i COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT, GRADUATE STUDENTS, AND “NẠVE COMPLICITY”: SERVICE IN THE UNIVERSITY A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Purdue University by Jonathan S.. This thesis takes issue
THE MANIFOLD TENSIONS OF COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT: A
The Origins of Community Engagement in Composition Studies
Community engagement in composition studies grew out of the “social turn” undergone by the field in the 1980s, as well as the movement by some instructors toward
“critical pedagogy” that gained popularity with scholars like Ira Shor in the 1980s and
In the 1990s, the social turn revolutionized composition studies by shifting the perspective from viewing writing as an isolated cognitive process to understanding it as a socially situated activity This paradigm challenged traditional views on knowledge-making, emphasizing the importance of context, community, and social interaction Influential scholars like Patricia Bizzell played a key role in advancing this movement, highlighting how social factors shape writing practices and meaning construction in complex ways.
The social turn in composition and literacy studies emphasizes viewing these skills as social practices rooted in collaborative knowledge creation, rather than isolated individual acts Kenneth Bruffee, James Berlin, and Shirley Brice Heath advocate for understanding writing and literacy as outcomes of social interactions and shared cultural efforts Lester Faigley highlights that a social perspective on writing recognizes individuals as integral parts of their culture, emphasizing collective influence over isolated influence Mike Rose reinforces this idea by pointing out that writing and reading are deeply social activities—people share stories, learn from others, and write for an audience—underscoring the communal nature of literacy practices.
In writing education, cultivating a sense of “community” helps composition students see themselves not as isolated writers but as interconnected beings Creating collaborative spaces encourages students to recognize the importance of relationships that influence their writing process and content This emphasis on community fosters a supportive environment where students understand how social connections impact their ability to develop ideas and craft meaningful narratives By integrating community into writing instruction, educators can enhance students’ engagement, writing skills, and their understanding of the social context shaping their work.
The social turn likewise created space for instructors to introduce critical pedagogy into their composition classrooms This approach championed the teachings of
Freire, whose Pedagogy of the Oppressed paved the way for instructors around the world to teach “critical consciousness,” a means by which students begin to understand the
9 social forces that inhibit prosperity and begin to work against these oppressive forces
This turn toward critical pedagogy positioned teachers as the change agents, as the ones
“who liberate students from the error of their ways and reveal how and why students’
Critical pedagogy views 'objective interests' as rooted in radical social change, positioning students as active agents capable of transforming their social realities Through critical pedagogy, students are encouraged to explore concepts like community, ideology, and institutions, fostering inquiry while critically examining the social structures that influence their lives As Berlin notes, effective critical pedagogy involves students researching their language, society, and learning processes to understand how values shape their identities and perceptions of social conditions By integrating cultural critique into composition pedagogy, educators empower students to critically analyze and challenge existing social and material inequalities.
Berlin and others laid the foundation for critical pedagogy to play a significant role in the advance of composition studies in the university
Critical pedagogy uses cultural critique to promote personal and social transformation by exposing the inner workings of societal institutions and systems It encourages developing a perspective that recognizes our role within these systems and fosters efforts to make them more inclusive Given its focus on societal change, critical pedagogy naturally centers on education, particularly criticizing the traditional “banking model” of education popularized by Freire Practitioners of critical pedagogy identify how literacy and conventional schooling often reinforce elitist, capitalist, and oppressive structures.
10 ultimately empty notions of meritocratic advancement that obscured the true mechanisms by which certain members of society advanced and others were left behind Writes Rose,
American meritocracy rests on the strong belief in equal opportunity, yet true access to educational resources remains questionable Many students, especially those facing economic and political barriers, encounter systemic challenges that hinder their success Early judgments about their abilities—regardless of accuracy—significantly influence their curriculum, placement, and institutional identity, perpetuating inequalities rather than promoting true meritocracy.
Critical pedagogues aim to empower students by exposing the limitations of traditional educational models, university structures, and internal practices, encouraging students to question and challenge institutional authority Rose critiques the American myth of “equal opportunity,” revealing it as flawed and highlighting the need for critical awareness of systemic inequalities Scholar-teachers advocating for critical pedagogy foster students’ understanding of their role in perpetuating dominant cultural practices, motivating them to enact meaningful social change.
“liberatory” responses (itself a contested category) that have the potential to change the material conditions of society
Critical pedagogy's true nature often contrasts with its setting in university lecture halls and academic journals, as it encourages students to critique social systems but can inadvertently reinforce latent authoritarian and institutional practices Despite promoting critical thinking, scholars and educators may unintentionally perpetuate dominant social practices, highlighting the complex relationship between pedagogical intent and institutional norms As Thomas Rickert notes, teaching writing is fully complicitous with existing social structures, revealing the challenges in transforming educational spaces into genuinely liberating environments.
11 write in accordance with institutional precepts can be as disabling as it is enabling” (290)
Attempts to teach resistance through composition often inadvertently reinforce the "dominant social practices" that such pedagogies aim to challenge Composition scholars face the paradox of engaging with academic institutions while striving to critique and transform them Despite their efforts to promote critical thinking and social change, the influence of academia remains a significant barrier This complex dynamic highlights the ongoing tension between pedagogical aims and institutional realities in composition studies.
