A Comparison of Two Methods of Teaching Music Appreciation.

Louisiana State UniversityLSU Digital Commons 1979 A Comparison of Two Methods of Teaching Music Appreciation.. Oscar Lavonia Williams Jr Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Me

Louisiana State University

LSU Digital Commons

1979

A Comparison of Two Methods of Teaching Music Appreciation.

Oscar Lavonia Williams Jr

Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College

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3 0 0 N Z E E B R O A D A N N A R B O R Ml 4 8 1 0 6

18 B E D F O R D ROW, L O N D O N WC1 R 4EJ E N G L A N D

.'3 0 0 N ZEEB ROAD ANN A R B O R Ml 48106

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A COMPARISON OF TWO METHODS OF

TEACHING M U S I C A P P R ECIATION

A Diss e r t a t i o n

S u b m i t t e d to the G r a duate Facu l t y of the

Louis i a n a State University and

A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d Mechanical College

in partial fulfillment of the

r e q u irements for the degree of

The writer wishes to acknowledge with sincere

a p p r e ciation the g u i d a n c e and direction given h i m by his

committee d u ring this study He is deeply t h a n k f u l to his

major p r o f e s s o r and committee chairman, Dr S p e n c e r J Maxcy,

for his e n c o u r agement and assistance A p p r e c i a t i o n is also

expressed to Dr S a m Adams, Dr J Berton Gremillion,

Dr W a l l a c e McKenzie and Dr R i c h a r d Musemeche who served as

committee members.

Spec i a l notes of thanks go to some colleagues on the

staff of Southern University: Mrs Georgia Brown, D i rector

of L i b r a r i e s and h e r s t a f f ; Mrs Lucille Render, Music

Librarian, and Mrs Ha z e l H Steward, Assistant Acquisitions

Librarian for their assistance; and to the S o u thern U n i v e r ­

sity Foundation, for financial assistance for the study.

Ap p r e c i a t i o n is expressed to Dr A l d r i c h W Adkins,

Chairman of the D i v i s i o n of Music at Southern University,

whose interest and c o n c e r n made it possible for the w r i t e r

to complete this study, and to Mrs Beulah Clark, Coordi­

nator of In s t i t u t i o n a l Research for aiding in the statisti­

cal design.

ii

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G rateful acknowledgment is e x t e n d e d to Mr Harrison

J Baptiste for his contrib u t i o n s and assistance, and

especially to Mrs Shirley W Webb for her unse l f i s h help

a n d patience in the t y p i n g of this dissertation.

Finally, this w r i t e r acknowledges the patience,

devotion, u n e n d i n g support and sacrifice which his wife

Theta, and daughters An r e a and Tia so generously gave during

the years p r i o r to this study and while this study was in

p r o g r e s s

T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Page

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S i i

LIST OF T A B L E S vii

A B S T R A C T viii

CHAPTER I I N T R O D U C T I O N 1

I B A C K G R O U N D 1

II THE P R O B L E M 5

III D E L I M I T A T I O N S OF THE S T U D Y 5

IV DEFINITION OF T E R M S 6

V IMPORTANCE O F T H E S T U D Y 6

VI ORGA N I Z A T I O N OF THE S T U D Y 8

II R E V I E W OF RELATED R E S E A R C H 9

III THE E X P E R I M E N T 23

F o rmulation of O b j e c t i v e s 23

The E x p e r i m e n t a l D e s i g n 24

The Subjects of T h i s S t u d y 24

The E x p e r i m e n t a l Setting 25

The E x p e r i m e n t a l P e r i o d 25

M aterials for P r e - T e s t i n g 25

The Pilot S t u d y 25

P r o c e d u r e s 26

The E x p e r i m e n t 26

Treatment of the Control Group 27

T r e a t m e n t of the E x p e r i m e n t a l Group 27

P o s t - T e s t i n g 27

Source of D a t a 28

Pre Test - Post T e s t 28

IV P R E S E N T A T I O N AND A N A L Y S I S OF D A T A 29

Difference B e t w e e n Mean Scores on the T e a c h e r - M a d e Pre-Test * * 29

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IV P R E S E NTATION A N D ANALYSIS OF DATA (Continued)

Significance of Scores on the Grade-point A v e r a g e s 30 Difference Between M e a n Scores on

G rade-point A v e r a g e s 30 Significance of Scores on Music

Facts P r e - T e s t 31 Difference Between M e a n Scores on

Music F acts P r e - T e s t 31 Significance of Scores on Music

Skills P r e - T e s t 32 Difference Between M e a n Scores on

Music Skills P r e - T e s t 32 Difference Between M e a n Scores on

Perceptual Skills P r e - T e s t 33

P r e s e ntation of P o s t - T e s t D a t a 33 Difference Between M e a n Scores on the

Teac h e r - M a d e Post-Test Scores 3^

S ignificance of Scores on Music Facts P o s t - T e s t 3^ Difference Between M e a n Scores on

Music Facts P o s t - T e s t 35 Significance of Scores on Music

Skills Post-Test 35

D i f f erence Between M e a n Scores on Music Skills Post- T e s t 35 Significance of Scores on Perceptual

Skills P o s t - T e s t 36

D ifference Between M e a n Scores on Perceptual Skills P o s t - T e s t 36 Comparison of Mean Scores on the Teacher-

Made Pre-Test P o s t - T e s t 37 Comparison of Mean Scores on Pre-Test

Post-Test Music F a c t s 37 Comparison of Mean Sc o r e s on Pre-Test

Post-Test Music Sk i l l s 38

C o m parison of Mean Sco r e s on Pre-Test Post-Test Perceptual S k i l l s 38

The p u r p o s e of this study was to compare two methods

of teaching mu s i c appr e c i a t i o n to college students p r e p a r i n g

for careers as c lassroom teachers One class was taught by

the traditional lecture-demonstration m e t h o d which has been

in use for several years at Southern U n i v e r s i t y in Ba t o n

Rouge, Louisiana The ot h e r class used i n s t e a d nine modules

p r e p a r e d by the i n v e stigator based on the traditional text

The overall style of this class was individualized, self-

p a c e d instruction.

