of low-cost, high-technology solutions that address persistent problems effectively These innovations are reshaping the political landscape in unprecedented ways, creating new opportunities to expand rights and improve societal well-being However, it is essential to recognize that certain aspects of human nature have remained largely unchanged, which can predictably lead society toward conflict and instability despite prior warnings.
13 Amartya Sen, The Idea of Justice (New York: Allen Lane, 2009)
14 Ray Kurzweil, The Singularity in Near: When Humans Transcend Biology (New York: Penguin Books,
2005); Peter H Diamandis and Steven Kotler, Bold: How to Go Big, Create Wealth and Change the
World (New York: Simon and Schuster Paperbacks, 2016).
15 Peter Diamandis and Steven Kotler, Abundance: The Future Is Better Than You Think (New York:
16 Calestous Juma and Y.C Lee, Innovation: Applying Knowledge in Development (London: Earthscan,
2005): Chapter 9; M.J Feuer and C.J Maranto, “Science Advice as Procedural Rationality:
Reflections on the National Research Council,” Minerva,Vol 48, No 3, 2010: pp 259–275.
17 Al Gore, The Future: Six Drivers of Global Change (New York: Random House, 2013).
18 Rebecca Costa, The Watchman’s Rattle: A Radical New Theory of Collapse (Philadelphia, PA:
Advances in science and technology are enabling humanity to resolve problems once considered unimaginable, driven by the global growth of knowledge and innovative technical combinations inspired by social consciousness This perspective suggests that developing countries may access more scientific and technical knowledge today than advanced nations did during their early industrialization phases The rapid technological leapfrogging seen in latecomer economies like China highlights the substantial potential for emerging nations to accelerate their development through scientific innovation and technological adoption.
The rapid technological abundance and diversity require a reevaluation of human rights concerns established in the past century Unlike previous times, when limited access to scientific knowledge was due to slow technical progress and high barriers, today’s challenges revolve around developing digital skills and navigating online rights Movements like open access and online education highlight the need to empower individuals to select appropriate platforms and address the new issues emerging in the digital age.
This article explores various modes of technological leapfrogging, highlighting five case studies from China that reveal strategies for rapid technological advancement (Chen and Li-Hua, 2011) It emphasizes how emerging economies can accelerate development by adopting innovative technologies and bypassing traditional stages of growth Additionally, the study discusses the Indian IT service sector’s experience, demonstrating how countries can capitalize on windows of opportunity, create new pathways, and move up the value chain through strategic innovation (Lee, Park, and Krishnan) Understanding these dynamics offers valuable insights into how developing nations can achieve sustainable technological progress and economic growth.
20 Molly Beutz Land, “Protecting Rights Online,” Yale Journal of International Law 34 (2009): 1–46.
Human rights and technology transfer
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) provides the foundational basis for discussions on the right to development According to Article 22 of the UDHR, every individual has the right to social security and essential economic, social, and cultural rights necessary for dignity and personal growth By 1986, the UN General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Right to Development, emphasizing that all people have the right to participate in and benefit from economic, social, cultural, and political development, ensuring the full realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms.
This broader view of human development is given a basic needs approach in
Article 25 affirms that everyone has the right to an adequate standard of living that ensures their health and well-being, encompassing essential needs such as food, clothing, housing, medical care, and social services This fundamental right emphasizes the importance of access to basic necessities for individuals and their families to lead healthy and dignified lives Ensuring these rights promotes social equity and supports the overall well-being of communities worldwide.
UN has played a key role in elaborating these elements through treaties as well as executive agencies.
Access to fundamental needs is impossible without substantial and ongoing investment in education, science, and technology According to Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), "Everyone has the right to education," emphasizing the importance of education as a basic human right essential for development Prioritizing education and technological advancement is crucial to meeting these essential needs and fostering sustainable growth.
Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages
Elementary education shall be compulsory Technical and professional edu- cation shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.”
21 General Assembly Resolution 41/128 Declaration on the Right to Development, 4 December 1986
For a comprehensive understanding of this declaration's background and current analysis, refer to the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights' publication, *Realizing the Right to Development: Essays in Commemoration of 25 Years of the* This resource offers valuable insights into the evolution and significance of the right to development.