Rickert emphasizes that every oppositional practice is inherently shaped by fantasy, making it difficult to dissolve this structure, which remains implicit and complicit in our actions and speech Similarly, Keith Gilyard highlights the double-bind in engaging with dominant discourse, noting that even subtle tweaks help perpetuate existing power dynamics In composition classrooms, curricula are often structured to privilege institutional agendas, with First Year Composition courses serving as mandatory requirements to meet university standards.
Freire emphasized cautious optimism about genuinely empowering and liberating students, recognizing the risk of these concepts being coopted by academic institutions and bureaucracies He warned that words like "empower" and "liberate" could be seized and diluted by institutional theorization, potentially undermining their transformative potential in education.
Despite good intentions and well-founded pedagogical approaches, critical pedagogy in the composition classroom remains fundamentally flawed Rickert argues that these methods can inadvertently create new forms of power and privilege, leading to increased resistance and further alienation among already cynical students He warns that relying solely on critique as a tool for personal and social transformation may inadvertently produce new tensions and even the potential for violence within educational settings.
From a Foucauldian perspective, control and authoritarian hegemony are inherent in pedagogical practices, highlighting the pervasive nature of power relations in education All teaching activities inevitably involve power dynamics, whether between students and teachers or within classroom and community interactions In social justice-oriented service learning, understanding these power relations is crucial, focusing on how such complicity influences classroom discussions and campus-community engagement Addressing these dynamics promotes more equitable and reflective pedagogical practices that foster social justice goals.
Though the above critiques are leveled at critical pedagogy in particular, they nevertheless resonate in the way that practitioners position service learning in the classroom Flower says as much:
University-based community service often risks perpetuating a naive complicity in social structures that reward academic prestige while neglecting the needs and capacities of the community It is crucial to question this dynamic, as reliance on expert, professional, and technological solutions has historically been ineffective in addressing complex urban problems.
Rickert critiques critical pedagogy by highlighting Flower’s concern that it risks fostering a naive complicity in social structures within the university, often at the expense of community engagement He acknowledges that some degree of complicity is unavoidable, but emphasizes the importance of critically examining and challenging these institutional structures to promote genuine social change.
Dewey and “Experiential Learning”
When engaging in working-class politics, it is sometimes strategic to align with the middle class, following Dewey’s approach to build broad coalitions However, there are also crucial moments to prioritize organizing the working class around their own interests, shifting away from Dewey’s framework This approach emphasizes viewing the struggle as a direct contest over resources and rights, such as land, highlighting the power dynamics between working-class communities and those seeking to diminish their influence.
In the 1990s, composition studies scholars involved in service learning drew on established academic traditions, such as those inspired by Freire's critical pedagogy, to gain legitimacy and institutional recognition While they aimed to critique these traditions at times, they also relied on foundational theories like John Dewey’s to develop a well-defined and shared body of knowledge.
Eyler 77) Though grounded primarily in action and lived experience, service learning, write Giles and Eyler, needed a “systematic way of generating and organizing our knowledge” (78) Dewey’s corpus, with its emphasis on democratic education and experiential learning, thus provided a theoretical anchor that service learning practitioners could cite when justifying their places in the academy Further, Dewey’s theories were, in the words of Linda Adler-Kassner, “porous”—they were non-specific and non-contextual enough to fit into a variety of national and local narratives (56) Rather than being viewed as merely a social “movement,” then, service learning could lean on Dewey’s theories as a means to transition to a legitimate academic “field.”
Although Dewey never explicitly used the term "service learning," educators have closely aligned this practice with his educational philosophy due to its forward-thinking approach and academic credibility Fundamentally, service learning is a pedagogical strategy that emphasizes a dynamic interaction between community engagement and scholarly investigation, making it a valuable component of experiential education.
Studies” 98) Put another way, this type of engagement values experience outside the classroom environment as a means of growth and knowledge-making In his 1938 book
John Dewey advocates for a progressive educational system that emphasizes the importance of real-world “experience” as a fundamental aspect of learning He emphasizes that teachers should effectively utilize their physical and social environments to create meaningful experiences that contribute to student growth Dewey also highlights the role of educators and community members as facilitators of transformative learning experiences This theoretical foundation underpins service learning approaches, which position students at the center of experiential learning opportunities, promoting active engagement and community involvement.
Dewey’s concept of experiential learning complements critical pedagogy by emphasizing the importance of students gaining valuable insights to effect meaningful change in the world The integration of these approaches in composition studies was highlighted in Bruce Herzberg’s 1994 article “Community Service and Critical Teaching,” published in College Composition and Communication This synthesis encourages students to connect classroom learning with community engagement, fostering critical thinking and social responsibility By aligning experiential learning with critical pedagogy, educators can empower students to become active participants in societal transformation.
In it, Herzberg articulates the value of teaching “critical consciousness,” justifying it in the following way: “Students will not critically question a world that seems natural,
Developing a social imagination is essential for questioning and analyzing the world, as well as envisioning its transformation Herzberg emphasizes the importance of personal transformation as a core element of critical pedagogy, suggesting that personal enlightenment has the potential to lead to social change By fostering critical self-awareness, individuals can actively participate in shaping a more just and equitable society.
