African American Male College Students Experience of College Pre

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe what 18–24-year-old African American male college students recalled from middle school and high school about college preparatio

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Collection

2017

African American Male College Students'

Experience of College Preparation

Linda Denice Valentine-Cobb

Walden University

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Walden University

College of Counselor Education & Supervision

This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation by

Linda Valentine-Cobb

has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects,

and that any and all revisions required by the review committee have been made

Review Committee

Dr Shelley Jackson, Committee Chairperson, Counselor Education and Supervision Faculty

Dr Kelly Coker, Committee Member, Counselor Education and Supervision Faculty

Dr Jason Patton, University Reviewer, Counselor Education and Supervision Faculty

Chief Academic Officer Eric Riedel, Ph.D

Walden University 2017

Abstract

African American Male College Students’

Personal Experience of College Preparation

by Linda Valentine-Cobb

Counseling Education, Concordia University, Mequon, WI, 2007

Elementary Education, Lander University, Greenwood, SC, 1993

Education, Anderson University, Anderson, SC, 1990

Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy Counselor Education Supervision

Walden University November 2017

Abstract African American male students have a high risk of not completing high school and not going to college Students receive some college preparation as early as middle school, yet

it is not enough to increase the number of African American male high school or college graduates The purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe what 18–24-year-old African American male college students recalled from middle school and high school about college preparation, college planning, and college attendance. Critical race theory was used to reveal how outside factors such as oppression, racism, or

socioeconomic status prevent African American male students from attending college The research questions sought to understand (a) college preparation experiences in high school, (b) influential decisions they made to attend college, and (c) the characteristics of

a successful pathway to college for African American males Data were collected from 7 participants who answered in-depth questions via in-person or phone interviews, which resulted in 4 major themes Results showed that African American male students

experienced inequalities and barriersduring their school years, and they were aware of segregation between schools Predominately White Schools had better opportunities for students’ success; opposed to predominately Black schools, which had less opportunities for student success Participants described the inequalities they saw or felt regarding the differences in schools, their teachers’ behaviors, and perceptions from society This study has the potential to make a positive social change in society with specific focus on educational institutes Therefore, if educational institutes at the district and state levels advocate for African American male students, they can become college graduates

African American Male College Students’

Personal Experience of College Preparation

by Linda Valentine-Cobb

Counseling Education, Concordia University, Mequon, WI, 2007

Elementary Education, Lander University, Greenwood, SC, 1993

Education, Anderson University, Anderson, SC, 1990

Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy Counselor Education Supervision

Walden University November 2017

Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my mother, Lula Mae Valentine, who was a strong supporter of education and who always supported me in my educational

endeavors Rest in peace mother, and I know you are smiling down from heaven with tears of joy I love you always, and you are forever in my heart

Acknowledgments First, I want to give God the glory, honor, and praise for giving me the strength, grace, and mercy to complete this dissertation Through the trials and tribulations, God kept me Thank you, God!

Second, I want to thank Dr Stacee, who believed in me from the beginning and becoming my chairperson Thank you, Dr Jackson, for stepping in, picking up where Dr Stacee left off, and sticking by my side to the end You encouraged me when I wanted to give up; so, I thank you for giving your time, wisdom, and expertise to help me complete this dissertation Thank you to Dr Coker for agreeing to be on my committee as well

Third, I want to thank the participants for dedicating their time and allowing me

to learn so much about their educational journeys I could not have completed this

dissertation without your willingness to participate

Finally, I want to thank my family I thank my brother Lee and my sister Bernice for the encouraging words, the constant check-ins of my progress, and for believing in

me Most importantly, I give a huge thank you to the following two people I want to thank the love of my life, my husband James for your love, patience, support, dedication, and encouragement I would have given up a long time ago if I had not had you by my side I want to thank my daughter, Brianna, for giving up so much mother/daughter time

so I could complete difficult assignments or meet fast approaching deadlines Thank you both for believing in me and always telling me that I can do it By the grace of God, together, we have completed this mission! Thank you and I love you both dearly!

