These language learning strategies clusters are: Memory, Cognitive, Compensation, Metacognitive, Social, and Affective strategies with a high level of frequency use for over-all strategi
INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Language learning strategies have played a critical role in the acquisition of foreign languages Therefore, several types of language learning strategy research were published and flourished in the 1970s with the theory of cognitive revolution, and a number of researches have shown an adjacent association between language learning strategies, language learning, and achievements Oxford explains language learning strategies as “specific action taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, and more effective and more transferable to new situations” (1990:8) She also continues saying that learning strategies take a substantial part for language learners to enhance their foreign language abilities Furthermore, when it comes to studying a foreign language, students or learners must be mindful of using appropriate learning strategies (Meshyan & Hernandez, 2002; Al-Wazzan, 2020; Salma, 2020) Consequently, not having appropriate language learning strategies turns out to be a problem for students and learners to develop their foreign language
As far as the previous studies on the use of language learning strategies are concerned, Anida (2003) has effectively confirmed that EFL students are capable of developing their performances, interests, self-confidence, and attitude towards the learning English by following significant language learning strategies The study further shows a connection between language learning strategies and language skills Another study by Qingquan et al
(2008) examined differences in the language learning strategies use by the first-year students at a Chinese university The findings indicated that the high achievers employed a wider range of language learning strategies at a higher level and more various types of language learning strategies than the low achievers did In another EFL context, Osman and Manan (2010) conducted a survey with 20 successful and 20 less successful language students from an urban school in Ipod, Perak, to explore the most frequently used strategies and any differences in language learning strategies use between the successful learners and the less successful ones Furthermore, it was shown that Affective, Compensation, and Metacognitive strategies used at a moderate level were preferred by the participants
In the context of Vietnam, there are also studies on language learning strategies of Bui (2018), Duong (2019), Ngo (2019), and Vo and Duong
(2020) More precisely, Bui (2018) conducted the study to investigate the language learning strategies used by Vietnamese EFL first-year students at Hanoi University of Business and Technology, as well as how these strategies differed depending on the students' English level Besides, Ngo (2019) and Duong (2019) conducted studies with the same aim of exploring language learning strategies, and the subjects of both studies are high school students Meanwhile, Vo and Duong (2020) conducted a study with a new approach addressing only Metacognitive strategies at a Ho Chi Minh City-based college with the participation of non- English majors It was indicated that the participants recognized the importance of Metacognitive strategies in their
English learning As a result, there have also been numerous studies on language learning strategies in the Vietnamese context in terms of research subject and research site However, there has not been a significant research related to language learning strategies on the research site at Quy Nhon university and for students of this university – a university in Vietnam's central region Admittedly, specific language learning strategies will be used differently in different contexts and with different backgrounds This has generated my motivation to conduct a study on “ Quy Nhon University EFL Students’ Language Learning Strategies” with the aim of determining appropriate language learning strategies for students at a university situated in the middle of Vietnam, where the majority of students come from the mountains and countryside.
Aims and objectives
The primary goal of this study is to determine language learning strategies which are used by English language majors in the Department of Foreign Languages at Quy Nhon University
The study was conducted in an endeavor to:
1 Investigate language learning strategies applied by English language majors in the Department of Foreign Languages
2 Categorize the most and least common language learning strategies applied by English language majors in the Department of Foreign Languages.
Research questions
In order to reach the above aims, the study is going to seek answers for the following research questions:
1 What language learning strategies do English language majors use?
2 What are the most frequently and least frequently used language learning strategies by English language majors?
Scope of the study
The scope of the research in the present study is to investigate the language learning strategies which English language majors in the Department of Foreign Languages employ in learning English Because of time, ability, and data availability constraints, this study focuses primarily on students' usage of language learning strategies and classification of the most common ones used by these students Furthermore, the participants in this study are restricted to English language majors from the Department of Foreign Languages at Quy Nhon university As a result, the study's generalizability should be limited, and the findings may not be representative of all Vietnamese English majors.