United Nations Declaration on the Right to Development, Geneva: OHCHR, 2013.
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Scientific research and its applications should benefit society globally, with a particular focus on developing countries To achieve this, seven forms of international cooperation are essential, ensuring that the advantages of scientific advancements are shared equitably across the international community This approach promotes inclusive development and enhances global collaboration in scientific progress.
These normative principles established the importance of investing in human resource development as a fundamental approach to enhancing human welfare While most of these norms primarily emphasized national initiatives, they underscored the critical role of human capital in driving socioeconomic progress globally.
22 An elaboration of this theme was reflected in the Declaration on the Use of Scientific and
In 1975, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the principle that technological progress should serve peace and humanity's benefit All nations are encouraged to promote international cooperation to ensure scientific and technological advancements support global peace, security, and the economic and social development of peoples These efforts aim to uphold human rights and freedoms, aligning with the United Nations Charter to foster a safer, more equitable world through responsible use of technology.
The seven measures outlined emphasize providing special and sustainable assistance, acknowledging research participants, ensuring access to quality healthcare, and supporting the development of new diagnostic and therapeutic tools derived from research They also include enhancing access to scientific knowledge, building research capacity, and offering other benefits aligned with the principles of the Declaration International cooperation, as stipulated in the UDHR, initially focused on domestic education with minimal international financial transfers from industrialized nations However, transferring technology—a combination of physical assets and tacit knowledge—requires significant financial investment and changes in proprietary access rules Early debates highlighted limited understanding of the origins and development of technology, but it became clear that acquired technological capabilities depended heavily on existing technical expertise, especially in engineering The introduction of new technology further stimulates demand for local education in related fields, reinforcing the cycle of innovation and capacity building.
Viewing human rights and capabilities as dynamic and evolving requires moving beyond classical legal theories that view the world as a stable equilibrium needing periodic corrections Recognizing that rights are not solely self-activating or pre-ordained highlights the crucial role states play in expanding human possibilities The principles of the UDHR are continuously developed through supplementary UN normative frameworks, emphasizing the importance of a flexible and evolutionary approach to human rights.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) emphasizes the vital role of creativity in human development Article 27 highlights the right to participate in cultural life, enjoy the arts, and share in scientific progress and its benefits These cultural and scientific rights are interconnected with Article 19 of the UDHR and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, underscoring the importance of creative expression and access to scientific advancements for all.
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) safeguards the fundamental right to freedom of opinion and expression It ensures individuals can hold their opinions without interference and freely seek, receive, and impart information and ideas across all media, regardless of borders This commitment promotes open communication and the free exchange of ideas worldwide, supporting the fundamental principles of human rights and democratic participation.
24 W Brian Arthur, The Nature of Technology: What It Is and How It Evolves (New York: Free Press,
25 Norman Clark and Calestous Juma, Long-Run Economics: An Evolutionary Approach to Economic
The Declaration of Principles from the United Nations-convened World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) reaffirmed that access to information is an essential foundation of the modern society Although the WSIS did not explicitly declare internet access as a human right, it emphasized that "everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate," ensuring inclusive access and preventing exclusion from the benefits of the Information Society.
Technological capabilities and innovation systems
While most developing countries pressed for technology transfer through multilateral forums, a new development paradigm based on technology acquisition and absorption was unfolding in a select number of Southeast
Asian countries, led by South Korea and inspired by Japan, have prioritized enhancing their absorptive capacity to boost technological development Absorptive capacity refers to an organization’s ability to develop routines and strategic processes that acquire, assimilate, and exploit external knowledge to generate value Strengthening this capacity enables these countries to advance innovation, improve competitive advantage, and sustain economic growth in a rapidly evolving global landscape.
South Korea's rapid industrial growth in the 1960s transformed its economy from a level comparable to many African countries, thanks to a development model focused on strengthening the population's absorptive capacity This approach prioritized creating development rights through learning and innovation, rather than assuming these rights were inherent, emphasizing education, health, and living standards under a strong state-driven model While this "developmental state" facilitated technological progress and economic expansion, it also involved significant restrictions on worker rights and civil liberties More recently, Korea’s development model has evolved to view human rights and capabilities as social and political constructs, with active state involvement playing a crucial role in fostering these rights.