i

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study………1

Introduction……….…………1

Background of the Study………6

Problem Statement………10

Purpose of the Study……….11

Research Question……… 11

Conceptual Framework……….12

Nature of the Study……… 13

Method……… 13

Definition of Key Terms……… ………14

Assumptions……… ……… 16

Scope and Delimitations……… ………18

Limitations………19

Significance of the Study……….….21

Implications for Social Change……… ……… ………24

Summary……….…… 25

ii

Chapter 2: Literature Review………27

Introduction……… 27

Literature Search Strategy………33

Theoretical Framework………35

A History of Segregation and Desegregation……….… 44

Court Cases……… ……….44

Illinois……… 51

The Achievement Gap for African American Students………53

Student Perceived Barriers……….………55

Teachers’ Perceptions……….……… 59

Students’ Perceptions of Environmental Factors……… 67

Teachers……….67

Counselors……….69

Programs………73

Summary……….……… 76

Chapter 3: Research Design…….……… ………79

Introduction……….… 79

iii

Research Design and Rationale………80

Restatement of Research Questions……….…… 80

Rational for Research Questions……… ……….81

Research Method……… ………84

Research Approach Considerations……….…… 84

Role of the Researcher……… 86

Researcher Bias……… ………86

Addressing Research Bias……….…….87

Researcher Role in the Study……….87

Methodology……….87

Participant Selection……… 87

Data Collection……… 89

Data Analysis……….92

Verification of Trustworthiness……….95

Ethical Issues……….………97

Summary………99

Chapter 4: Results……… …… ……101

iv

Introduction……….101

Setting……… …101

Demographics……… ………… ……102

Data Collection……… …104

Variation in Data……… …… ……105

Data Analysis……… 106

Evidence of Trustworthiness……… …108

Credibility………108

Transferability……… …………109

Dependability……… ………109

Confirmability……… ……110

Study Results……… …111

Theme 1: Awareness of Inequality/Stereotypes/Discrimination…… ……… 111

Theme 2: Support from Influential People Who Helped Participants for Colle.121 Theme 3: Experiences with Programs……….……133

Theme 4: Importance of Teacher/Student Relationships……….…………137

Summary……….139

v

Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations……… 143

Introduction……….143

Interpretation of Findings……… …145

Limitations of the Study……….153

Recommendations……… 154

Implications………156

Summary……….160

References………162

Appendix A: Request for Participants……… ……… 175

Appendix B: Interview Guide……….…….177

Appendix C: Demographic Questionnaire……….…… 181

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

Introduction

It is important to talk to students early about higher education In fact, Huerta, Watt, and Butcher (2013) shared how middle school is where students start planning a college or career path, and they maintain focus on their chosen path all the way through high school Huerta, Watt, and Butcher (2013) explained that during the middle school years, either students show interest in post-secondary education or they show disinterest

in education Middle school, therefore, is a vital time in career and college planning (Gibbons & Borders, 2010); it is the foundation for preparing all students for high school and post-secondary education In fact, students who start planning for college in middle school begin making behavioral and academic choices that will later improve their

chances for college acceptance (Cabrera, Deli-Amen, Terenzini, Lee, & Franklin, Jr., 2006) AVID and GEAR UP are two programs that begin preparing students for college

in middle school by increasing their college awareness AVID, which is designed to prepare underrepresented students for college, “begins as early as 6th grade and provides

an elective class that focuses on writing, inquiry, collaboration, and reading strategies that support students in their quest to take rigorous college preparation classes” (Huerta et al., 2013, p 27) GEAR UP is similar to AVID in that it is a comprehensive program designed to help low-income students and their families learn about, plan for, and prepare for college inside and outside of school (Cabrera et al., 2006) Students who begin the AVID and GEAR UP programs in middle school excel in high school, graduate from high school, and transition into an institution of higher learning (Huerta et al., 2013) The

more middle school students are actively engaged in college preparatory activities, the more prepared they are for both, high school and college (Huerta et al., 2013)

But even when programs exist in middle schools, completing high school and going to college is still a challenge for some students, especially African Americans, who show poor college readiness compared to other populations (Radcliffe & Stephens, 2008) In fact, for the school years 2011–2012, 86% of White students graduated from high school, compared with only 69% of Black students (Stetser & Stillwell, 2014) There is progress, but it is slow For the school years 2014-2015, 87.6% of White

students graduated from high school compared with only 74.6% of Black students

(Curriculum Review, 2016) Clearly much work is needed for African American students

to gain equality regarding their education and future success

For several decades, researchers have focused on students’ academic performance and educational equity in public schools In the past ten years, researchers have stressed the importance of preparing minority and underserved middle school students for high school and post-secondary education (Radcliffe & Bos, 2011) However, many students

do not graduate from high school or attend college because of an inadequate curriculum

or inadequate preparation for college (Huerta et al., 2013) Radcliffe and Bos (2011) reported that the scale scores for reading, math, and science of African American and Hispanic eighth grade students indicated they were being poorly prepared for higher education To be successful, students need a rigorous academic curriculum Inner-city African American students want to attend college and understand the importance of doing

well in school to gain entrance (Blustein et al., 2010) But they need the moral support and guidance to overcome negative stereotypes they experience in middle school