To a c c o m p l i s h the purpose of this study, two classes

of elementary and secondary education m a j o r s were a s s igned

to the inve s t i g a t o r for instruction d u r i n g the Pall S e m ester

of 1978 The control group met three ti m e s per week for

fi f t y minutes e a c h class period.

Both g r oups were t e s t e d before the experimental

p e r i o d began in order to e s t a b l i s h the equivalency of the

two groups T h e s e two g r oups were not significantly d i f ­

f e r e n t before the e x p e rimental treatment b e g a n as far as

t h e i r knowledge of music facts, music skills, and their

grade - p o i n t averages A significant d i f f e r e n c e did exist

in perceptual skills and the null h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d

in this area.

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A f t e r the instruc t i o n a l period, the groups were

given a p o s t-test The same teacher-made pre-test was

u s e d for post-testing The n u l l h y p othesis was r e j e c t e d

at the c o m p l e t i o n of the p o s t - t e s t in the follo w i n g areas:

1 Music Facts - 01 level

2 Music S k i l l s - 01 level

3 Perceptual Skills - 05 level

The d a t a revealed that the c o n t r o l group m a d e greater

gain in o v e r a l l knowledge It is r e c o m m e n d e d however, by

this i n v e s t i g a t o r that tnis type study be c ontinued over a

tw o - s emester p e r i o d and that other v a r i a b l e s such as college

reading scores, attitude inventory and musical b a c k g r o u n d be

included to o b t a i n add i t i o n a l data.

C H A P T E R I

INTRODUCTION

I BACKGROUND

One w o n d e r s if any v o c a t i o n in the wo r l d demands

the versatility and adaptability of its practit i o n e r s as

that of music education Many critics insist that the

m u s i c curricula is outdated, and castigate the colleges

for not educating for today There are so m any different

kinds of music and music education, that there must be c o n ­

f u s i o n even a m o n g music educators In m u s i c appr e c i a t i o n

courses, for i nstance, many college i n s t r u c t o r s spend hours

e x p laining the m e c h a n i s m of the piano w h i l e failing to

m e n t i o n such n a m e s as Liszt, Chopin or Debussy In mu s i c

h i s t o r y courses, students spend many ho u r s listening to

l e c tures about m u s i c — f o r m after form, w h i c h they n e v e r

hear Often m u s i c a l works are briefly i n t roduced wit h

little illustration of concepts and ideas.

Music e d u c a t o r s are n o w concerned about the enigmatic

and elusive t h i n g called music listening or, as it is called

in some instances, music appreciation Many music educators

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find that even w h e n teaching n o t h i n g but listening in music

a p p r e c i a t i o n and music history courses, they seem to fare

not too well In the first place, there is hardly a course

in the vast land of colleges and universities that teaches

p r o s p e c t i v e teachers the pr o b l e m s of music listening and

its t e a c h i n g practice Many experimental textbooks are

neglected A great variety of approaches are thus lost,

i n c l u d i n g those w h i c h lay t r a d i t i o n aside.

Education has changed a great deal in the T w e n t i e t h

.entury because of changing ans w e r s to three questions

-rst, who should be educated; second, what should they

learn; and third, h o w should they learn it From a s i t u a ­

t ion in the Nin e t e e n t h Century in which the p r e v a i l i n g view

was that very few students be educated, there has b e e n a

dr a m a t i c change to a real effort to provide for all students

in a n e w content and by new methods.

The second question, "what should these students

learn," has become a very com p l e x one i n v o l v i n g many factors

The acce l e r a t i n g rate of i n c r e a s i n g knowledge among students

has changed the scope of e d u c a t i o n from the basic skills

and a classical p r o g r a m of history, literature, foreign

languages, and m a thematics to a situation in which m any

mo r e choices m u s t be made A natural consequence of the r e ­

cent increase in the extent of available knowledge is a

change in the emphasis from content to abilities.

The third question, "how should students learn,"

has b e e n greatly complicated by advances in educational

technology E d u c a t i o n is changing from a lecture-textbook-

r e c i t a t i o n pro g r a m to one which involves substantially

g reater p a r t i c i p a t i o n by each student t h r o u g h the use of

a u d i o v i s u a l media and n e w forms of printed m a t e r i a l s

In this age of large college music appreciation

classes w i t h limited time for individual instruction, and a

shortage of capable instructors, considerable interest has

been d i r e c t e d t o w a r d p r o grammed or p e r s o n a l i z e d methods as

ways of a c c o m p l i s h i n g the aims and objectives of instruction

And finally, the call for a c c o u ntability in higher e d u c a t i o n

implies the j u s t i f i c a t i o n of some a c t ivities in the u n i v e r ­

sity community A d m i n i s t r a t o r s are asked to justify t h e i r

al l o c a t i o n s of funds, and teachers are e x p e c t e d to be

accou n t a b l e for a d e q u a t e perfo r m a n c e s in the classroom.

S e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n a l devices, a l t hough still r e l a ­

tively n e w in t e a c h i n g music a p preciation, have many basic

features which should aid in the learning process, k h e r e a s

television, m o tion pictures and other m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a ­

tion are greatly s u ited for mass education, s elf-instruction

is i n t e n d e d for the individual Its range of flexibility

may m ake it p o ssible to achieve the e d ucational ideal of

a l l owing each student to d i s cover in the listening e x p e r i ­

ence a me a n s of responding.

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Music educators have l ong professed the need for an

e d u c a t i o n a l system a t t u n e d to the background a n d abilities

of individual students This c o n c e r n has been, in fact,

the basis for most o f the recent changes and innovations in

music education Due to the i m p o r t a n c e of t his problem and

the p o t e n t i a l contribution to educational p r a c t i c e that

could result from any significant progress in the develop­

ment of procedures for providing for the m a n y individual

differences among students, this investigator is devoting

special attention to this problem.