Significance of the study
While many researchers have conducted studies on language learning strategies, there have been only a few studies conducted in a university setting The current study may also be useful for EFL teachers in raising their awareness of their students‟ use of language learning strategies Teachers can help students learn languages by raising awareness of these strategies, training and encouraging them to use the strategies that work best for their individual learning styles Similarly, students must be conscious of the wide range of strategy options available to them, as well as how to use such strategies to improve their English learning Furthermore, the study's findings may assist EFL curriculum developers and program administrators in selecting or producing EFL textbooks and materials that adapt to various individuals with different language learning strategies.
Organization of the study
The thesis includes five chapters: Introduction, Literature Review,
Research Method, Results, and Conclusion
Chapter 1 provides the rationale, the aims and objectives of the study and research questions, the scope of the study, the significance, and the organization of the study
Chapter 2 deals with the literature on language learning strategies, definitions, characteristics, and classifications of language learning strategies This literature review provided a comprehensive overview of Oxford‟ (1990) typology for language learning strategies Additionally, this chapter also discusses the importance of language learning strategies and review some of the research studies on language learning strategies that have been conducted in different contexts
Chapter 3 presents the methods by which the study is carried out Then, it provides the questions Following that, it describes the research design and the study's participants The research instruments and materials used for data analysis are then mentioned Finally, this chapter discusses the study's data collection and data analysis procedures
Chapter 4 provides a detailed presentation and analysis of collected data in order to answer research questions regarding types of language learning strategies used by English language majors
Chapter 5 consists of the summary of main findings on which conclusions are based, implications, limitations of the research and suggestions for further studies.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Language Learning Strategies
2.1.1 Definition of Language Learning Strategies
Language learning strategies have received a considerable concern since early 1970s due to the crucial role they are playing in language learning When it comes to defining language learning strategies, “different researchers use different terms and different concepts” (Oxford and Crookall, 1989, p
414) Therefore, there are a variety of definitions for language learning strategies that have been utilized by key figures within the field of second and foreign language education According to Hardan (2013), citing Rubin's
(1975) definition, learning strategies are the approaches or instruments that a learner may use to gain knowledge Rigeney (1978) later considers language learning strategies as the conscious steps or behaviors used by language learners to improve the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of new information Oxford, Lavine, and Crookall (1989) have the same idea as Rigeney (1978) concerning language learning strategies They stated that language learning strategies are employed to enhance and to facilitate language acquisition They described language learning strategies as “actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques such as seeking out target language conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task used by learners to enhance learning” (1989: 29)
As said by Hardan (2013), referencing Rubin's definition (1975), language learning strategies are contributions to the development of the language system that the learner creates Additionally, he said that a language learner's strategies for acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge could include any collection of activities, phases, plans, or routines
Zarei (2015) defines a language strategy as an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language to incorporate these into one's interlanguage competence - citing Taron's (1983) definition Richards, and Platt (1992) stated that learning strategies are deliberate actions and mental processes employed by learners to better grasp, learn, or recall new knowledge The concept of learning strategies, as shown by Stern (1992), is dependent on the assumption that “learners consciously engage in activities to achieve certain goals, and learning strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived intentional directions and learning techniques” (p 261) Cohen
(1998) emphasized that learning strategies are processes that learners consciously select and that may result in action taken to improve the learning or use of a second or foreign language through the storage, preservation, recall, and application of language information