47 Linsu Kim, Imitation to Innovation: The Dynamics of Korea’s Technological Learning (Boston:
48 Maria Jiménez-Barrionuevo, Victor García-Morales, and Luis Molina, “Validation of an Instrument to
Measure Absorptive Capacity,” Technovation 31, no 5–6 (2011): 190–202.
49 Nika Murovec and Igor Prodan, “Absorptive Capacity, Its Determinants, and Influence on Innovation
Output: Cross-Cultural Validation of the Structural Model,” Technovation 29, no 12 (2009), 859–72.
50 William Shaw (ed.), Human Rights in Korea: Historical and Policy Perspectives, (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard Studies in East Asian Law, Harvard University Press, 1991)
Technological innovation is therefore not simply a matter of acquiring and installing machinery, but it entails a transformation of society and its value systems
Innovation has become the key driver of socio-economic evolution, characterized by uncertainty, exploration, financial risk, experimentation, and discovery These core qualities have significantly influenced Western trade expansion and natural resource development, making innovation virtually an additional factor of production.
This perspective considers capabilities as a dynamic process of expanding possibilities, including the development of new trade relations between newly-industrialized countries and Western nations Countries like South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore depended heavily on external competitive markets, relying on entrepreneurship, innovation, and effective management to succeed Their approach to creating an enabling international environment emphasized bilateral trade agreements rather than multilateral efforts through the UN or international agencies Additionally, during periods of rapid growth, these nations prioritized economic expansion over ensuring respect for human rights.
Singapore's founding father emphasized that "the quality of a nation’s manpower is the single most important factor determining national competitiveness," highlighting the critical role of innovativeness, entrepreneurship, teamwork, and work ethic in gaining a competitive edge This perspective led to policies focused on strengthening the educational system and ensuring it adapts effectively to evolving global economic challenges.
Singapore's educational system is consistently ranked among the best in the world, reflecting its commitment to academic excellence Additionally, the country leverages its education system as a tool to address income inequality, promoting equal opportunities for all students This integrated approach contributes significantly to Singapore's reputation as a global leader in education.
51 Nathan Rosenberg and L E Birdzell, How the West Grew Rich: The Economic Transformation of the
Industrial World (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
52 S Lall and S Urata (eds.), Competitiveness, FDI and Technology Activity in East Asia, (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2003).
53 Graham Allison, et al., Lee Kuan Yew: The Grand Master’s Insights on China, the United States, and the World (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2013).
Pundarik Mukhopadhaya emphasizes that education policies serve as vital tools in addressing income disparity, as exemplified by Singapore's approach The educational system is integrated into a broader network of institutional structures designed to enhance global competitiveness Fostering a "system of innovation" through education aims to develop the capabilities of development agents, focusing on building skills that drive economic progress, while still aligning with the broader right to education outlined internationally.
Article 26 of the UDHR emphasizes the importance of fostering the full development of the human personality and promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms The Singaporean approach exemplifies how targeted policies can support these principles, ensuring individual growth while strengthening societal respect for human rights This balanced approach highlights the global significance of respecting human freedoms as a foundation for national development and social harmony.
This approach diverges considerably from the principles, rights, and institutions promoted by the UDHR and Western nations, reflecting the country's unique historical context It is driven primarily by an ideology focused on economic development first and foremost, shaping its distinct human rights framework.
Nation states have traditionally shaped the development of innovation systems, making early research primarily focused on national contexts According to Niosi, Saviotti, Bellon, and Crow, an innovation system consists of “interacting private and public firms, universities, and government agencies” working together to produce science and technology within national borders.
Innovation policies are primarily national but operate within global arenas, requiring actors to balance trade-offs and leverage complementarities Effective policy must support the integration of internationally linked industries domestically, enabling the development of specialized knowledge that spills over into local ecosystems This knowledge is then recombined and transformed within the broader innovation system, fostering sustainable growth and competitiveness.