This study was undertaken to assist this investi­

gator in determining whether a sel f - i n s t r u c t i o n a l system

for t e a c h i n g music a p p r e c i a t i o n to general c ollege students

is the more effective method of a chieving the aims and

objectives of the c o u r s e while f r e e i n g the instructor tc-

provide individual assistance wh e r e needed.

I I THE P R O B L E M

Is there a n y significant difference b e t w e e n the

cognitive a c h i e v e m e n t of students taught by a traditional

lecture m e t h o d and s t u d e n t s u s i n g a self-instructional

system of t e a ching m u s i c appreciation? To a n s w e r this

question r e q uires tha t two major conditions be satisfied:

1 A s e l f - i nstructional s y stem for teaching music a p p r e c i a t i o n to general college students be developed.

2 The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of two methods of

t e a c h i n g m u s i c a p p r e c i a t i o n (lecture and s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n ) be tested.

Specific comparisons be made in the areas of (a) Music Pacts, (b) Music Skills a n d (c) P e r c eptual Skills.

III D E L I M I T A T I O N S OF THE STUDY

The classes involved in t his study w e r e classes of

elementary and s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n majors p r e p a r i n g for

careers as c l a s s r o o m teachers Students wer e enrolled in

Music 200 at S o u thern University, Baton Rouge, Louis i a n a in

the Fall Semester of 1978.

T h e fact that two classes w ere t a ught by the sane

instructor, who in some way may have been m o r e proficient

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in one method th a n in the other, might have influenced

the significance of this study However, every effort was

m a d e to use the best pos s i b l e pedag o g i c a l techniques in both

c l a s s e s

IV D E F I N I T I O N OF T E R M S

M u sic A p p r e c i a t i o n In this study M u s i c Appr e c i a t i o n is the factual knowledge of m u s i c symbols, notation, m u s i c a l

t erminology, composers a n d t h eir works.

S e l f - I n s t r u c t i o n Any set of materials or automatic system

by w h i c h inform a t i o n can be imparted to the student without the direct involvement of the teacher.

T e a c h i n g M a c h i n e and T e a c h i n g Device Some mec h a n i c a l cr electronic apparatus u s e d for the p r e s e n t a t i o n of pro g r a m m e d

m a t e r i a l s

F r a m e The smallest unit of inform a t i o n presented to the student at any one time.

M u s i c Facts Knowledge of m u s i c symbols and notation.

M u s i c Skills Knowledge of t e r m i n o l o g y employed to indicate tempo, dynamics, styles and expression.

Perceptual Skills Knowledge of the m u s i c a l organisation, the p e r f o r m i n g media and the ability to recognize the

c o m p o s e r and w o r k by p l a c i n g then in the proper time frame and his t o r i c a l perspective.

V I M P O R T A N C E OF T H E STUDY

Much has been w r i t t e n about s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n and its

a p p l i c a t i o n to the t e a c h i n g of music Exp e r i m e n t a l research

has d e m o n s t r a t e d that: (1) s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n can be very effec t i v e in some aspects of i n s t rumental instruction;

(2) students in ear-training and sight-s i n g i n g classes using self-instruction materials seem to achieve a greater

p roficiency than others taught by m o r e conventional methods;

(3) keyboard harmony has bee n taught w i t h some d e gree of success u s i n g the pr o g r a m m e d approach; (4) skill in harmony

(written) has been d e v e l o p e d through such programs; and (5) music history and literature and other areas of the music

c u r r iculum may be p r o grammed for self-i n s t r u c t i o n w ith

superior results.

The literature in the field of music has indicated

an increased interest in se l f - i n s t r u c t i o n in the t e a c h i n g

of music at the college level The degree of s e l f - i n s t r u c ­

tions u n i f o r m acceptance into the field ana its corollary

implications for the art, if such a tr e n d is truly existent,

cannot be validated e x cept through broad investigative re­

search (Craig, 1971) This relatively n e w medium of

instruction — unique in design and b a s e d on sound teaching

principles — has had ver y little impact and tes t i n g in the

area of Music Appreciation This study is hereby important

for the f o l l o w i n g reasons:

1 There are presently too few tested instructional programs in music available: this study tests a self- instructional p r o g r a m in music.

2 There are too many u n a n s w e r e d questions concerning s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n in music education: the p r e s e n t study attempts

to answ e r m any of these questions.

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3 The programs t e s t e d are am o n g those for w h i c h there are no published-

p r o d u c e d reports regarding t h e i r effectiveness: the effort seeks to fill the void.

if P r e p a r e d programs in music a p p r e c i a t i o n are virtually non-existent: this study will serve as a stimulus for n e e d e d

r e s e a r c h in the a rea of music education.

VI O R G A N I Z A T I O N OF THE STUDY

In Chapter I b a c kground information for the problem

under i n v e s t i g a t i o n is stated Emphasis in this chapter is

placed on the problem, the delimitations, the d e f i n i t i o n of

terms used, and the importance of the study.

C h a p t e r II p r o v i d e s a r e v i e w of related r e s earch

surveyed by this investigator.

In Chapter III the details of the e x p e riment are

presented A t t e n t i o n is given to the formulation of ob j e c ­

tives, the e x p e r i m e n t a l design, the subjects i n v olved in

the study, the e x p e rimental setting, and m a t e r i a l s for pre­

testing Of equal importance in this chapter are the p r o ­

cedures u s e d in o b t a i n i n g the data.

C h a p t e r IV furnishes the statistical a n a l y s i s and

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the results obtained.

C h a p t e r V i n c l u d e s the summary, conclusions, and

r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s

C H A P T E R I I

R E V I E W OF R E L A T E D R E SEARCH

Current In t e r e s t in s e l f - instruction can be traced

directly to the e a r l y works of Harvard profe s s o r B F

Skinner, Patrick S u p p e s and o t hers who began r e s e a r c h in the

1950's G o l d iamond and Pliskoff (1965) in pursuit of more

effective p e d a g o g i c a l procedures, seized u p o n self-

instruction as an e x p e rimental instructional technique The

question naturally arises: Is the decision to use programmed

learning for music education warranted?