Herzberg’s students served as literacy tutors at a local adult literacy center, with his primary goal of fostering their development of a “critical consciousness” that encourages social awareness While he acknowledges that community engagement does not always directly raise questions about social structures or justice, he asserts that these issues “can and should be raised in a class engaged in community service.” By extending classroom boundaries beyond the traditional setting, Herzberg emphasizes that composition is a social process rooted in social justice pedagogy Community engagement serves as a powerful tool for students to transform society through increased cultural awareness and the valuable cultural capital provided by higher education.
Institution-centric discourse is evident throughout Dewey’s work and Herzberg’s article, highlighting a shared focus on the role of educational institutions By aligning with Dewey’s perspectives, service learning scholarship emphasizes the importance of institutional involvement in fostering meaningful educational experiences This approach underscores how educational institutions play a central role in shaping students’ service learning opportunities and outcomes.
“experiences” for students and with situating community encounters within broader course goals and objectives As Adler-Kassner notes, the broad and theoretical nature of
Dewey’s writing emphasizes the non-contextualized power of individual creative intelligence, opening the narrative to various applications She highlights that the cultivation of critical intelligence is essential for empowering individuals to engage meaningfully with diverse contexts and challenges This approach underscores the importance of fostering independent thought and inventive problem-solving skills in education and personal development.
At its core, the philosophy of 17 emphasized that, with proper guidance, everyone's intelligence could be shaped to contribute to the success of American democracy Educators adopting this approach aimed to foster community by creating environments where individuals actively engage with values essential for sustaining the progressive narrative This principle was central to Dewey’s educational philosophy, highlighting the importance of nurturing shared values and collaborative participation to support democratic ideals.
While it is not inherently wrong to prepare college students for the real world, as Stoecker and Tryon suggest, there is a risk when such efforts neglect to consider their impact on community inequality It is important to balance experiential learning with critical reflection on how these engagements may influence social disparities at the community level.
According to Cornel West, John Dewey advocates for a non-confrontational approach to politics, emphasizing that education and discussion are the primary channels for advancing creative democracy Dewey's philosophy suggests that fostering open dialogue and inclusive learning environments can effectively promote democratic values without resorting to agitation or confrontational tactics However, this approach may overlook underlying power imbalances that challenge the true realization of democratic principles in society.
Experiential learning has significantly influenced higher education’s approach to community engagement, embedding this language into institutional practices This privileging of university perspectives often leads service learning practitioners to view community organizations primarily as practical environments or laboratories for demonstrating academic concepts, such as how context influences rhetorical strategies When academic needs and curricular objectives are prioritized without critical examination, this approach risks viewing community resources merely as tools to serve educational goals rather than as valuable partners in meaningful engagement.
18 institutions of higher education “risk becoming benevolent tyrants who injure the community by trying to save it” (Harper et al 619)
Foundational community engagement scholarship in the 1990s often prioritized university objectives over community benefits, neglecting the impact on community participants Herzberg’s article exemplifies this approach by focusing primarily on the productivity of tutoring for learners at an adult literacy center, while giving minimal consideration to the perspectives and experiences of the community members himself His sole acknowledgement of community impact emphasizes the tutors’ sensitivity and regular presence, reinforcing a university-centered narrative that uncritically elevates the role of the university in service learning Moreover, Herzberg’s emphasis on fostering students’ “critical consciousness” often overshadowed the actual progress made by adult learners, revealing a tendency to measure success based on student development rather than community outcomes This approach risks perpetuating social structures that position communities as passive recipients of aid, thus reproducing the very inequalities that community engagement efforts aim to challenge.
Herzberg’s pedagogical practices—inviting his students to question the means by which people become homeless, while doing little to advocate for changes in how the
19 homeless are treated—run the risk of remaining naively “complicit in whatever that discourse accomplishes with respect to the unjust distribution of goods and services”
Contemporary Criticism of Service Learning
The Bororos of Brazil are gradually facing cultural decline, highlighting the ongoing loss of indigenous traditions Meanwhile, Lévi-Strauss proudly takes his seat in the French Academy, symbolizing recognition but also raising questions about the marginalization of indigenous voices Despite Lévi-Strauss's achievements, the reality remains that intellectuals continue to benefit from the contributions of common people, underscoring systemic social inequalities and the need for greater acknowledgment of marginalized communities.
When service learning in composition studies first hit the pages of academic journals, scholars were lining up to preach its gospel As Lillian Bridwell-Bowles writes,
In higher education, new initiatives often feature testimonials from participants who find the innovations exciting and aim to attract others Service learning has gained lasting institutional support due to scholarship emphasizing its ability to enrich college composition classrooms through meaningful engagement.
“improve students’ attitudes toward civic engagement and social responsibility”
(Kendrick and Suarez 37) and offer a “site for real-world writing” (Dorman and Dorman
122) Its effects on student learning and development have been well documented
Despite the widespread admiration for volunteer work, some articles have questioned its so-called "sacred" status within universities, highlighting that raising critical questions about its assumptions and potential unintended effects remains neither popular nor politically accepted (Eby 2).