Chamot (1987), O'Malley and Chamot (1990), and Oxford (1990) have also discussed language learning strategies Language learning strategies, according to Chamot (1987), are techniques or deliberate actions that students take to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information She recommended that some language learning strategies are visible, while others may not be Similarly, O‟Malley and Chamot (1990) viewed language learning strategies as “the special thoughts or behaviours of processing information that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information” (p 1) They discovered that while strategies can be used on purpose, they can also become habitual and mechanical with practice The following is a description of language learning strategies from O'Malley et al (1985) She claimed that there is no agreement on what qualifies as a second language learning strategy or how these differ from other kinds of learner activities When talking about language learning, teaching and communication strategies are frequently applied to the same behavior and are connected Furthermore, there is a lot of misunderstanding regarding what constitutes a specific strategy as well as the hierarchical relationship between strategies, even within the category of activities that is most frequently referred to as learning strategies
Oxford (1990) claimed that “learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning” (p 1) She proposed a more specific definition of learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (p 8) She defined learning strategies as a set of behaviors used by students to help them learn, store, and retrieve information more effectively Oxford (1990) also considered learning strategies as the specific tactics used by an individual to complete a learning task
As can be seen, despite the fact that the concept of a learning strategy is central to educational research, particularly second and foreign language acquisition research, there is no general agreement on what a learning strategy is or the nature of its impact on the learning process According to the above-mentioned definitions, I represent language learning strategies from the perspectives conducted by Oxford‟s (1990) which are applied widely in almost other researches It is clear that Oxford‟s classification is regarded as the most comprehensive classification and has been used by many researchers Particularly, there are six categories of direct and indirect strategies Direct strategies are defined as strategies involving mental process and directly influencing the target language, while indirect strategies are those supporting and managing language without directly involving the target language
2.1.2 Classification of Language Learning Strategies
Language learning strategies have been classified by many scholars The majority of their efforts to categorize language learning strategies, however, reflect more or less the same categorization, without significant modifications Tarone's (1980), Rubin's (1987), O'Malley's (1985), Oxford's
(1990), and Stern's (1992) taxonomies of language acquisition strategies will be discussed in this section These authors‟ work in the field of language learning strategies research has been fundamental for all subsequent studies, and their classifications are still regarded as the most valid and influential ones in SLA (Second Language Acquisition) research
In previous studies on language learning strategies, some strategies other than learning strategies were found as being applicable to second language learning For example, Tarone (1980, p 419) suggested two kinds of strategies: the “strategy of language use” and the “language learning strategy” Within the “strategy of language use”, she identified two types of strategies: Communication strategies and Production strategies Tarone (1980) defined Communication strategy as “a mutual attempt of two interlocutors to agree on a meaning in situations where requisite meaning structures do not seem to be shared” (p 419) She noticed language learning as an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language
Although her distinction between strategies makes sense as a classification method, it is difficult to distinguish between the two in practice However, Tarone‟s (1980) classification is well-explained with a sound classification of language learning strategies, which draws on the learner‟s purpose in using strategies Sometimes, however, a learner has more than one purpose in using strategies, and, in such a case, it is very difficult to delineate these strategies
O'Malley (1985) divided language learning strategies into three main sub- categories: Metacognitive strategies, Cognitive strategies and Socio- affective strategies Metacognitive strategies is a term to express executive function, strategies which require planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of one's production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed Cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and they involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself Repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, auditory representation, key word, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, inferencing are among the most important Cognitive strategies Socio-affective strategies can be stated that they are related with social- mediating activity and transacting with others
Rubin (1987), who is pioneered in the field of strategies, makes the distinction between strategies contributing directly to learning and those contributing indirectly to learning According to Rubin, there are three types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to language learning These strategies are:
Learning Strategies are of two main types, being the strategies contributing directly to the development of the language system constructed by the learner:
Oxford‟s Language Learning Strategy Classification (1990)