In one of the earliest studies c o n c e r n i n g the use of

programmed instru c t i o n in t e a c h i n g music, W o e l f i n C1961)

embarked upon an experiment to determine w h e t h e r or not

clarinet fingering and factual knowledge c o u l d be taught by

a t e a c h i n g machine The study involved three groups: a

control group and two e x p e rimental groups The results of

the study showed that there was no significant, difference

among the groups on the written examination, the performance

examination, or on the c ombination of both examinations.

Carlsen (196 2) sought tc determine w h e t h e r branching

or l i near p r o g r a m m i n g was the mor e effective p r o g r a m m i n g

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t e c h n i q u e in melodic dictation He also sought to determine

if p r o g r a m m e d learning was as e f f e c t i v e a t e a c h i n g method in

m e l o d i c dicta t i o n as the t e a c h e r -classroom approach The

r e s u l t s of the study showed that there was no significant

d i f f e r e n c e between criterion scores of branching and li n e a r

p r o g r a m m i n g subjects.

A study was initi a t e d by Ba r n e s (1963) to test the

e f f e c t i v e n e s s of p r o g r a m m e d i n s t r u c t i o n as an ancillary

l e a r n i n g e x p e rience w i t h students in a music fundamentals

class The findings indicated that the experimental group

s c o r e d signif i c a n t l y h i g h e r on b o t h the post- t e s t and the

f i n a l test Barnes c o n c l u d e d th a t pro g r a m m e d instruction,

w h e n us e d in c o n j u n c t i o n with r e g u l a r class procedure,

a p p e a r e d to increase the effect i v e n e s s of the learning in

the l e a r n i n g situation.

N e w m a n (1966) conducted a study to a n s w e r the f o l l o w ­

i n g three questions c o n c e r n i n g p r o g r a m m e d instruction: (1)

Do these programs lead to higher achievement in terms of

v i s u a l e x a m i nations for class r o o m music c o urses? (2) Are

t h e s e p r o g r a m s better u s e d as a supplement or as a s u b s t i ­

t u t e for r e g ular ins t r u c t i o n ? (3) Do these programs lead to

m o r e f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s toward the course and its o b j e c ­

t i v e s ? U s i n g p a r a m e t r i c statistics to test results, he

f o u n d on any of the m e a s u r e s of initial competence, b o t h

g r o u p s u s i n g p r o g r a m m e d learning received s i g n i f i c a n t l y

h i g h e r r a t i n g s at Sight Singing examinations The g roup

u s i n g p r o g r a m m e d m a t e r i a l s to c o n s e r v e c l a s s r o o m time scored

1 1

significantly h i g h e r in Music T h e o r y than the class using

p ro g r a m m e d materials to supplement conv e n t i o n a l instruction.

Slagle (1967) conducted a study i n v e s t i g a t i n g seven

methods of instru c t i n g classes of ele m e n t a r y education majors

in the fundamentals of music His primary p r o b l e m was to

determine a more e ffective m e t h o d for the m u s i c a l d e v e l o p ­

ment o f elementary education m a j o r s at M i d d l e Tennessee State

University Seve r a l instructors were i n v o l v e d in t e a c h i n g

the expe r i m e n t a l classes The m e a n scores of the pre and

post-tests scores indicated that all g r oups made gains but

not at a significant level S l agle did not define the

treatments of the various experimental groups, nor of the

control group, sufficiently w e l l for this study to be of

much va l u e as it w o u l d have b e e n otherwise.

Eby (1968) observed t h r e e different instructors

te aching three d i f f e r e n t sections of music fundamentals d e ­

signed for elementary education majors T h e observations

were car r i e d t h r o u g h a complete semester w i t h each class

m e e t i n g twice w e e k l y for 45 m i n u t e periods The p r o b l e m in

this study was to determine (1) whether s t u d e n t s w i t h no musical bac k g r o u n d could achieve skills a n d receive a high

final grade; (2) w h e t h e r students with g o o d musical b a c k ­ grounds would a c h i e v e higher fi n a l grades; (3) whether

students with h i g h musical a p t i t u d e s w o u l d receive h i g h e r

final grades and (4) whether t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t interaction

a f f e c t e d student final achievement The resu l t s

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all the course activities.

Ho w a r d (1969) initiated an experiment to determine

the extent to which students' m u s i c a l u nderstandings are i n ­

creased by listening experiences w h i c h u t i lize p r o grammed

taped rec o r d i n g s in choral r e h e a r s a l class A control group

and an e x p e r i m e n t a l group of seventy-five students each were

selected through c o m p u t e r scheduling The c o n trol group

sight r e a d a number of choral compositions wi t h i n each m u s i ­

cal p e r i o d studied, w i t h the t e a c h e r utili z i n g the t r a d i ­

tional choral r e h e arsal technique The e x p e r i m e n t a l group

listened to p r o g r a m m e d taped recordings of the same choral

compositions in the classroom and in the l i s t e n i n g

l a b oratory during the scheduled choral r e h e a r s a l class The

findings of the study indicated that the e x p e r imental group

scored s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher in the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the

choral forms than the control group The e x p e r imental

group showed a g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of rhythm, melodic

elements and timbre.

H o w a r d c o n c l u d e d that through the use of pro­

grammed t aped recordings, s t udents may become increasingly

aware of musical style, rhythm, melody, h a r m o n y and timbre.

1 3

T h r o u g h the use of p r o g r a m m e d taped r e c o r d i n g s in the

l istening l a b o r a t o r y and the classroom, students may become

m o r e familiar w i t h a c o m p oser's style a n d historical periods

Students' p r e f e r e n c e s are similar in m u s i c a l style, histori­

cal periods, and p e r f o r m a n c e media w h e n u s i n g the same

choral literature in r e h e a r s a l class as in the liste n i n g

laboratory.