(Blustein et al., 2010) According to Gibbons and Borders (2010), it is import that school counselors, teachers, and parents advocate on behalf of inner-city African American students so that they can achieve their goals of attending college

While the quantitative literature has identified a lack of college preparation

among African American youth, there is a lack of understanding about African American students’ awareness and perceptions of educational inequality (Storz, 2008) Researchers who studied student inequality in schools focused on their learning process, their daily routines and procedures, student morale, and student-teacher relationships; they did not obtain the perspective of students (Storz, 2008) Researchers rarely consult with students for their insights and perspectives in educational research, which has caused a gap in the literature The goal of this study was to help close the gap

The purpose of this study was to describe what 18–24-year-old African American male college students recalled from middle school and high school about college

preparation, college planning, and college attendance Because African American male students do receive less attention and have negative connotations placed upon them, it was important for me to focus on African American male students for my research study

It was necessary for African American male students’ perspectives to be heard so that teachers, counselors, administrators, and parents can see the challenges they endure and

can begin to understand the psychosocial developmental needs of African American male students with respect to college preparation

Therefore, I chose to focus on African American male students, as opposed to other students, for several reasons In 2011, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reported that only 10% of African American male eighth graders scored

at the Proficient level in eighth grade reading As a result, only 52% of these students are graduating from high school in 4 years compared with 78% of White males (Holzman, 2012) Graves (2010) reported that African American males have the lowest performance

on standardized assessments of academic achievement, and less than 8% of African American males between the ages of 15 and 29 are college graduates One reason for the low percentages for African American males results from a lack of parental support for their sons Parents have higher academic and graduation expectations for females than males

Another reason I focused on African American male students was because of the vast differences in their educational experiences compared to African American females African American male students view education differently than do African American female students According to Cokley, McClain, Jones, and Johnson (2011), African American male students have more negative attitudes towards their teachers than female students They feel differently about their teachers and behave differently because of their lower academic performance, the punishments they receive for bad conduct, and the likelihood of receiving corporal punishment (2011) In fact, African American male

students receive more suspensions, expulsions, and special education placements than female students Equally important, teachers have different perceptions and lower

expectations of African American male students than African American female students

“As a result of their negative experiences, African American male students have a higher potential for experiencing psychological disengagement, academic disidentification and increased frustration” (p 63) These negative experiences set the tone for African

American male students remaining educational journey In contrast, African American female students have higher academic aspirations and perform better academically than African American male students Female students have higher GPAs than male students and they are not punished in the same way as African American male students

A phenomenological study was designed to describe what 18-24-year-old African American male college students recalled from middle school and high school about college preparation, college planning, and college attendance The study provided an opportunity for a marginalized group to speak out, to share their experiences, and to acknowledge the barriers that impede their academic success As a result of the study, it was expected that counselors and educators would recognize an increased need to

implement programs for African American male students, starting in middle school and continuing in high school, to help enhance their college readiness

Background of the Study

However, the following describes selected articles relating to inner city African American students regarding college preparation, obstacles that students encounter, and finally current intervention programs related to encouraging college attendance

Radcliffeand Stephens (2008) addressed the problem of underserved adolescents not receiving adequate preparation for postsecondary education and the workforce by launching a seven-year, longitudinal quasi-experimental study with 100 at-risk African American 6th grade students to show the effects implementing a college culture program has on them Radcliffe and Stephens (2008) concluded that creating college cultures increased African American students’ awareness of college opportunities, as well as empowered them with positive self-concept and self-esteem They based the study on the Creating a College Culture Project, which was designed to create a college culture among at-risk diverse adolescents who may never graduate from high school According to the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), only 49% of African American students graduate from high school (Radcliffe & Stephens, 2008) Therefore, Radcliffe and Stephens (2008) investigated how creating a college culture using four components: mentoring, technology, college campus visits, and parental involvement impact at-risk African American middle school students’ aspirations to attend college They collected data by using surveys, interviews, reflective statements, and student academic

performance measures; and analyzed data with the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Findings from the study revealed that, after a college culture

experience, students’ perceptions about college became more positive and they became more excited about attending college