Since the late 1980s, Oxford (1990) has expanded the classification system devised by O‟Malley et al (1985) According to Wakamoto (2009), Oxford's contribution to the study of language learning strategies is immense, as the six-scheme strategy classification system she proposed, as well as the strategy questionnaire she developed, are still used globally today Oxford first distinguishes between direct language learning strategies, “which directly involve the subject matter,” and indirect language learning strategies, which
“do not directly involve the subject matter itself, but are essential to language learning nonetheless” (1990, p 71) Each of these broad categories of language learning strategies is further subdivided into clusters According to Oxford, there are three major types of direct language learning strategies: Memory, Cognitive, and Compensation strategies Memory strategies “aid in entering information into long-term memory and retrieving information when needed for communication.” Cognitive strategies “are used for forming and revising internal mental models and receiving and producing messages in the target language” Compensation strategies “are needed to overcome any gaps in knowledge of the language” (Oxford, 1990, p 71)
Oxford (1990) also describes three types of indirect language learning strategies: Metacognitive, Affective and Social strategies Metacognitive strategies “help learners exercise „executive control‟ through planning, arranging, focusing, and evaluating their own learning” Affective strategies
“enable learners to control feelings, motivations, and attitudes related to language learning” Finally, Social strategies “facilitate interaction with others, often in a discourse situation” (Oxford, 1990, p 71) These six categories which underlie the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) are used by Oxford (1990) and later scholars for a great deal of research in the learning strategy field In addition, Oxford‟s model outlines a comprehensive, multi- levelled, and theoretically well-conceived taxonomy of language learning strategies For these reasons, the classification of language learning strategies in this study will be based on Oxford‟s (1990) classification system
Oxford developed the SILL as a means for promoting foreign language learning for the Department of Defense and other governmental institutions The initial version of SILL included 121 strategies, which was too lengthy and inconvenient, so the strategies were revised to include 80 and then 50 items in the seventh final version of SILL This version has thus become the embodiment of Oxford‟s language learning theory, that is, the division of language learning strategies into direct and indirect ones (Flemens, 2009) According to Ellis (1994), Oxford's theory of language learning strategies was built on previous classifications with the objective of making a taxonomy that would include practically every strategy previously mentioned in SLA research The level of strategies‟ involvement with the target language, rather than their contribution to the language learning process, is regarded as the main guiding principle of Oxford's classification
At present, there are two versions of SILL available for researchers: version 5.1 consists of 80 items, while version 7.0 includes 50 items Numerous SLA studies using SILL have resulted in the instrument achieving a high level of validity, and factor analysis of SILL has also been confirmed by prior research Empirical research has revealed a moderate level of intercorrelation between the items of SILL, thus creating scientific evidence for SILL‟s ability to facilitate more in-depth understanding of language learning strategies (Fazeli, 2012)
Interestingly, Oxford was one of the first to introduce and extensively use the term language learning strategies in SLA research In this context, language learning strategies were defined as techniques used by students to improve their learning In Oxford‟s study, language learning strategies were characterized as naturalistic practices facilitating the acquisition of language skills, including guessing and Memory strategies that have also been shown to be useful in the language learning process (Flemens, 2009) These strategies are commonly understood as being operations used by learners for assistance in the acquisition, storage and retrieval of information relevant to the learning process Oxford‟s (1990, p 17) taxonomy of language learning strategies can be summarized as follows:
Table 2.1 Oxford’s Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p 17)
B Receiving and sending massages strategies
D Creating structure for input and output
B Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing
B Arranging and planning your learning
The process of developing terminology, definitions, and classification systems for language learning strategies is complicated by overlapping ideas and opposing viewpoints Because there is no consensus on what constitutes a feature of a language learning strategy, whatever term is used, and however it is defined or classified, it will invariably clash with one or more of the opposing terms, definitions, and classification systems Oxford (1990) acknowledges the following in her conclusion:
“There is no complete agreement on exactly what strategies are; how many strategies exist; how they should be defined, demarcated, and categorized; and whether it is or ever will be possible to create a real, scientifically validated hierarchy of strategies Classification conflicts are inevitable (p 17).”