Craig (1571) i n i t i a t e d a study (1) to investigate

and analyze the nature of programmed i n s t r u c t i o n w i t h regard

to the p s y c h o l o g i c a l l e a r n i n g theories u pon which it is

based; (2) to a s c e r t a i n the scope of current and projected

im p l e m e n t a t i o n of p r o g r a m m e d i n struction in the var i o u s sub­

ject areas of the college music curriculum; and (3) to identify p r e v a i l i n g trends, practices, and pr o c e d u r e s in the

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of p r o g r a m m e d music i n s t r u c t i o n in higher

e d u c a t i o n

The d ata r e v e a l e d that the g r e a t e s t concentration of

pro g r a m m e d music i n s t r u c t i o n at the c o l l e g e level occurred

in the area of music theory He c o n c l u d e d that a l though the

greatest p o r t i o n o f music i n struction at the college level

is still car r i e d on t h r o u g h t raditional methods, there

appears to be a rapidly g r o w i n g trend t o w a r d the adoption of

p r o grammed i n s t r u c t i o n a l techniques in the t e a ching of fresh­

m a n and sophomore music theory Craig also found that in

the area of music education, pro g r a m m e d i n s t r u c t i o n was

u s e d to a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e but not to as great an extent

as in the t e a c h i n g of m u s i c theory The study als o revealed

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1 4

that despite the u n p r e c e d e n t e d t e chnological advances made

d u r i n g the past fifteen years, r e l atively little pro g r a m m e d

instruction is c a r r i e d on t h r o u g h the use of such equipment

as v i d e o recorders, dial a c c e s s systems, or computers The

current emphasis is on the use of head sets and tape r e ­

cor d e r s

Michels (1972) sought to develop a n d evaluate a

p r o g r a m of s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n a l drill m a t e r i a l s for improving

the ability of students to detect pitch errors in choral

singing The specific p u r p o s e s of the study were to: (1)

d e v e l o p and v a l i d a t e a v i s u a l - a u r a l test for p i t c h - e r r o r

detection; (2) d e v e l o p a visual-aural, s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n a l

p r o g r a m for i m p r o v i n g the a b i l i t y of students to detect

p i t c h errors; and (3) dete r m i n e whether the pro g r a m of

se l f - i n s t r u c t i o n a l drill m a t e r i a l s m o d i f i e s the a b i l i t y to

dete c t pitch errors The conclu s i o n s of this study r e ­

v e a l e d that p i t c h - e r r o r d e t e c t i o n abi l i t y as m e a s u r e d by the

P i t c h Error D e t e c t i o n Test can be taught effectively to

student choral conductors by pro g r a m m e d i n s t r u c t i o n u t i l i z ­

i n g v i s u a l - a u r a l materials Also p i t c h - e r r o r d e t e c t i o n

a b i l i t y as m e a s u r e d by the P i t c h Error Detection Test was

f o u n d to be a c o m p etency that can be i m p roved d u r i n g the

first year or s e c o n d year c h o r a l c o n d u c t i n g class And,

the t o t a l m a g n i t u d e of chan g e for bot h groups of first year

a n d second y ear choral c o n d u c t i n g s t u dents indicated that

the groups i m p r o v e d their p i t c h - e r r o r d e t e c t i o n a b i l i t y

a l m o s t identically.

In 1973, Gebhardt released a study setting forth

the hypothesis that an integration of performance and

a n a lytical t r a i n i n g in l i s t e n i n g skills and score reading

co u l d be e f f e c t i v e l y achieved in the j u n i o r high school band,

a n d to deter m i n e if the ad d e d time spent in listening and

score analysis slowed the rate of d evelopment of performing

skills The expe r i m e n t a l group spent approximately five

m i n u t e s in b a n d listening, discussing, and singing examples

of m a j o r and m i n o r modes a n d examples in duple and triple

m e t e r

A p p r o x i m a t e l y ten minutes were utilised ir r e h e a r s ­

ing and d i s c u s s i n g the basic repertoire and using s u p p l e ­

m e n t a r y m a t e r i a l as time permitted Approximately ten

m i n u t e s were spent r e h e a r s i n g arpeggios, chords, rhythmic

and techn i c a l etudes, and tuning C o n d e n s e d scores of the

basic r e p e r t o i r e were d u p l i c a t e d and in s e r t e d into each

f o l d e r so that all students could see and discuss the same

music An a n a l y s i s of the growth f r o m pre-test to p o s t ­

test indi c a t e d that the experimental group made statistical!

significant i mprovement on all achievement tests while the

c o n t r o l group remained n e a r l y unchanged The scholastically

s l o w e r e x p e r i m e n t a l group was able to not only accept sug­

g e s t i o n s about learning to p lay better, but was also able

to p a r t i c i p a t e in d i scussions of the structure of music and

a c c e p t this e n r i c h e d r e h e a r s a l experience to the p o i n t of

s h o w i n g that a significant learning exp e r i e n c e had been

achieved.

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Damron (1973) deve l o p e d and evalu a t e d a programmed

sequence d e s i g n e d to teach jass Improvi s a t i o n to wind

in s t r u m e n t pla y e r s in junior a n d senior h i g h school bands.

The study sought to compare the improvised jazz performances

of students who t o o k the p r o g r a m with those of students w^o

did not take the program R e s u l t s indicated a significant

d i f f e r e n c e of 0.5 between the performance of experimental subjects who t o o k the p r o g r a m m e d sequence c o m pared to c o n ­

tro l subjects w h o did not tak e the sequence Conclusions

of the study w e r e that p e r f o r m a n c e of jazz improvisation, as

de s i g n e d with t h i s study a n d evaluated by the judges, could

be effectively taught t h r o u g h a pro g r a m m e d method.

Burgess (197*0 sought to develop a n d evaluate a u d i o ­

v i s u a l mater i a l s which co u l d provide se l f - i n s t r u c t i o n in

some fundamental violin skills in a college string t e c h n i ­

ques course T h e intention was not to r e p l a c e the human

t e a c h e r but to free him f r o m repetitive demon s t r a t i o n s sc

that he might dea l with i n d i v i d u a l problems A guide-book

p r e s e n t e d a s e q u e n c e of in s t r u c t i o n a l un i t s that also

co ordinated the use of the materials Ba s i c skills in ­

v o l v i n g motions were taught t h r o u g h v i d e o - t a p e presentation

A u d i o - t a p e a c c o m p a n i m e n t s w e r e included for interest, e n ­

couragement, intonation, a n d rhythmic discipline.