Tapping into global systems to meet national needs presupposes the exis- tence of requisite capabilities in domestic institutions and enterprises Such
55 Melanie Chew, “Human Rights in Singapore: Perceptions and Problems,” Asian Survey 34, no 11
56 Jorge Niosi et al., “National Systems of Innovation: In Search of Workable Concept,” Technology in
Society 15, no 2 (1993): 207–27; Metcalfe, S and Ramlogan, R 2008 “Innovation Systems and the
Competitive Process in Developing Economies,” Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 48, no
57 Sverre J Herstad et al., “National Innovation Policy and Global Open Innovation: Exploring
Capabilities vary significantly across countries and can be categorized into technological, governance, political, and openness dimensions The key factor influencing technological catch-up is not merely the availability of technological opportunities in industrialized nations but also the social capabilities present in recipient countries Successful catching-up requires more than just technology transfer through foreign direct investment or joint ventures; it involves active social and institutional development that goes beyond simple production and implementation.
It involves deliberate local measures aimed at building up capacity for innovation 60
Many conflicts between technological innovation and human rights originate from interactions within global systems For example, developing countries view access to vital pharmaceutical technologies as crucial for delivering adequate healthcare to their populations However, international technology transactions are regulated by strict intellectual property rights, which can hinder affordable access to essential medicines in these nations.
Recent years have seen trade-related intellectual property agreements become increasingly stringent to combat piracy and counterfeiting, but these high standards have generated tension between IP protection and human rights systems A balanced approach is needed to address the conflicts arising from competing standards, international institutional rivalry, and the proliferation of fragmented treaties and nonbinding norms Achieving a workable equilibrium between intellectual property rights and human rights is essential amidst ongoing debates over substantive rules, values, and policy dominance.
58 Jan Fagerberg and Martin Srholec, “National Innovation Systems: Capabilities and Economic Development,” Research Policy 37, no 9 (2008): 1417–35.
59 Moses Abramovitz, “Catching Up, Forging Ahead, and Falling Behind,” Journal of Economic History
46, no 2 (1986): 385–406; Roberto Mazzoleni, “Catching Up and Academic Institutions: A Comparative Study of Past National Experiences,” Journal of Development Studies 44, no 5 (2008): 678–700.
60 Kyung-Min Nam “Learning through the International Joint Venture: Lessons from the Experience of China’s Automotive Sector,” Industrial and Corporate Change 20, no 3 (2011): 855-907.
61 Andrew D Mitchell and Tania Voon, “Patents and Public Health in the WTO, FTAs and Beyond: Tension and Conflict in International Law,” Journal of World Trade 43, no 3 (2009): 571–601.
62 Peter Yu, “Intellectual Property and Human Rights in the Nonmultilateral Era,” Florida Law Review
63 Lawrence Helfer, “Toward a Human Rights Framework for Intellectual Property,” UC Davis Law
The Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMs) under the
The World Trade Organization (WTO) plays a significant role in balancing the goals of increasing global trade and safeguarding human rights Its primary objective is to expand and progressively liberalize international trade, fostering investment across countries to promote economic growth At the same time, the WTO aims to ensure free competition, which can sometimes create tensions with human rights considerations.
Specifically, it seeks to prevent the adoption and utilization of legislative and other investment-related measures that may cause trade restrictive and dis- tortive effects.
Human rights in the age of exponential innovation
Addressing barriers to access to knowledge and technology must now be complemented by building the necessary capabilities in developing countries to leverage existing knowledge for human development Emerging research is essential to explore how human rights intersect with key areas such as infrastructure, technical education, and entrepreneurship in the digital age These challenges are not solely confined to the developing world but are of significant global policy relevance in an era of technological abundance.
Infrastructure, technology, and human capabilities
Effective societal functioning relies heavily on adequate infrastructure, which serves as the foundation for all human activities Infrastructure includes facilities, structures, and equipment that facilitate the flow of goods and services among individuals, businesses, and governments Key components of conventional infrastructure encompass public utilities like power, water supply, telecommunications, sanitation, and waste disposal; public works such as irrigation systems, schools, housing, and hospitals; transportation sectors including roads, railways, ports, waterways, and airports; and research facilities like laboratories and related equipment.
Building engineering capabilities is critical to infrastructure development.