The major benefit of classification offered by Oxford (1990), in comparison with the previously used classification of O‟Malley and Chamot, is the inclusion of Memory and Compensation strategies Purpura (1999) comments that Oxford‟s (1990) taxonomy of language learning strategies is interesting for a number of reasons; first, it was the first classification to indicate the directionality of the learning process and the impact of strategies on learning Moreover, Oxford‟s (1990) classification presented strategies organized hierarchically into levels, and its appearance was comprehensive and impressive enough to be distinguished from other taxonomies of the time The following subsections contain a more detailed overview of the direct and indirect strategies formulated by Oxford (1990)
Direct strategies are of assistance to the learners because they assist to store and recover information These strategies help learners to produce language, even when there is a knowledge gap They also help learners to comprehend and apply the new language Direct strategies are classified into the following:
Memory strategies (including 9 items) are used for entering new information into memory storage and for retrieving it when needed for communication: e.g., grouping, representing sounds in memory, structured reviewing, using physical response
Memory strategies are based on simple principles, such as laying things out in order, making associations and reviewing These principles are employed when a learner faces vocabulary learning challenges The words and phrases can be associated with visual images that can be stored and retrieved for communication Many learners make use of visual images, but some find it easy to connect words and phrases with sound, motion or touch
According to Samida (2005), the main advantage of Memory strategies is that they are based on simple principles such as making associations, laying things out in a specific order, and reviewing the learned material These types of strategies are the most efficient tools in learning the vocabulary in a foreign language The use of Memory strategies is also associated with the early stages of language learning, the beginning process of SLA Learners advance to a higher level of proficiency by employing these strategies, whereas Memory strategies are used less frequently at later stages of SLA The present diminishing frequency of their use does not manifest refusal to use Memory strategies, but rather denotes a reduction in the learners‟ awareness about using them
Sung (2009) mentions flash cards and grouping words with similar functions or form to help learners remember newly learned vocabulary as examples of Memory strategies used in SLA Walker (2008) characterized Memory strategies as mnemonics, and stated that this type of strategy is commonly used to help learners in the acquisition of knowledge about the vocabulary and grammar of the second language Oxford (1990) gave some examples of Memory strategies, noting the skills of storytellers who manage to keep long stories in mind by linking different parts of speech by association with different rooms of a house or temple, thus making a walk about that house from room to room in the process of story‟s retrieval Another Memory strategy used in SLA is linking words to a certain tune, grouping, elaborating and putting new words into context For instance, words denoting various food items can be grouped into categories of breakfast, lunch and dinner to simplify the process of remembering words for the learner
The Previous Studies on Language Learning Strategies
Over the years, many academics have focused on language learning strategy research, and it has a long history in linguistics From the previous studies in the relationship among language learning strategies and factors, the researcher found that the previous studies were designed to investigate language learning strategies between the English language proficiency level, ethnicity, field of study, gender, beliefs, and nationality in both second and foreign language contexts
With reference to the language learning strategies and the English language proficiency level, Gerami and Baighlow (2011) conducted study, examining the application of language learning strategies by successful and unsuccessful Iranian EFL students Similarly, Afdaleni's (2013) carried out a study with the aim of finding out the language learning strategy used by successful and unsuccessful learners in English reading comprehension, and the factors that influenced the learners in using certain language learning strategy in English reading comprehension The findings of both are the language learning strategy used by learners are all Memory, Cognitive, Compensation, Metacognitive, Affective and Social strategies but Metacognitive strategies in particular were applied most frequently Moreover, the competent EFL learners used a broader variety of learning strategies and different from the struggling learners
Regarding the relationship between language learning strategies and gender, Alhaisoni (2012) carried out a study whose aim is to investigate the type and frequency of language learning strategies used by male and female Saudi EFL students enrolled in an intensive English language program at the University of Ha'il and Tam (2013) conducted study, examining the connection between gender, second language competency, socioeconomic position, and language learning methods The mutual result was that males and females had a significant difference in using Memory, Compensation, Cognitive, Metacognitive, Affective and Social Strategies to learn English, with females using all of these strategies more frequently than males and the students used strategies on a medium to high frequency