The e v a l u a t i o n was m ade in two stages The first

stage consisted of a pilot test of the mat e r i a l s E ach

subject was v i d e o t a p e d p e r f o r m i n g the same final e xamination

1 7

exercises from the same camera angles The self-

i n s t r u c t i o n group also answered a q u e s tionnaire about their

reactions The v i d e o t a p e d p e r f o rmances w e r e evaluated by

four judges T h e r e was no significant dif f e r e n c e in the

level of achievement between the two groups th o u g h it was

s ignificant statistically that the self-instruction g r oup

took less time to complete the sequence No significant

r e l a t i o n s h i p was f o und between t i m e s taken and scores

a c h i e v e d by the s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n subjects.

M a n y music educators, concerned over development of

l o n g - t e r m interest in music, have indicated the need for a

more c o m p r e h e n s i v e education e n t a i l i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

m u s ical structure, and have ca l l e d for m a t e r i a l s that could

make s u c h a study pos s i b l e w i t h o u t unduly r e s t r i c t i n g r e ­

hearsal time.

Weiss (1975) sought to p r o vide a p r o g r a m m e d self-

instructional text that would p r o v i d e such m aterial for high

school ba n d members The p r o g r a m m e d test was based on eight

structural elements: rhythm, m e l ody, harmony, counterpoint,

form, orchestration, interpretation, and style Most of the

musical examples we r e extra c t e d fr o m Toccata by Frescobaldi,

(one of the c o m p o s i t i o n s to be p repared for a concert)

Tocc a t a w a s se l e c t e d on the b a s i s of a st a t e d criterion, and

p r o g r a m m e d instruction was c h o s e n as the t e a c h i n g v e h i c l e

because it was p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r o p r i a t e for self-instruction.

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The m u s i c was analyzed (phrase by phrase, instructional

points listed, and frames w r i t t e n to teach these points),

taking into account proper s e q u e n c i n g to grada t i o n of c o n ­

tent and a l t e r n a t i o n of elements.

Test results showed a significant g a i n in cognitive

k nowledge of musical structure, interpretive elements, and

Baroque style A l t h o u g h there was no control group, the

absence of other t han the t e a c h e r ' s comments that might

have c o v e r e d the same ground, suggests that the program was

a m a j o r factor in the gain N e g a t i v e results indicated

that the p r o g r a m was too long and too complex for some

students In addition, the l e sson plans w ere too diverse in

aim.

Pickering (1976) d e v e l o p e d and e v a l u a t e d an i n d i v i d u ­

al ized ins t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m for non-music majors in a

college level introductory m u s i c course The individualized

p r o g r a m was d e s igned to include principles of learning

theory developed by Gagne and Ausubel, beh a v i o r a l objectives,

anc five i n t erchangeable t r acks or programs to accommodate

the m u s i c a l abilities, interests, and background: of the

students Each p r o g r a m of study was r e c orded on cassette

tapes and filed in the college library liste n i n g center to

be u s e d by the experimental gr o u p students The control

group learning p r o g r a m u t i l i z e d those p r i n c i p l e s of l e arning

th eory w h i c h were a p p r o p r i a t e to the common practice

(lecture and l e c t u r e - d e m o n s t r a t i o n methods) of teaching

1 9

homoge n e o u s classes of college students.

Fou r p r i n c i p a l evaluative instruments were u s e d to

collect data: a student questionnaire, a Pre Test - Post

Test, a Student O p i n i o n on T e a c h i n g Questionnaire, a n d a

personal eva l u a t i o n by the students.

The outcome of the experiment r e v e a l e d that the ex­

p e r imental group produced h i g h e r mean scores on two of

three p ost-test sections than d i d the c o n t r o l group The

experimental p r o g r a m did meet the individual needs of

students more effect i v e l y t han the t r a d i t i o n a l l e a r n i n g p r o ­

gram Students in the individualized i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m

were sh o w n tc have a more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e toward this type

of l e a r n i n g p r o g r a m than t o ward the t r a d i t i o n a l - t y p e learn­

ing program.

Colnot (1977) sought to examine two modes of p r e ­

sentation of b e h a v i o r a l p r i n c i p l e s (text and audio-cueing)

and to test the effects of th e s e two m o d e s of p r e s entation

upon c ognitive understa n d i n g s , a ttitudes toward teaching,

and the rates and ratios of teacher a p p r o v a l resp o n s e s of

three groups of u n i v ersity i n s t r u m e n t a l student teachers

Subjects in the control group were t h o s e students r e g istered

for student t e a c h i n g during the fall quarter S u b jects in

the o t h e r two g r oups were w i n t e r quarter student teachers

who w ere randomly assigned to one of t w o e x p e r i m e n t a l groups

A text entitled Te a c h i n g Di s c i p l i n e was selected w h i c h was

thought to reflect a viable p r e s e n t a t i o n of beh a v i o r a l

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principles In addition, an a u d i o -cueing s y s t e m (hand­

h e l d microphone, ear p l u g and amplifier) was e m p l o y e d which

a l l o w e d observers to cue student t e a c h e r responses to pupil

b e h a v i o r a c c o r d i n g to specified criteria.

Behavioral o bservation data collected for the e x p e r i ­

m e n t a l group suggested that a contingent a u d i o - c u e i n g system

r e s u l t e d in m a r k e d improvements.

H u sak (1978) conducted a study to d e t e r m i n e the

feasib i l i t y o f teaching the techniques of jazz ensemble

a r r a n g i n g by means of programmed instruction The study

s ought to: identify the pertinent concepts, principles and

techniques e m p l o y e d by the jazz ens e m b l e arranger, to

d e v e l o p a p r o g r a m m e d tex t b o o k w i t h acco m p a n y i n g tape-

r e c o r d e d m u s i c a l examples, and to evaluate the p r o g r a m as an

i n s t r u c t i o n a l method w i t h freshmen college music students

T he p r o g r a m content was based on the i n s tructional objec­

t i v e s and content of current a r r a n g i n g texts The materials

(which c o n s isted of pro g r a m m e d text and taped musical

examples) encomp a s s e d instrument ranges, transpositions,

g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d restrictions, and the t h e o r e t i ­

cal aspects of jazz e n semble v o i c i n g and orchestration.