Infrastructure services encompass the provision, operation, and maintenance of physical facilities essential for economic development Poor infrastructure significantly hampers improvements in human well-being, as it acts as the foundational framework supporting all secondary economic activities Despite its critical importance, there is limited discussion or research addressing the impact of infrastructure deficiencies on overall development.
79 Gabriela Dutrénit, “The Transition from Building‐up Innovative Technological Capabilities to
Leadership by Latecomer Firms,” Asian Journal of Technology Innovation 15, no 2 (2007): 125–49.
80 Calestous Juma, Redesigning African Economies: The Role of Engineering in International
Development (London: Royal Academy of Engineering, 2006).
81 Anupam Ghosh, “Physical Infrastructure and Development of Secondary Sector: An Econometric
Poor infrastructure significantly impacts democratic participation, as regions lacking adequate infrastructure face challenges in exercising democratic rights like voting While freedom of expression is essential, the capacity to effectively express oneself often depends on access to vital infrastructure services such as transportation, energy, and communications Without these essential services, the realization of democratic freedoms and active citizen engagement becomes difficult, highlighting the crucial role infrastructure plays in strengthening democracy.
Poor infrastructure significantly hampers food production and health improvements, highlighting its crucial role in societal development As the foundation of technological progress, infrastructure underpins all subsequent innovations, enabling advancement across various sectors Its design and maintenance depend on robust technological capabilities, emphasizing the interconnected nature of infrastructure and technological development essential for sustainable growth.
The rapid diffusion of information technology in recent years has emphasized the need for robust telecommunications infrastructure, including telephone, cable, and satellite networks Electronic information systems, which depend on this infrastructure, play a crucial role in the production and distribution activities within the secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy.
Adequate infrastructure is essential not only for driving economic development but also as a foundation for realizing human rights and expanding individual liberties It plays a critical role in enabling human capabilities, warranting further research into technological innovation and human rights While much of the current discourse on infrastructure centers around economic factors like investment returns and institutional arrangements such as public-private partnerships, expanding this discussion to include human rights highlights its importance in improving the overall human condition.
Expanding infrastructure investments in key sectors creates significant opportunities to unlock human potential by enabling economies of scale In many emerging regions, markets remain small and fragmented, limiting both producers and consumers from benefiting fully from scaling benefits and learning efficiencies.
Large markets offer significant benefits through geometrical scaling, which is rooted in fundamental engineering principles and the physical nature of the world These scale effects are often mistaken for economies of scale; however, the inherent advantages of geometrical scaling explain why chemical and processing plants experience greater benefits compared to assembly plants Understanding these principles is crucial for optimizing industrial efficiency and innovation.
The expansion of manufacturing driven by larger markets has extended the advantages of geometrical scaling to the transportation sector Transportation equipment—including oil tankers, freighters, industrial trucks, buses, trains, and aircraft—benefits significantly from increased scale This is because the cost of transportation assets is primarily determined by their surface area, which scales with the square of their dimensions, while their output depends on their volume.
(dimension cubed).” 84 What may appear as modest increases in the size of transportation equipment yields significant benefits due to the inherent nat- ural properties of geometrical scaling.
African countries have significantly benefited from geometrical scaling by integrating advanced circuits into devices like mobile phones, digital cameras, and computers Miniaturizing transistors and storage regions has driven substantial improvements in performance and made technology more affordable This scaling revolution has enabled the rise of personal and portable computers, mobile phones, and other digital devices, transforming access to technology across the continent.
The internet industry, along with emerging sectors such as broadcasting, telecommunications, healthcare—including biotechnology—education, and finance, is experiencing rapid growth The increasing integration of electronic technologies across various process industries enhances scalability, allowing businesses to maximize benefits either through expanding operations or optimizing smaller-scale processes This trend reflects the pivotal role of electronics in driving innovation, efficiency, and competitive advantage across diverse sectors.
Geometrical scaling plays a crucial role in Africa’s regional integration efforts by highlighting the significance of industrialization to harness the advantages of expanded markets Emphasizing industrial development can reduce capital costs and promote economic growth across the continent Focusing on these strategic areas is essential for unlocking the full potential of regional cooperation and sustainable development in Africa.