In the context of Vietnam, Bui (2018) conducted a study with the intention of examining the language learning strategies employed by Vietnamese EFL first-year students as well as the variations in these strategies according to the students' English level The major findings of the study showed that the success of language teaching and learning are determined by the effective choices of language learning strategies In the same context of high school, Vo and Duong (2020) carried out a study addressing Metacognitive strategies at a Ho Chi Minh City-based college with the participation of 243 non- English majors It was indicated that the participants recognized the importance of Metacognitive strategies in their English learning Moreover, Ngo (2019) employed the SILL questionnaire constructed by Oxford (1990) to assess the language learning strategies use of
83 Vietnamese tenth graders The findings demonstrated that these high school students employed a variety of language learning strategies at a moderate level It was also indicated that Metacognitive strategies were the most used, whereas Affective strategies were the least used Meanwhile, Duong (2019) conducted a study with the purpose of exploring language learning strategies used by high school students and underlying reasons at a high school located in Ho Chi Minh City The results of the study indicated the EFL high school students‟ moderate use of language learning strategies Remarkably, Metacognitive strategies were the most commonly used category, compared to Memory strategies – the least employed category
In general, previous studies indicated that when learning English, students used a variety of language learning strategies In light of the aforementioned phenomenon, this current study focuses on English language majors at Quy Nhon University' Department of Foreign Languages, with the aim of knowing about the strategies that English language students employ frequently while learning English It enables students to understand the approaches to English learning that are appropriate for their personalities.
METHODOLOGY
Research Methods
As mentioned earlier, the purpose of this study is to investigate types of language learning strategies in learning English language of EFL students For this purpose, this research utilized both qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis Quantitative method was applied to reveal the type and regularity of strategies accomplished by students in 50 items the frequency as well as the distribution of language learning strategies used by students when they learn English language Moreover, qualitative method was also used to examine closely students‟ perceptions of relationship between language learning strategies and language skills Thanks to both qualitative and quantitative approaches, the researcher could proceed to describe, analyze, make comparisons and generalizations in order to reach the goals already set
In addition, a descriptive analysis was employed simultaneously to analyze and interpret the data collected to sketch an overall picture of the distribution of language learning strategies in learning English language.
Research Participants
Taking the purposes of the present research into account, the study's participants were 200 English majors from Quy Nhon university's Department of Foreign Languages who were chosen at random All participants were Vietnamese native speakers, and had gained an average of 12 years of experience learning English in a formal context in Vietnam Besides, there are
20 out of 200 students from different courses to participate in interviews who are under ID number from S1 to S20 for the sake of confidentiality.
Research Instruments
In this study, data is gathered using two research instruments: a questionnaire and an interview A questionnaire is used to gather quantitative data, while semi-structured interviews are used to acquire qualitative data
In this study, the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) questionnaire version 7.0 (50 items) was used to examine the types and frequency of use of language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990) The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) was the most well-known strategy scale and has been used all over the world in the past 30 years (Oxford, 1990, p 294-296) The SILL version 7.0 (50 items) was designed for non-native English speaking students who use English as a second or foreign language Moreover, the SILL has been used with learners with varied native languages, such as Chinese, French, Germen, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Spanish, Thai, and Turkish (Oxford, 1990) In addition, Oxford (1996) claimed the SILL reliability has been high, and the reliability remains very acceptable
The questionnaire on language learning strategies use assessed the participants‟ self- reported English learning strategies The questionnaire consisted of three parts The first part concerned the participants‟ demographic background information The second part was a 50 questionnaire-item measure developed from Oxford‟s (1990) taxonomy of language learning strategy to investigate Quy Nhon university learners‟ self-reported learning strategies in different academic learning clusters This part had three direct language learning strategies and three indirect language learning strategies which were: Memory strategies (9 items), Cognitive strategies (14 items), Compensation strategies (6 items), Metacognitive strategies (9 items), Affective strategies (6 items), and Social strategies (6 items) The third section contained one open-ended question in order to find out about any strategies that students had been using but did not appear on the SILL