John Eby emphasizes that “service-learning is organized to respond to the needs of an academic institution, students, instructors, or courses,” highlighting its tailored purpose within educational settings Conversely, Flower points out that “when town and gown try to work together, the gowns possess the dominant discourse,” often assuming their language and methods are the most effective for addressing community issues This disparity underscores the importance of promoting equitable dialogue and understanding between academic institutions and local communities to foster genuine collaboration.
Conscientious academics remain vocally critical of unreflexive research and pedagogical methodologies, particularly the mechanisms that mask the negative side effects of community engagement efforts While community engagement itself is valuable, concerns arise when institutional rewards and agendas prioritize engagement initiatives that benefit universities over community interests As service learning and community engagement become more embedded in higher education, institutions increasingly impose mandated courses and leverage short-term or graduate student instructors to enhance CVs and access institutional resources Despite its benefits, community engagement remains a challenging and time-intensive work, especially for graduate students balancing multiple responsibilities.
Many individuals pass through various stages in their educational and professional journeys, whether pursuing advanced degrees or teaching eager novices These learners often seek promotion but may be unaware of the extensive body of literature available on relevant topics, such as sustainability (see Cushman, “Sustainable”) Understanding this context highlights the importance of comprehensive knowledge and continuous learning for career advancement and effective teaching.
Stoecker and Tryon masterfully articulate the danger of naively promoting the terms of engagement that benefit universities at the expense of communities:
Service learning often emphasizes student learning goals, but neglects the broader community development outcomes, leading to internal contradictions For instance, prioritizing student and institutional interests may inadvertently harm community interests, potentially jeopardizing community support for the program Understanding these complex dynamics is essential for creating effective and mutually beneficial service learning initiatives.
Service learning practitioners often unintentionally speak for community organizations, especially when their practices lack self-reflection or are rushed, which can marginalize these organizations further within university access Stoecker and Tryon’s collection aims to challenge the dominance of university expertise by amplifying the voices of community organization staff members This highlights the need to critically examine service learning models that may perpetuate unequal power dynamics and re-inscribe social inequities.
The Unheard Voices critically examines service learning practices in higher education, highlighting how institutions often replicate traditional approaches rooted in scholarship and university norms It emphasizes the mismatch between the academic calendar and community needs, noting that schools typically break for holidays while community organizations require extra support during those times Additionally, short-term service learning embedded into semester courses often fails to address long-term community challenges, with instructors pressured to deliver quick service projects that fit within classroom schedules The article reveals that institutional priorities prioritize students’ academic schedules over genuine community engagement, with scholars often overlooking the disconnect between institutional structures and community timing.
Community calendars often overlook students’ out-of-class commitments, which do not align with the educational calendar This misalignment impacts engagement efforts aimed at providing positive role models, as short-term service learners are often transient, unreliable, and less committed, exacerbating community challenges (Martin et al., 62) While community organizations may understand these limitations, balancing their expectations with the realities of these learners remains essential for effective collaboration.
Community organizations often face challenges like understaffing and limited resources, making it difficult for them to accommodate student schedules effectively Relying on these organizations to adapt to student timing needs can be problematic, especially when they are already struggling with inconsistency and a lack of commitment It is essential to consider these limitations to ensure sustainable and successful collaboration with community-based groups.
When one thinks about the sheer number of institutions that engage in service of one form or another, and the instructors who are institutionally mandated to get students
University-community partnerships are more common than we often realize, yet they frequently face criticism for serving university objectives rather than genuine community needs Despite these critiques, there remains significant potential for meaningful community engagement and service learning that critically examine the roles of both institutions and communities Mathieu highlights the challenges of building authentic connections, questioning how many potential collaborations are lost or damaged in the process, often without lasting impact True progress requires moving beyond short-term, transactional partnerships that instrumentalize communities, fostering deeper, more sustainable collaborations that prioritize mutual benefit and understanding.
24 viewpoint that remains complicit in entrenched relations of power even as these service projects may be attempting to subvert such relations.
Enacting Community-centric Practices
If the current model of student service that prioritizes individual learning over community needs persists, we risk alienating vital community organizations This ongoing disconnect threatens the future of service learning programs, potentially undermining their impact and sustainability To ensure the continued success of service learning, it is essential to adopt a more community-centered approach that values and supports local organizations.
–Dadit Hidayat, Samuel Pratsch, and Randy Stoecker
Community engagement in academia is inevitable, but it must prioritize giving voice to community needs to foster social justice and material change Scholars like Sullivan, Porter, Mathieu, Cushman, and Flower emphasize that community work should arise from and respond to local priorities rather than reinforce university-centric discourse To approach the ideals of true community engagement, educators must remain reflexive and question power dynamics within campus-community relationships, avoiding a savior complex and ensuring that efforts promote equity and reciprocity Recognizing the constraints of academic reward systems and critical pedagogy is crucial for reconciling these challenges and advancing authentic, socially just engagement practices.