African American inner-city students encounter many obstacles that prevent them from attending college, including their ethnicity They encounter stereotypes and

discrimination, which lowers their self-esteem and morale for attending college Blustein

et al (2010) provided research that revealed students’ awareness of culture bias and stereotypes received due to their ethnicity The researchers provided a narrative research regarding students’ philosophy about school, work, and participation in education

programs in relation to race and success They interviewed students and learned that students recognized the effect racism produced in regards to their education In addition, Bluestein et al (2010) discovered that most of the students understood the importance of doing well in school to gain college acceptance and possessed the desire to attend

college, but they lacked the moral support and guidance to overcome the negative

connotations Bluestein et al (2010) concluded that students showed awareness that society presented low expectations of their success in relation to their ethnicity

Additionally, Cabera et al (2006) conducted a study showing how intervention programs enhance students’ college preparation The researchers examined the impact of Comprehensive Intervention Programs (CIP) on sixth grade students’ preparedness for college by examining reading and mathematics achievement In the study, Cabera et al (2006) explained how a “CIP program, GEAR UP, provided assistance to nearly one million low-income middle school students and their families to learn about, plan for, and

prepare for college” (p 82) Leaders of the GEAR UP program collaborated with

colleges, universities, community organizations, and businesses to provide students with precollege interventions Stakeholders began working with students in sixth grade and continued working with them through high school, trying to accelerate their academic achievements (Cabera et al., 2006) The results of the program indicated students’

reading and math skills improved significantly and their college readiness levels

increased Cabera et al (2006) showed the effectiveness of CIPs regarding student’s college readiness

To add to the above literature, Wimberly and Noeth (2005) conducted a study regarding the ACT Policy Report summary of sixth through eighth grade students The study was an addition to previous policy reports and provided data to support the

reasoning for college preparatory programs to begin as early as sixth grade (Wimberly & Noeth, 2005) The researchers examined what effect of early exploration and planning in certain college readiness areas had on students, as well as how people and school-based factors helped students set goals and develop a postsecondary plan The results from the study indicated that low-income middle school students aspire to attend college, but their school programs fail to prepare them Seventy-eight percent of middle school students indicated they had begun to think about going to college, yet only 66% of the students described their school program as college preparatory (Wimberly & Noeth, 2005)

Additionally, Wimberly and Noeth (2005) discovered that teachers, counselors,

administrators, and parents did not collaborate or implement effective programs that would help students acquire skills and knowledge necessary to attend a postsecondary

institution However, Wimberly and Noeth (2005) asserted that when counselors, parents, educators, and community members do collaborate to establish effective programs for students, college readiness become a reality for inner city African American students

Gibbons and Borders (2010) focused on outside factors that prevented inner-city African American students from attending college The researchers found that many African American adolescents plan to attend college; but outside factors such as barriers and weak family support prevented them from achieving their goals Influential leaders in African American low-income students’ lives, however, were found to make a difference

in preparing them for college Based on findings, Gibbons and Borders (2010) asserted that parents need to work together to prepare inner-city African American middle school students for college

Finally, Huerta, Watt, and Butcher (2013) examined the effects of Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) in middle school has on middle school course rigor and students’ high school performance and college readiness AVID was developed to prepare underrepresented students for 4-year colleges and universities Huerta, Watt, and Butcher (2013) conducted a study to determine the impact AVID has on students in middle and high school The study compared students who took AVID in middle and high school with those who only took AVID in high school Herta, Watt, and Butcher (2013) concluded that implementing AVID in middle school provides more benefits than implementing it only in high school

Problem Statement

African American male students are not being prepared for college for several reasons including; lack of resources, environmental factors, location of their middle and high schools, lack of knowledge about college preparation By the time students reach eighth grade, over 80% have set goals to attend college (Wimberly & Noeth, 2005) According to Gibbons and Borders (2010), children at this age do have a plan to attend at least a 4-year college However, many inner-city African American male students never achieve their goals for several reasons, including lack of resources or support from

school, environmental factors such as low social economic status (SES), no one else in their family who attended college, where they live, and lack of knowledge about college preparation (Radcliffe & Stephens, 2010) According to Blustein et al (2010), inner-city African American students are at high risk of not completing high school and not

advancing into college A gap exists because researchers have not conducted studies that allowed 18–24-year-old African American male students’ share the information they received during middle and high school regarding postsecondary education Therefore, a need exists for administrators, teachers, counselors, and other stakeholders to understand what it was that encouraged African American male students to attend college A study

of African American male students, between the ages of 18 and 24, who are attending college, could provide important information about pathways to higher education that educators in middle and high school may be missing Studying this group of older

adolescents in college might inform counselors in middle and high school about

additional support and interventions that could encourage African American male

students to enroll in college, a population that is currently underrepresented in college student bodies The purpose of this research will be discussed next