83 Lipsey, R.et al (eds) 2005 Economic Transformations: General Purpose Technologies and Long-
Term Econonic Growth Oxford University Press, New York.
84 Jeffrey Lee Funk, “What Drives Exponential Improvements?” California Management Review 55, no
85 Jeffrey Lee Funk, Technology Change and the Rise of New Industries (Stanford, CA, Stanford
Investments in chemical processes grow more slowly than output as physical plants scale, while assembly plants typically replace human labor with machines, highlighting the importance of engineering capabilities This suggests that industries with significant regional integration benefits often involve scalable manufacturing, where industrial learning—particularly in general-purpose knowledge like geometric scaling—can be transferred across sectors such as brewing and pharmaceuticals Leveraging such transferable knowledge enhances industry efficiency and supports economic welfare through technological advancement.
Technical education and the expansion of human capabilities
Much of the debate over access to education as a human right has tended to focus on primary and secondary education Nevertheless, as noted by the
International human rights instruments confirm that technical and vocational education are integral to the right to education and the right to work Addressing global challenges necessitates substantial investment in human skills, particularly in technical fields Higher technical education is increasingly vital for development, as science, technology, and innovation play a crucial role in economic renewal and growth.
Science and technology diplomacy in the
The United Nations (UN) is the most complex international organization ever created, reflecting the evolving global challenges it addresses Its structure and scope enable it to handle issues arising from technology, innovation, and human rights, which are often discussed in its various organs, especially the General Assembly These emerging issues frequently become central to the daily work of the UN Secretariat, led by the Secretary-General, requiring access to up-to-date and reliable information due to their complexity and dynamic nature The UN not only serves as the pinnacle of international diplomacy but also acts as a leadership model for other organizations confronting complex global issues, highlighting the importance of examining its role in international science and technology diplomacy.
To improve procedural integrity and minimize knowledge uncertainty, biases, and conflicts of interest, it is essential to adopt best practices Equally important is maintaining a clear separation between advisory roles and other functions to ensure unbiased and trustworthy advice.
The UN Secretariat oversees the operational mandates of various UN programs, agencies, and organs Many of these entities require their own internal science advisory mechanisms to support decision-making Importantly, these independent scientific bodies are designed to complement, not conflict with, the work of the UN Secretariat, ensuring coherent and effective global governance.
Given the frequent emergence of issues related to technology, innovation, and human rights, it is essential for the UN Secretary-General, as the world’s leading diplomat, to have the necessary capacity within the secretariat to effectively address these complex challenges.
94 National Research Council, Knowledge and Diplomacy: Science Advice in the United Nations System
(Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2013).
95 Calestous Juma, “UN’s Role in the New Diplomacy,” Issues in Science and Technology 17, no 1
96 Michael J Feuer and Christina J Maranto, “Science Advice as Procedural Rationality: Reflections on the National Research Council,” Minerva 48, no 3 (2010): 259–275.
97 Calestous Juma and Yee-Cheong Lee, Innovation: Applying Knowledge in Development (London:
Building in-house capacity is essential for the UN to effectively serve as a role model for other international organizations involved in global governance of technology, innovation, and human rights Despite the importance of this expertise, the history of the UN reveals a gradual decline in such internal capabilities, even as the need for science and technology diplomacy continues to grow Strengthening these capacities will enhance the UN's ability to lead responsible governance in a rapidly evolving technological landscape.
A potential solution is for the UN Secretariat to establish an office comparable to the Office of Legal Affairs (OLA), ensuring specialized support in science and technology However, political factors have prevented the Secretariat from having equivalent resources, partly due to developing countries conflating advisory and operational roles, which risks conflicts of interest as they aim to expand the UN's mandate for national development Additionally, territorial disputes within the UN have complicated authority over science and technology issues, with some agencies fearing such an office might threaten their operations Historically, the UN Secretariat's role in providing science and technology advice has evolved, highlighting the need for a dedicated, independent entity to enhance its capacity in this vital area.
From global science advice to developing country focus
Following World War II, scientists and government officials in industrialized countries recognized the need to leverage science and innovation for human well-being, moving beyond military applications Developing countries also began acknowledging the importance of science and technology for their growth This shared interest led to the convening of the UN Conference for the Benefit of Less-Developed Areas in Geneva in 1963, attracting 1,665 delegates from 96 countries and international organizations to promote global development through science.