In Stoecker and Tryon’s collection, Dadid Hidayat, Samuel Pratsch, and Randy
Stoecker recommends three key areas for improving service learning that benefits communities: firstly, programs should align with the community calendar to ensure relevance and responsiveness; secondly, service learning must be designed around pressing community issues to address real needs effectively; and thirdly, this approach requires providing students with a transformative educational experience that fosters meaningful engagement and understanding.
Community needs and concerns are prioritized at the core of these partnerships, challenging the traditional dominance of university discourses and agendas Service learning offers students an educational experience centered on real-world community engagement, fostering a more inclusive and responsive approach to higher education.
Integrating communication, professional, and specialized practice skills into the curriculum is essential for service learners to maximize their positive impact This approach emphasizes the importance for academics and educators to be deeply engaged with their community partners, fostering collaborations that prioritize community concerns While challenges rooted in higher education persist, Stoecker and Tryon highlight a unique model where community organizations actively listen to academics, creating a meaningful dialogue that remains underrepresented in composition-based service learning literature.
Alternatively, both Cushman and Eli Goldblatt have argued for enacting activist practices in service learning and community engagement work Goldblatt writes,
As academics, even if we want to put neighborhood needs first, we cannot but start with the demands of our classrooms or the requirements for
Beginning from the activist’s perspective emphasizes learning, relationship-building, and community commitments before organizing classes or research projects Establishing these connections enables community partners to identify key problems and transform them into actionable issues, with student involvement and university resources integrated thoughtfully later Ultimately, this approach encourages using academic research, teaching, and administrative skills to serve the needs of the people our students tutor, rather than focusing solely on college programs.
Goldblatt emphasizes the importance of ethical and reciprocal community engagement practices that prioritize collaboration with community members on their own terms His concept of activism, inspired by Saul Alinsky, involves disorganizing existing unproductive community systems to create a stronger, more participatory organization in the future.
Stoecker and Tryon, then, Goldblatt advocates for a deliberate unlearning of past engagement practices that have the potential to simply and unwittingly reinforce the status quo
To improve engagement practices in composition studies, it can be beneficial to explore strategies from other fields like public health, business, and technical communication, where scholars have long addressed equitable partnerships and meaningful community involvement The approach of action research, also known as Participatory Action Research, offers valuable insights into fostering effective and equitable engagement practices across disciplines.
Research (see Fals-Borda, Toulmin), Community-Based Participatory Research (see
Action research, rooted in participatory methods like cooperative inquiry and participatory design, has been used in academic circles since the late 1930s, when Kurt Lewin emphasized involving workers and community members as active participants in research It prioritizes the active engagement of ordinary people in exploring issues that affect them, emphasizing respect for their knowledge and experiences The core principles of action research include democratic participation, social change, and a focus on producing practical knowledge that benefits community members Its ultimate goal is to generate insights that lead to positive social impact beyond the academic setting.
Action research prioritizes community agents over traditional university discourse, marking an evolution in community engagement within composition studies It involves continuously reviewing, analyzing, and refining research practices in engagement contexts through self-reflection According to Sullivan and Smith in *Opening Spaces*, action research fosters collaborative change and deeper community involvement, emphasizing iterative improvement and shared knowledge This approach exemplifies how research can be dynamically adapted to serve and empower communities effectively.
James Porter emphasizes the risks of uncritically accepting traditional research methodologies labeled as "best practices," urging researchers to question and adapt these approaches Echoing Lorie Goodman’s view that “our grounds for action must remain under constant revision,” Porter argues that research methodology should be actively constructed based on specific contexts rather than merely applied or selected He advocates for a dynamic, situation-specific approach to methodology, encouraging scholars to justify their chosen methods within the framework of their unique studies.
Constantly reflecting on research practices and intentionally creating opportunities for non-academic communities to participate are essential for inclusive community engagement However, there is a risk of defaulting to university-centric discourse that can overshadow diverse perspectives Emphasizing that research methodologies should be contextually and socially informed aligns with the ideas of social turn scholars like Berlin and Bruffee, underscoring the importance of flexible, community-centered approaches in both research and pedagogy.
Sullivan and Porter emphasize that ethical engagement in research involves respecting differences, caring for others, promoting access to rhetorical tools for justice, and empowering oppressed communities They advocate for acknowledging community expertise and maintaining openness to reciprocity and participant identities, fostering more ethical research relationships The authors highlight that researchers should be driven by a genuine concern for participants’ welfare rather than solely pursuing new knowledge, addressing the tendency of researchers to widen the gap between scholarship and communities Critical research practices prioritize ethical responsibility and community empowerment over mere discovery.
Sullivan and Porter emphasize that care is a legitimate and appropriate ethic for researchers, highlighting the importance of community engagement grounded in social justice They advocate for an approach that prioritizes the well-being of community members, viewing social justice through an ethic of care as a fundamental goal of engagement work This perspective underscores the significance of ethically committed community involvement that seeks to promote fairness and equity.
Mathieu’s work critiques institutionalization, highlighting concerns that it diminishes the rhetorical and situational urgency of engagement work, making it subordinate to university metrics of success She advocates for “a rhetorically responsive engagement that seeks timely partnerships,” emphasizing the importance of adapting to changing contexts and voices of individuals Mathieu’s approach is rooted in local needs and community relationships, contrasting with institutional priorities, and centers on projects rather than problem-solving frameworks Unlike a problem orientation that is externally defined, her method responds to community issues by determining its own scope and parameters, fostering authentic and responsive engagement.