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to describe what 18-24-year-old African American male college students recalled from middle school and high school about college

preparation, college planning, and college attendance While there is quantitative

research that shows a lack of college preparation and attendance among African

American youth (Storz, 2008), there are no phenomenological studies that describe the lived experiences of 18–24-year-old African American male college students back in middle school and high school regarding college preparation, college planning, and college attendance Hence, this study provided an opportunity for a marginalized group to speak out and share their experiences, and in the process, explain the barriers that

impeded their academic success Participants shared what they experienced in middle and high school that encouraged or did not encourage college preparation, college planning, and college attendance

Research Question

The following research question guided this phenomenological research: In

middle school and high school, what do 18-24-year-old African American male college students recall learning about college preparation, college planning, and college

attendance?

Conceptual Framework

This phenomenological study was conducted using critical race theory (CRT) CRT is used to advocate for underserved populations, to make social change, and to promote the well-being of humanity (Benton & Craib, 1996) Using CRT guided the study toward empowering these 18–24-year-old African American male college students, helping them recognize any restraints that may have been placed on them

According to Delgado and Stefancic (2001), CRT originated in the mid-1970s when activists recognized the decline of the Civil Rights Movement and decided to change the relationship between race, racism, and power The major themes associated with CRT include (a) racism for people of color; (b) the White race dominating people of color; and (c) society stereotyping people of color regarding their intelligence and moral behavior Therefore, educators, scholars, writers, and activists used the three themes to advocate for victims of racism and economic oppression in an effort to bring about a social change CRT has been the basis for many qualitative studies of racial minorities in educational settings Educators have used CRT to teach both the hidden and foreseen negative impact of racism on minority students (Carter, 2008)

CRT is important to this study because it will allow the researcher to provide a better understanding of issues related to the marginalized group: African American male youth Using CRT provides a theoretical basis for examining the influences of racism on African American male students (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001) In addition, CRT

corresponds to the chosen questions used to develop this study It is expected to reveal how outside factors, such as oppression, racism, or SES, prevent students from attending

or completing college CRT will be explained in depth in Chapter 2

Nature of the Study

A phenomenological study was the methodology for this study in order to add depth to the study and allow participants to participate in their natural environment

(Creswell, 2007) I chose a phenomenological design because I wanted to describe the lived experiences of 18–24-year-old African American male college students regarding the knowledge they received in middle and high school about postsecondary education A phenomenological study allowed participants to describe their experiences; it also gave voice to a marginalized group

Method

I used a phenomenological study to describe what seven 18-24-year-old African American male college students recalled from middle school and high school about college preparation, college planning, and college attendance After interviewing seven participants, I established themes that reflected on their lived experiences From the data, possible barriers that prevented African American students from attending college were discovered; also discovered were the students’ perspectives of any inequalities, challenges, and/or stereotypes associated with their educational journey Next, I told the lived history of these African American students, including their struggles with equality, oppression, and stereotypes that they have experienced in regards to their education, in

addition to other areas I concluded by exploring the implications for counselors and counselor educators about the findings, specifically in the area of college preparatory programs in middle school and possible programs for African American students that would enhance their college readiness

Data were collected from 18–24-year-old African American college students I served as the key instrument for collecting data by conducting interviews with each participant I immersed myself in the African American culture in order to be able to describe their lived experiences, that is, when they were in middle school and high school and were—or were not—presented with information about college preparation, college planning, and college attendance I analyzed the data by entering it into NVIVO I then coded it I identified statements that highlighted participants’ lived experiences to create clusters or themes Then I used the themes to write a description of their lived

experiences, including what they experienced and how they experienced it

Definitions of Key Terms

College culture- Educators create an environment in middle and high school that

exposes students for postsecondary education College cultures are usually created in diverse high schools where students are at risk of not graduating from high school

College culture environments are designed to strengthen students’ writing skills and inform them about college opportunities and schedule college visits (Radcliffe &

Stephens, 2010)

College preparatory programs- Programs with a rigorous curriculum that starts

preparing students for college in middle school Students take college-bound courses and are well informed about college opportunities

College readiness- The preparation students need that includes a rigorous

curriculum, which prepares them for a postsecondary institution Students take college courses starting in middle school and continuing through high school (Leonard, 2013)

Environmental factors- Any factors or distractions that influence human behavior

Environmental factors discussed in this study include poverty, parental educational level, family SES background, and first-generation graduates