98 Klaus-Heinrich Standke, “Sixty Years of UN and UNESCO: Science and Technology in Global Cooperation: The Case of the United Nations and UNESCO,” Science and Public Policy 33, no 9 (2006): 627–646.
99 Calestous Juma and Yee-Cheong Lee, Innovation: Applying Knowledge in Development (London: Earthscan, 2005): 140-158.
The UN Advisory Committee on the Application of Science and Technology to Development (ACAST) was established in 1963 to increase awareness among policymakers about the critical role of science and technology in driving development Comprising primarily scientists and engineers, ACAST aimed to highlight the importance of leveraging scientific advancements for sustainable progress worldwide.
ACAST only provided advice and did not offer policy guidance, the UN
The Economic and Social Council established the Committee on Science and Technology for Development with an initial membership of 52 states To facilitate the implementation of the committee's recommendations, the United Nations created the Office of Science and Technology (OST) within the UN Secretariat This initiative highlights the UN's commitment to advancing science and technology for sustainable development worldwide.
ACAST identified computers for development and protein malnutrition as important for developing countries The topics were then emerging issues that involved a consideration of technological and human rights questions 102
A number of developing country governments, however, felt that this work was not broad enough to capture their needs They also felt that the existing
The UN structures were insufficient to support capacity building and technology transfer, prompting the 1979 UN Conference on Science and Technology for Development in Vienna Unlike the Geneva conference, which was led by technical experts, the Vienna conference aimed to empower governments to lead the science and technology agenda It was specifically convened to address political issues related to science and technology, marking a shift from the more technical focus of the 1963 Geneva conference.
The conferences created the UN Centre for Science and Technology for
Development, the UN Financing System for Science and Technology for
Development, and the UN Commission on Science and Technology for
The new UN organs have undergone significant changes, with a key focus on emphasizing the role of science and technology in development This shift aims to enhance their contribution to sustainable progress by reporting directly to the Secretary-General through the Director-General, ensuring streamlined coordination and focused efforts in advancing global development goals.
100 Vladslav Kotchetkov, “Science and Technology Policy in the United Nations System: A Historical
Overview,” In Arvanitis, R (ed.), Science and Technology Policy, Vol 2 (Oxford, UK: Encyclopedia of
101 Klaus-Heinrich Standke (ed.), Science and Technology and Global Problems: The United Nations
Advisory Committee on the Application of Science and Technology for Development (London:
102 Guy Gresford and Bertrand Châtel, “Science and Technology in the United Nations,” World
103 Klaus-Heinrich Standke, “The Prospects and Retrospects of the United Nations Conference on
Science and Technology for Development,” Technology and Society 1, no 4 (1980): 353-386.
OST reports to the Secretary-General via the Department of International Economic and Social Affairs, which addresses broader global issues However, opponents—mainly from industrialized nations—argued that development should be part of a comprehensive global agenda rather than focusing solely on the interests of developing countries.
The shift in institutional arrangements from advisory to operational focused on facilitating technology transfer but weakened the UN Secretariat’s ability to articulate science and innovation diplomacy within the UN and globally Combining advisory and operational roles created conflicts between emerging economies and industrialized nations, as developing countries depended on government-led technology projects, while the private sector owned most technologies in industrialized countries, protected by intellectual property rights This led to intellectual property becoming a highly contested issue in 1970s international trade negotiations These changes occurred amid a North-South negotiating environment, where developing countries leveraged the UN to facilitate resource flows for their development needs.
The slow return to global perspectives
The debate over the role of science and innovation advice within the UN Secretariat reemerged after the adoption of the UN Millennium Declaration in 2000 In response, the Secretary-General established new mechanisms to integrate scientific expertise, aiming to enhance the implementation of the declaration's goals This development highlights ongoing discussions about the importance of science-driven policy advice in advancing global development efforts within the United Nations.
The UN Millennium Project was launched by the Secretary-General to translate the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) into actionable strategies This initiative involved forming specialized task forces dedicated to each of the MDGs, ensuring focused efforts to achieve sustainable development worldwide.