TOWARD A PRACTICE OF SHORT-TERM SERVICE: A CASE
Community Engagement and Short-Term Academics
institutionally mandated community engagement or service learning work—namely a potential reinforcement of oppressive systems of domination and learned helplessness
Many criticisms of university-based community engagement and successful campus-community partnerships come from full professors with significant institutional influence and authority Esteemed scholars such as Sullivan, Porter, and Cushman, recognized for their expertise in rhetoric and composition, highlight the challenges and limitations inherent in current academic-community collaborations.
Mathieu, Flower, and Goldblatt have all built and sustained relationships in their communities for years, if not decades, and they have the connections to prove it
Many overworked and underpaid instructors, who wish to incorporate community-based service learning or participate in research, often lack the time and relationships necessary for sustained partnerships These instructors, described by Cushman as “transitory,” are frequently involved in short-term engagement efforts due to their temporary roles within communities Consequently, their limited presence as university agents tends to lead to “hit-it-and-quit-it” engagement, which is often criticized by seasoned scholars for its lack of meaningful, long-term impact Without practical guidance and support, these instructors struggle to develop the sustained, collaborative relationships essential for effective community engagement.
Recent scholarship emphasizes the importance of promoting and sustaining ethical campus-community partnerships to ensure meaningful engagement and mutual benefit Higher education institutions often face challenges in developing authentic partnerships due to their self-serving origins of service learning and institutionalization, which can lead to superficial collaborations rooted in community-as-laboratory or academic-as-expert paradigms To create more effective models of campus-community relationships, it is essential to consider the needs of community members while acknowledging the realities faced by overworked, transitory, and underpaid early-career academics Drawing inspiration from the non-profit sector—a cultural institution that employs similar personnel—can offer innovative organizing models that foster ethical and sustainable collaborations.
Understanding the infrastructure of non-profit organizations is essential because it highlights the diverse ways community engagement operates beyond academia, showcasing multiple legitimate pathways toward a more equitable society Analyzing the structural models and guiding principles of these organizations helps us reframe and enrich our definitions of meaningful community engagement and service learning in higher education This broader perspective emphasizes that impactful community work can be achieved through various sectors, including non-profits, contributing to a more comprehensive approach to social change and civic responsibility.
3) looking outside higher education can provide a way of subverting traditional notions of community engagement or service learning within academia that necessarily respond to its institutional agendas or that don’t take into account constraints of labor or academic position within universities Higher education is often “counterproductively incestuous, producing scholarship written by and for scholars, and that excludes participation by the
Focusing on serving real communities, rather than just academic audiences, can strengthen community engagement and service learning in composition studies By exploring the non-profit sector, graduate students can develop more impactful, community-based approaches to their work Grounding these initiatives outside of traditional academia allows for a deeper connection to the communities being served and enhances the effectiveness of service-learning projects This perspective encourages composition scholars to reframe their strategies around authentic community needs, fostering meaningful, lasting partnerships that drive positive social change.
College Possible Milwaukee is one particular community organization that follows a social justice mission and privileges community results in its work College
Possible is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization dedicated to supporting low-income, first-generation high school students lacking the resources or guidance to succeed in higher education Founded in 2000 by Jim McCorkell, a first-generation college graduate from St Paul, Minnesota, the organization began by serving 35 students in a single St Paul school Today, Possible has expanded nationwide, operating in six locations including Minneapolis/St Paul, Milwaukee, and Omaha, helping students achieve college admission and graduation.
Portland, Philadelphia, and Chicago—and has served over 22,000 students
College Possible is driven by an ideological mission to make college admission and success accessible for low-income students through intensive coaching and support Inspired by a vision reminiscent of Martin Luther King Jr.'s ideals, it believes that a child's future should be determined solely by talent, motivation, and effort This strong mission attracts recent college graduates nationwide who are committed to dedicating a year or two of service Despite the time-intensive nature of the role and modest compensation, many graduates are motivated to serve due to their dedication to social equity and educational opportunity.
35 ideal of educational achievement for all represents an important social issue for this country moving forward
It should be noted that non-profits are as rife for critique as universities There are inherent problems of worker exploitation and a “savior” complex that arise in looking at
College Possible and nonprofits like it In her introduction to The Revolution Will Not Be
Andrea Smith highlights that the non-profit industry was initially created as a means for large corporations to avoid taxes, with foundations diverting public funds and contributing little in return She emphasizes that small non-profits often prioritize fundraising to remain operational, which leads them to cater to wealthy donors, influencing their focus and priorities Smith argues that effectively addressing systemic issues like capitalism requires building mass social movements, but the non-profit industrial complex tends to commodify social justice, turning activism into a career driven by financial incentives rather than transformative change.