Ethnicity- Ethnicity refers to a connectedness based on commonalities in which

cultural patterns are shared Equity is often used interchangeably with race

GEAR UP (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate

Programs): Refers to a comprehensive program designed to prepare low-income students

and their families for college GPA (grade point average): Refers to the point system

educational institutes use to average students’ overall grades in school

Informed Consent- A form used to secure agreement from individuals who

volunteer to participate in a study The form includes information that explains the

purpose of the study, benefits, and risks of the study (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008)

IRB (International Review Board): Refers to a group of people who review plans

for research involving human subjects They protect the rights and welfare of people involved in research

Marginalized groups- A group of people rejected by society based on gender,

education, culture, ethnicity, race, or economic status

Multicultural competence- It is when counselors approach the counseling process

from various perspectives Counselors provide services to accommodate the culture of the client (Ahmed, Wilson, Harrison, & Jones, 2011)

SIS (Student Information System): Refers to the web-based system school districts

and other affiliates use to acquire students’ information and create collaborate

environments for parents

Assumptions

A primary assumption in conducting this research study was that using a qualitative method was the best approach Since I sought to explain and understand a social problem that groups might experience, a qualitative

approach would work better (Creswell, 2009)

It was assumed that the qualitative approach was best because I anticipated acquiring at lot of data to support the topic: was to describe what 18-24-year-old African American male college students recalled from middle school and

high school about college preparation, college planning, and college

attendance

I assumed that conducting a qualitative study would produce in-depth

information about a marginalized group that needs to be heard Even though programs exist at middle and high schools, it appears that there is still

something the African American male students are not being exposed to that limits their future college attendance

I assumed that I would submerge myself into the lives of the participants and provide results that would make a social change

I built rapport and established relationships with participants to help solidify the study by showing empathy toward, and understanding of, the participants without judgment (Patton, 2002)

Even though I work in the surrounding area where the participants attend college, I assumed that building rapport and establishing positive relationships with them would not create a problem Building rapport and establishing positive relationships with participants increases the chances that they will be truthful when answering interview questions I assumed the participants would be truthful because no consequences existed for untrue responses

In addition, I assumed that the data collection process would run smoothly and participants would respond to all interview questions and follow-up sessions,

if needed, because the potential for conducting follow-up sessions was stated during the interview

Finally, I assumed that participants would not share information with their friends and/or colleagues because confidentiality was expected and was

reviewed throughout the interview

Scope and Delimitations

The research study described what 18-24-year-old African American male college students recalled from middle school and high school about college preparation, college planning, and college attendance The study included only African American male students from a Midwestern college or university Neither White students, students of other ethnicities, nor students living outside of the Midwest were included

Only African American students participated in this study I chose African

American males because of the discrepancies between the educational experience of European American students and African American students; as well as the educational experience between African American male students and female students The majority

of the population in the area was African American and previous research revealed a vast difference in graduation rates between African American and European American

students (Cokley, McClain, Jones, & Johnson, 2011) I chose African American male students because school personnel stereotyped and marginalized them more than African American female students (2011) This study had the potential to provide results that can benefit other races and genders that experience inequality during their educational

journey as well

Limitations

Using participants from a marginalized group posed limitations to the study African American male college students are a vulnerable population The International Review Board (IRB) allows researchers to focus on one ethnic group, but a clear

rationale for excluding other ethnic groups is needed My rationale for choosing African American male college students involved the future of current middle and high school students The findings from this study might reveal barriers that could interfere with them pursuing a college degree The results of this study might highlight successful pathways

to college for current African American male middle school and high school students

Research already exists showing a major gap in college attendance between the African American ethnic group and other ethnic groups In part, a reason for the gap is related to social economic status Educational attainment is directly related to income Disparities in the higher education system exists In fact, according to Naylor, Wyatt-Nichol, and Brown (2015), African Americans are less likely to graduate from college because of poverty They reported that 24% of African Americans between the ages of

18 and 64 live in poverty Living in poverty decreases students’ chances of going to college and earning a degree In contrast, White students continue to enroll in college at a higher rate than do African American students (Owens, Lacey, Rawls, & Holbert-Quince 2010) According to Graves (2010), less than 8% of Black males between the ages of 15 and 29 are college graduates compared with 17% of White males and 35% of Asian males In fact, in 2013 the college enrollment for Black males is 4.5%, which is the same

as it was in 1976 (Scott, Taylor, & Palmer, 2013) Specifically, 22.5% of the White population, 25 years and older, earned a baccalaureate degree; only 13.7% of the Black population, 25 years and older, earned a baccalaureate degree (Naylor, Wyatt-Nichol, & Brown, 2015) More specifically, 22.3% of White males earned a baccalaureate degree whereas only 12.9% of Black males earned a baccalaureate degree (Naylor, Wyatt-