The results of Husak's study offer p e r suasive

e v i d e n c e for the f easibility of p r o g r a m m e d i n s t r u c t i o n for

t e a c h i n g the t e c hniques of jazz e n semble a r r anging A p r o ­

g r a m m e d text with a c c o m p a n y i n g t a p e - r e c o r d e d m u s i c a l

examples was d e v e loped w hich e f f e c t i v e l y taught jazz c o m ­

p o s i t i o n a n d arran g e m e n t knowledge to music students.

The k n o w l e d g e of ja z z a r r a n g i n g techniques, as measured by

the Ja z z Ensemble Arran g i n g T e s t , was significantly in­

creased by e m p l oying the P r o g r a m m e d Instruction in the

T e c h n i q u e s of J a z z Ensemble A r r a n g i n g

F e w problems in the f i e l d of music w o u l d seem to

offer m o r e potential for fr u i t f u l and challe n g i n g research

than th a t of e v a l u a t i n g the e f f e c t s of music appreciation.

At a l m o s t every p o i n t in the p r o c e s s of t e a c h i n g and l e a r n ­

ing a b o u t music, a c curate i n f o r m a t i o n c o n cerning the resu l t s

being obtained c o u l d keep the p r o c e s s free from waster

effort a n d insure that m a x i m u m be n e f i t s were b e i n g gained.

On the surface, the studies reviewed w o u l d appear

to h a v e a significant bearing on the present study in that

they s e e m to be s u g gesting the same idea that is being e x ­

p e r i m e n t a l l y t e s t e d by this investigator However, upon

closer examination, these s t u dies are collections from

persons in the f i e l d of music e d u c a t i o n and compendiums of

m a t e r i a l s m o d e l e d a f t e r suggestions in many textbooks on

m e t hods in music education T h e s e studies contribute little

to the te a c h i n g of music apprec i a t i o n These studies do

however, point out some of the p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n i n g the

t e a c h i n g of music to p r o s p e c t i v e teachers W h i l e these r e ­

search efforts have be e n impressive, they systematically

exclude the specific matters t r e a t e d in this investigator's

s t u d y

This s tudy emphasizes an area of m u s i c that is

ba s i c a l l y non-verbal Music appreciation, u n l i k e instrumental

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or c h o r a l music cou r s e s which require expressive performance,

deals w i t h perception, interpretation and reception The

results of this k i n d of l e a rning is r e a l i z e d in i n c r e a s e d

musical satisfaction, a keener aesthetic experience, a n d a

g rowing sense of discrimination Whereas, studies in the

past have centered on perfor m a n c e and p a r t i c i p a t i o n as in­

dications of k nowledge a c q uired at the expense of the more

repre s e n t a t i v e ab s t r a c t music appreciation.

F ortunately, by its v e r y nature, p r o g r a m m e d instruc­

tion in mu s i c e d u c a t i o n has a discipline w h i c h r e q u i r e s

p r o g r a m m e r s to m a t e r i a l i z e a program, d emonstrate its

effectiveness, a n d improve it on the basis of data f rom

student responses In music education, especially in music

appreciation, where change is n o t o r i o u s l y slow and where

i n n o v a t i o n is now so loudly demanded, a m a j o r source of

o p t i m i s m for p r o g r a m m e d instru c t i o n is the speed w i t h which

it b u i l d s its g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s and strategies into materials

and t h e n e m p i r i c a l l y tests them.

This study might be v i e w e d as a type of educational

e n g i n e e r i n g for w h i c h the u l t i m a t e p r o d u c t will be m e a s u r ­

able gains in the learning b e h a v i o r of individuals as they

p e r f o r m indi v i d u a l l y and collectively In this study,

p r o g r a m m e d i nstruction in m u s i c a p p r e c i a t i o n is t r e a t e d as

a d y n a m i c combin a t i o n of art a n d t e c h n o l o g y - e a c h w i t h its

place, but not one at the e x p e n s e of the other L i k e all

technologies, it is cumulative and self-correcting.

C H A P T E R III

THE EXPERIMENT

F o r m u l a t i o n o f Objectives

Critical to the d e velopment of this self-instructional

p r o g r a m was t h e formul a t i o n of a set of o b j ectives aimed at

improving c o g n i t i v e achievement P r e - t e s t s and post-tests,

consisting of m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e test items were d e v e l o p e d

for the pur p o s e of m e a s u r i n g the objectives T h e following

objectives w e r e deve l o p e d b y this investigator.

Given a n i n e - w e e k s elf-instructional c o urse in

M u s i c Appreciation, the student was to be able to: 1) Ident­

ify m u s i c a l s y m b o l s and notations, 2) m a t c h m u s i c a l composers

w i t h their works, 3) state the princples upon w h i c h music is

organized, 4) utilize t h e terminology employed to indicate

tempo, dynamics, styles a n d expression in mus i c a l composition,

and, 5) ana l y z e according to form a n d m e d i a the m u s i c a l

structure of g i v e n composers and their works.

23

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2 k

The E x p e r i m e n t a l D e s i g n

This study u t i l i z e d an e x p e r imental p l a n described

by Campbell and S t a n l e y (1963) as the "Nonequi v a l e n t C o n t r o l

Group Design." This is one o f the most w i d e l y us e d designs,

because it makes use of a s s e m b l e d groups, s u c h as class­

rooms The a s s i g n m e n t of X to one group or o t h e r is a s s u m e d

to be r a n d o m and u n d e r the e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s control The

design is d i a g r a m m e d below [0] represents the use of a

testing instrument a n d [X] r e p r e s e n t s the use of the e x p e r i ­

the s u bjects might ha v e been c o n f u s e d w i t h r e s u l t s a r i s i n g

out of the t reatments, the statis t i c a l t e c h n i q u e known as

"analysis of c o v a r i a n c e " was employed (One possible a r e a

of p r e - e x p e r i m e n t a l d i f ference however was i ncluded in the

analysis: Grade p o i n t average).