(10) The contradictions inherent in many non-profits, including College Possible, reflect
Flower’s concern for “nạve complicity” in systems of domination against which such organizations simultaneously claim to be working
College Possible coaches significantly impact the academic success of thousands of high school and college students each year Juniors participating in the program experience an average ACT score increase of 20% from their initial practice test in October of their junior year to the official test in April Additionally, 98% of College Possible seniors successfully graduate, demonstrating the program’s effectiveness in transforming students' educational pathways.
36 admission to a four year college or university Beyond high school, students in the
College Possible graduates college at a rate of 59%, which is notably higher than the 11% graduation rate for students in the bottom income quartile This demonstrates the significant impact of the program, as College Possible students are twice as likely to attend a four-year institution and five times more likely to graduate compared to their low-income peers who are not enrolled in the program (“Results”).
Examining organizations like College Possible offers valuable insights for graduate students and short-term instructors, who often lack the time and resources to build deep community connections Adopting their engagement and service practices aligns with the models advocated by Sullivan, Porter, Mathieu, Cushman, Flower, and others, promoting meaningful community involvement Cushman describes these instructors—often graduate students or short-term educators—as key contributors to fostering impactful service and engagement, encouraging a practiced approach to community-focused education.
“overworked, transitory, underpaid” is eerily similar to how I felt as a member of College
Possible, and Table 1 on the next page illustrates the specific similarities between the two camps.
Service Practices of a National Non-Profit
I served for two years with College Possible in their Milwaukee, Wisconsin location Officially, I engaged in direct service as a “high school coach” at Alexander
At Hamilton High School on Milwaukee’s south side, I worked with a cohort of 33 students during their junior and senior years to enhance their academic success I led after-school sessions four days a week, focusing on ACT preparation in junior year and college application, financial aid, and transition processes in senior year As juniors, these students achieved an average ACT score increase of 20%, with the largest improvement seen among them, demonstrating the effectiveness of targeted academic support.
Table 1 Comparison of College Possible Coaches and Graduate Student Instructors
College Possible Coaches Graduate Student Instructors
• Recent college graduates who relocate from across the country to a new city
• Given two weeks of orientation— both national and local—before direct service begins
• Can serve with College Possible for up to two years, but no less than one year
AmeriCorps that is below the federal poverty limit
• Work under stressful conditions to produce results for organization
• Receive supervision from staff who have spent more time as a member of the community
• Often relocate to graduate program from different institutions or employment positions across the country
• Often, though not always, given a short orientation to prepare them for instruction in composition
• Graduate studies varies—from 1-2 years for a Master’s program, from 4-5+ years for a PhD program
• Earn modest wages, usually in exchange for teaching one or two composition courses each semester
• Balance instructor responsibilities with coursework and outside commitments
Mentored by experienced faculty members with deep knowledge of institutional structures, our students achieved remarkable success Of the seniors, 94% (31 out of 33) were admitted to four-year colleges or universities, demonstrating strong college readiness Collectively, they earned over $200,000 in private and state financial aid to support their higher education pursuits More than half of these students are continuing their post-secondary education and are currently in their sophomore year, a critical stage for college persistence and long-term success.
College Possible achieves remarkable results through its effective coaching strategies, even with coaches serving less than two years, by implementing four key organization-wide practices focused on student success These practices are deeply embedded in the organization’s approach to aligning with community needs, ensuring that each student receives personalized support that promotes college graduation Central to their success are targeted efforts to foster student achievement, maintain consistent engagement, and adapt to community dynamics, all of which contribute to high college completion rates By prioritizing these core practices, College Possible creates a sustainable model that consistently empowers students to achieve higher education goals.
1 A vocabulary focused on setting expectations and getting results
2 Intensive near-peer mentoring and coaching
3 Repositioning strategic failures as tactical successes/long-term goals
This list highlights key principles to develop a new model of campus-community partnership, focusing on empowering university agents who lack the institutional and community legitimacy of full professors By aligning educational and research efforts with community-identified needs, these principles aim to transform how university personnel engage with communities Implementing these practices can foster more meaningful and effective collaborations that genuinely address community priorities and strengthen university-community relationships.
As a high school coach, I prioritize putting community needs at the forefront of our efforts Moving forward, I will examine four key practices that demonstrate how coaches align with the organization’s results-oriented approach These practices highlight the dedication and sacrifices coaches make to foster a strong sense of community and achieve collective success By embracing these strategies, coaches demonstrate a genuine commitment to serving their communities while contributing to the overall organizational goals.
This article highlights the importance of exploring alternative practices beyond the traditional university model to support short-term instructors effectively By acknowledging and addressing community needs, these approaches can create more inclusive and responsive educational environments The insights of scholars like Eli Goldblatt and Paula Mathieu significantly inform this perspective, emphasizing the value of community engagement and innovative teaching strategies in enhancing short-term instructional practices.
Ellen Cushman, Linda Flower, Randy Stoecker, and Elizabeth Tryon are notable figures in the field of community-based writing and reading programs Goldblatt’s work with New City Writing, a Temple University-affiliated institute, highlights his commitment to fostering community engagement through writing initiatives in Philadelphia Similarly, Mathieu’s contributions emphasize the importance of integrating literacy programs within local communities to promote social change and empower residents These initiatives demonstrate the impact of collaborative, community-centered approaches to education and literacy development.