Nichol, & Brown, 2015) Therefore, considering the above statistics show Black students always drastically behind White students, it was not difficult justifying why I chose one ethnic group opposed to the other

A possible limitation to the study involved quality; therefore, I ensured the study showed quality I provided quality for the study by making sure the questions showed validity I interviewed each participant to enhance the quality, because allowing assistants

to conduct interviews may pose a potential threat to the quality of my study (Creswell, 2007) Additionally, I provided clarity for each question to ensure each participant

understood and knew the meaning I reflected on the interviews to secure the quality of the information, because waiting too long may have caused me to forget something or make guesses, which could have caused a threat to the quality of the data I ensured the findings made sense by recording verbatim answers from different participants Finally, I hand -coded the data and identified statements that highlighted participants’ lived

experiences to create clusters or themes Then I used the themes to write a description of their lived experiences, including what and how they experienced them

In addition, I solicited feedback from participants to enhance validity for the study Several strategies to ensure quality exist for researchers to use in the actual study Maxwell (2005) explained different types of threats to validity and ways to eliminate the threats Maxwell (2005) suggested researchers explain any possible biases that may affect the study as well as how he or she will deal with it to reduce any threats to validity To eliminate research bias, I included a section in my study explaining any possible bias that might interfere with the study In addition, I used triangulation to collect data from

diverse participants Next, I participated in the study with intensive long-term

involvement Maxwell (2005) explained long-term participant involvement and repeated interviews provide more data that are complex; therefore, I used this strategy to increase validity Then, I included rich, detailed, and varied data to provide a full and revealing understanding of the study I conducted 7 interviews with participants, allowing them to explain in detail their lived experiences of when they were in middle and high school

“Receiving feedback will rule out the potential of misunderstanding what participants said, their perspective, as well as identifying my own biases and misunderstandings of what I observed” (Maxwell, 2005, p 111) Therefore, I solicited feedback from

participants to secure validation

Significance of the Study

This study is unique because the results of the study can educate middle school and high school counselors about their students’ needs After counselors and educators understand the importance of preparing African American males at young ages, they

could improve their counseling programs to provide more applicable services for them Then counselors can address each component proactively in the following ways

Counselors can use this study as data to help support the need for new and enhanced programs, such as AVID, college culture programs that allow college visits and school-work mentorship programs for young African American male students Additionally, the results from this study may help counselors petition school boards, principals and/or district personnel about changing school counseling curriculum, specifically programs that are aimed at enhancing college preparation programs for young middle school

African American students It can provide evidence of how poorly African American middle school students are prepared for college Administrators need to see supportive data in order to make changes to a traditional curriculum Finally, this study can enlighten legislators and district administrators about the need for a change in counseling

curriculum accommodating at-risk populations

This study will contribute to existing literature because I provided an opportunity for a marginalized group to speak out and share the messages they received or did not receive in their everyday school experience regarding college and secondary school attendance; as well as acknowledge barriers that might have impede their academic success This study may help counselors and school personnel to understand more clearly the everyday barriers that interfere with their learning As an African American female school counselor, I have witnessed male students being categorized into groups,

especially categories of failure In fact, I heard a teacher tell a student, in the front of his peers, that based on the way he was acting, he would never graduate from high school Of

course, the student is from a home whereas the mother is raising him alone and does not participate in school activities, but the teacher should not place labels on students For this reason and many others, this study is important so African American male college students can share their lived experiences of when they were in middle and high school The educational system helped me to progress in life; therefore, I want to give back to the communities where I know I can make a difference in marginalized students’ lives I plan for my research to make a difference in so many lives In addition, I want my research to help strengthen the counseling profession

This study will help many people I targeted the educational audience, meaning superintendents, legislators, school board members, principals, district personnel, and parents I will provide a copy of my dissertation to any of the above interested

stakeholders and seek to present my dissertation at state and national conferences In addition, I will submit my dissertation for publication in various counseling journals associated with the American Counseling Association (ACA) My study could help parents, too Parents will learn how to help their children at home as well as learn how to prepare their children for college Parents provide essential support for students;

therefore, educating parents about college readiness accomplish a major milestone in relation to underprivileged students’ college preparedness Overall, my goal is for this study to provide African American male students with the same educational opportunities

in regards to college preparation as other students receive Finally, I hope administrators acknowledge my research and see the urgency for social change in middle and high schools