The S u b j e c t s of T h i s Study

The target p o p u l a t i o n for this s t udy was made u p of

the t o t a l number o f college s t u d e n t s r e q u i r e d by the col l e g e s

of S o u t h e r n U n i v e r s i t y to enr o l l in a b a sic cou r s e in m u s i c

a p p r e c i a t i o n as a pa r t of t h e i r p r e p a r a t i o n for c l a s s r o o m

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tsaching The expe r i m e n t a l p o p ulation was comprised of a

group of education m a jors at S o u thern University, B a t o n

Rouge, L ouisiana w h o were e n r o l l e d in Music 200 (Enjoyment

of Music) in the F a l l of 1978 The control and e x p e r i ­

mental groups c o n s i s t e d of 67 students for eac h section.

The two groups w e r e a s s i g n e d to this investigator a n d were

to be taug h t Music 200 (Enjoyment of Music) during that

s e m e s t e r

The E x p e r i m e n t a l S e t t i n g

This i n v e stigator served as instructor for b o t h the

control and the e x p e r i m e n t a l groups and b o t h groups wer e

taught in the Music B u i lding a n d University Library L i s t e n ­

ing F a c i l i t y at S o u t h e r n University.

The E x p e r i m e n t a l P e r i o d

The experiment was c onducted d u r i n g the Fall semester,

1978 The i n s t r u ctional p e r i o d lasted n ine weeks Eac h

class session was fifty minutes in length The first week of

the instruc t i o n a l p e r i o d was set aside for pre-testing The

p ost-test was a d m i n i s t e r e d at the conclusion of the nine

w e e k s

Mater i a l s for P r e -Test

So that the present i n v e s t i g a t i o n conformed w i t h the

standards set f o r t h by Campbell and Stanley (1963), it was

ne c e s s a r y to d e t e r m i n e the e quivalency of these two groups

by pre-testing The measure u s e d for this purpose

R ep ro d u c ed with p erm issio n o f th e copyright ow ner Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm issio n

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was a t e a c h er-made test.

F o r the control class a textbook, M u sic A p p r e c i a t i o n ,

by Robert Hickok, was used This text had b e e n In use at

Southern U n i v e r s i t y for the past t h r e e years.

T h e exp e r i m e n t a l class d i d not use a traditional

textbook, but used i n s t e a d m o d ules prepared by the i n v e s t i ­

g a t o r b a s e d on the t r a d i t i o n a l text Both c l a sses utilized

i dentical a u d i o and v i s u a l materials.

The Pilot Study

As p r e p a r a t i o n for the experimental study involving

two sections of Music 200, a s e c t i o n of this class was ta u g h t

by the i n v e s t i g a t o r d u r i n g the S u m m e r Semester prior to the

experiment During this Summer semester s e v e r a l of the e x ­

p e r i m e n t a l techniques w e r e r e f i n e d and the s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n a l

modules we r e prepared.

PRO C E D U R E S

This study was d esigned to examine t w o methods of

t e a c h i n g m u s i c comparatively T h e following is an outline

of the p r o c e d u r e s used.

The Exp e r i m e n t

T h e experiment proper b e g a n on August 28, 1978 At

the initial class m e e t i n g of b o t h groups, the random a s s i g n ­

me n t of students to b o t h the c o n t r o l and e x p e r i m e n t a l gro u p s

was made.

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The s e cond and t h i r d meetings of b o t h groups were

devoted to adminis t e r i n g the Pre-test Instruction, t h e r e ­

fore be g a n on the fourth class meeting for both the control

and experimerttal groups.

Trea t m e n t of the Control Group

F o r the control g r o u p the textbook, Music A p p r e c i a t i o n

by Robert Hickok was used The class m e t three times per

week for fifty m i n u t e s e a c h class period The o v e r a l l teach­

ing format of this class was that of the tradit i o n a l method:

lecture, demonstration, q u e s t i o n s and answers The class

was t e a c h e r - d o m i n a t e d , as are m a n y clas s e s at the u n i versity

l e v e l

Treatment of the E x p e r i m e n t a l Group

The e x p e r i m e n t a l class did not use the t r a d i t i o n a l

text, but used i n s t e a d ni n e modules p r e p a r e d by this author

based on the t r a d i t i o n a l text The o v e r a l l style of this

class was i n d i v i d u a l i z e d se l f - p a c e d instruction F o r the

purpose of administration, the nine m o d u l e s were p r e s e n t e d to

the students in booklet form Eac h b o o k l e t was s t a m p e d with

the n a m e of the u s e r so that the i n v e s t i g a t o r w o u l d be able

to ch e c k on student p r o gress and participation B o t h groups

ut i l i z e d identical audio a n d visual materials.

Post-Testing

The P o s t - t e s t was a d m i n i s t e r e d at the c o m p l e t i o n of

the n i n e - w e e k period T h i s test c o n t a i n e d the same items

as the Pre-test, a n d was s c o r e d in the same manner.

R ep r o d u c e d with p erm issio n of th e copyright ow ner Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm issio n

Source o f Data

D a t a used in thi s study was obtained from:

1 The Pre-Test and Post-Test

2 Grade Point Average

3 Doctoral dissert a t i o n s Pertinent to the St u d y

4 Other books and periodicals r e l a t e d to the problem.

Pre Test - Post Test

The pre test - post test was also designed by this

investigator based on sample test questions provided in the

T e a c h e r *s Manual w h i c h a c companies his text They w ere

designed to measure the s t u d e n t s ’ knowledge of the specific

music facts, music skills and per c e p t u a l skills as stated

earlier un d e r the c o g n i t i v e d o m a i n objectives This test

did not contain any a u r a l examples The hig h e s t p o s s i b l e

score on this test was 100.