Spare Change News, a street newspaper in Boston; Cushman’s work with neighbors and community members in Troy, New York and beyond; Flower’s work with the
The Community Literacy Center in Pittsburgh, along with the work of Stoecker and Tryon with community organizations in Madison, Wisconsin, significantly shape my approach to a community-based, ethical agenda Their collective efforts focus on prioritizing community needs to create meaningful material and social change This ongoing advocacy highlights the importance of empowering communities and ensuring that initiatives produce tangible, positive impacts.
39 advances their own professional careers, is always looking for ways to improve upon current university practices of service learning and community engagement
2.2.1 A vocabulary focused on setting expectations and getting results
During the inaugural day of College Possible orientation, the Chief Program Officer emphasized that results are at the core of the organization's mission She urged newly-hired coaches to prioritize student success, stating, "Remember the College Possible mission and our students You must do WHATEVER it takes to support our students," highlighting the organization's commitment to achieving tangible outcomes through dedicated effort.
Results are the most important factor, as they reflect the impact of your efforts and can define future opportunities (“Kirtley”) In College Possible’s approach, success is primarily measured by three key metrics: ACT score improvements for high school juniors, college acceptance and matriculation rates for high school seniors, and ultimately, college graduation rates These data points highlight the significance of tangible outcomes in assessing progress and achieving educational goals.
College Possible emphasizes high expectations for its coaches, clearly defining the benchmarks they are expected to achieve The introductory note in the junior year curriculum binder reinforces this commitment by outlining the ambitious standards and goals that coaches must meet, ensuring accountability and dedication to student success.
Welcome to College Possible, and thank you for your service in helping low-income students achieve their college dreams Since our founding in 2000, we have empowered students to improve their academic performance, with our juniors achieving over a 21% increase in ACT scores and 98% of our seniors gaining college admission These outstanding results reflect our commitment to student success and our mission to provide equal educational opportunities.
40 achieved without the dedication of AmeriCorps members like you – you have some big shoes to fill in the year ahead! (“College Possible Junior Curriculum”)
This introductory note highlights early signs of a challenging year ahead, emphasizing the importance of results from the outset It places the responsibility for achieving success mainly on the coach, setting a high expectation of dedication to ensure they meet their goals and avoid failure.
The organization’s mission centers on “helping low-income students with potential and motivation to achieve their dreams of attending college,” emphasizing the social impact of this goal This framing makes the coach’s role integral to both the organization's success and the students’ aspirations, positioning the coach as doubly responsible—to the organization and to the students Without the coach’s dedicated and direct support, the program’s intended outcomes—students reaching their college dreams—would be unattainable, risking the failure of the overall mission.
College Possible’s focus on achieving tangible results fosters strong “buy-in” from coaches and emphasizes community success, exemplified by their slogan “15 years of results by degrees.” Their strategy links organizational sustainability directly to demonstrating measurable student achievements, such as ACT score improvements and college enrollment, which attract donors and fuel expansion By highlighting the transformative power of a college degree through concrete outcomes, College Possible reinforces its commitment to results-driven education and community impact.
41 acceptance letter In this way, the word becomes a placeholder for social mobility and
Doing the Most Good While Doing the Least Harm
College Possible emphasizes measurable results and community-focused outcomes, providing targeted support for motivated students with limited college knowledge The program creates a supportive space where coaches can adapt strategies to meet local needs, helping students improve their material circumstances through essential resources and guidance Leveraging recent college graduates, it fosters impactful relationships that motivate students to meet key benchmarks and succeed in college Importantly, College Possible achieves these impactful results more cost-effectively than similar college access initiatives, making it a highly efficient approach to increasing college graduation rates.
College Possible’s practices risk fostering “naive complicity” in social structures that hinder the very students they aim to empower, by replacing trusted authority figures with recent graduates who are granted expert status through association with higher education Its singular focus on measurable results can reduce students to mere numbers, often obscuring the organizational goals and profit motives behind documenting success This approach appears to be a trade-off that College Possible accepts as part of its operational model, similar to how some academics engage with institutional mandates or hurried campus initiatives.
Many community partnerships and non-profit organizations, such as College Possible, are often complicit in perpetuating a capitalist agenda that fails to drive meaningful policy change or promote widespread social justice Instead, these organizations tend to reinforce the status quo by positioning coaches as “experts” and students as “in need,” thereby maintaining existing power dynamics and limiting systemic transformation.
Nevertheless, as I addressed earlier, that community engagement will still occur in academia and in non-profits regardless of this conclusion is inevitable As such,
College Possible’s practices provide valuable insights into how a national non-profit can enable graduate students to engage in community-driven social justice work within the university setting, despite existing time and spatial constraints While these practices require significant time and energy—resources that are often limited for academics, especially newcomers—analyzing the organization’s service model can inform graduate student and short-term lecturer engagement strategies By adopting an ethic of “doing the most good while doing the least harm,” this approach emphasizes efficient, impactful community engagement The shared qualities between College Possible’s team and graduate students—being overworked, transitory, and underpaid—highlight the potential for non-profit practices to be adapted to support academic social justice initiatives effectively.