Implications for Social Change

Research provides data that can influence social change and counselors possess the resources to be social change agents In a taped interview (Laureate Education, Inc., 2009) Dr Laura Lynn explained that researchers have a huge impact on social change because researchers inform policy and practice, get information to practitioners so he or she can use the information to change the work they do and really make a difference in people’s lives Research findings can change lives in so many different areas In a taped interview (Laureate Education, Inc., 2009) Dr Kowalczyk referred to researchers as

“planting seeds in people’s minds” because the seeds will blossom, just like people begin

to make a change after exposure to research According to Dr Serdyukov, social change

is creating a better world, which leads to a better society (Laureate Education, Inc., 2009)

I see myself as a social change agent because my study helped me become a social change agent for many students According to Lee (1998) “a counselor who is a social change agent possesses the awareness, knowledge, and skills to intervene at a system-wide level” (p 9) I hold these qualities, and I will intervene at the district and state educational levels to help students become college-ready graduates I based my research on helping children from underprivileged communities overcome barriers; negative connotations and stereotypes associated with them; build self-esteem and self-confidence; and develop empowerment to embrace any obstacles they encounter Which

in return, will help build a better society Finally, my study contributed to research that

already exists, and I hope it will attract the right people’s attention to bring about social change

Counselors possess the resources to be social change agents The intended

outcome of this study was to provide an evidence basis for school counselors to create social change in inner-city African American students’ lives by helping them overcome negative connotations and stereotypes, overcome barriers and challenges, build self-esteem and self-confidence, and develop empowerment to embrace any obstacles they encounter As a result, the intended outcome would help build a better society Finally, creating a social change for African Americans can provide a pathway for them to follow regarding college attendance, achieving their goals, and making appropriate career

choices

Summary

In this chapter, I introduced the need for this study to occur I provided research that supports the need for postsecondary education planning to begin in middle school In addition, this chapter included statistics and data that showed a myriad difference

between African American male students and White students in regards to academics, standardized test scores, and college attendance Finally, I explained how the results from this study will help counselors see the need for adaptations to their counseling programs;

as well as the need for district personnel to revisit their curriculum in middle school and high school in regards to preparing African American males for college This study provided an opportunity for the voices of a marginalized group to be heard

In Chapter 2 I provide a detailed literature review For example, I discuss the theoretical framework, court cases, and students’ perceptions Equally important, I built upon the literature review by discussing the history of segregation and desegregation for African Americans in regards to education inequality I discussed famous court cases regarding segregation and desegregation in educational settings, as well as a racial profile situation that resulted in a teenager’s death Finally, I concluded with discussing students’ perceptions of their educational journey; which included their perceptions of all involved

in their education and potential barriers that prevent them from academic success and college attendance

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction

A problem exists because African American male students aspire to attend

college, but they are not being prepared for several reasons including; lack of resources, environmental factors, location of their middle and high schools, and their lack of

knowledge about college preparation In the paragraphs to follow, researchers shared the following: African American students are not being prepared for college, the high school dropout rate is higher in African American students, and the barriers African American students experience during their educational journey Researchers have rarely consulted with students, which has caused a gap in the literature The purpose of this research will

Therefore, this phenomenological study described the lived experiences of Midwestern 18–24-year-old African American male students lived experiences of college preparation during middle school and high school

The study provided an opportunity for a marginalized group to speak out and share their experiences; it also acknowledged barriers that impede this group’s academic success Participants shared what they experienced in middle and high school that did or did not encourage college preparation, college planning, and college attendance A phenomenological design was used to develop a composite description of pathways to college that African American male college students experience

African American students’ low scores on the (NAEP) led Radcliffe and Stephens (2010) to explore whether counselors and teachers adequately prepare students for

college Additionally, Blustein, et al (2010) found that African American students

experienced higher risks of dropping out of high school, thereby not advancing into college As well, Radcliffe and Stephens (2008) provided details of how African

American students receive poor preparation for a higher educational experience, creating

a gap in college preparation between them and White students

Not only does a gap in college preparation between Black students and White students exist, but a gap in college preparation between males and females exits, too Graves (2010) and Cokley, McClain, Jones, and Johnson (2011) noted the following: a vast difference exists between African American male students’ and African American female students’ academic excellence, high school completion, and college attendance;