The respondents‟ opinions were measured using a five-point scale that represents the different scales of importance that they placed on each of the English language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990)
The numerical representations of each scale are as follows:
(1) means never or almost never true of me
(2) means usually not true of me
(3) means somewhat true of me
(4) means usually true of me
(5) means always or almost always true of me
According to Ritchie and Lewis (2003), an interview is a managed verbal exchange (Ritchie & Lewis, 2003) Therefore, the effectiveness of an interview depends on the skills of communication of the interviewer and the responses of the interviewee (Clough & Nutbrown, 2007) Cohen further emphasizes that the quality of the results depends on the ability of the interviewer to structure questions clearly, be an attentive listener, probe, pause and prompt questions appropriately (Cohen et al., 2007) This makes it easy to engage the participants in the research by creating a welcoming atmosphere The former uses a close-ended form of questionnaire while the latter is open and is almost similar to observation In the middle lies the semi- structured form of interview which fulfills the aims of the study For the aims of this research, a set of 9 questions has been prepared, closely related to the field of researcher‟s interest, which are commonly used to determine factors, variables, items and attributes of the variables under analysis (Schensul et al.,
1999) It can be seen that the utilization of semi-structured interviews enhances the research methodology and promotes the data collection and manipulation
The set of 6 questions related to language learning strategies can be seen as follows
1 How do you learn and memorize new words or vocabulary? (Memory strategies)
2 What do you do when you are listening to someone and you don‟t understand what he/ she is saying in English? (Social strategies)
3 What do you do when you are talking to someone and you don‟t know how to say something in English? (Compensation strategies)
4 How do you read and write in English (both in and out of your English class? (Cognitive strategies)
5 How do you prepare to learn English effectively? (Metacognitive strategies)
6 How do you find interest and reduce anxiety while learning English?
Procedure for Data Collection
The questionnaire data were collected from English-major university students at Quy Nhon university As a first step in the process of data collection, the researcher contacted the director of the Dean of Foreign
Languages at the university, explaining the nature and purpose of the study
Permission was granted to conduct the study The researcher then took the questionnaires to class and administered them immediately after the students finished their classes All of the participants received uniform instructions on how to fill out the questionnaires The questionnaires were explained to the students by English and Vietnamese by the researcher in order to ensure that the questionnaires were answered accurately Students were encouraged to ask the researcher to explain statements or words that they did not understand The participants were asked to complete the strategy inventory concurrently with the background questionnaire The questionnaires were administered anonymously There was no time limit and it took about 20 minutes for students to score all of the items in the questionnaires The questionnaires were distributed to students in each university's classroom to complete All the 240 questionnaires were collected and returned to the author of the present thesis, around 200 of which were valid and used in the following analyses
For the collection of data for the qualitative part, the procedures started after the approval of the director from Dean of Foreign Languages at the university to conduct the research Participation in such the individual interviews was on a voluntary basis After filling out the questionnaires, there are 20 out of 200 students from different courses to participate in interviews by answering the researcher‟s questions about any aspect of the research project The researcher presented the information from the interviews in the form of a written and spoken description of the research project
Throughout the interviews, the researcher attempted to maintain the role of an interested listener, adopting a conversational style of interaction with the participants while avoiding insertion of the researcher‟s accounts of experiences or evaluations into the conversation Following Wengarf (2001), the researcher used various forms of response to each participant‟s speech, including verbal and non-verbal acknowledgement gestures, and prompting statements Acknowledgement gestures were used by the researcher to indicate to the participant that he or she had been heard, and that what he or she had said had been comprehended Promoting statements were also used by the researcher to elicit elaboration or clarification of statements that might be made by the participant
The interviews were conducted individually at a place preferred by each participant, providing that it was private and free of outside interruption and noise The researcher and the participant were the only people present during the interview sessions The interviews were similar in character to a conversation, allowing the interviewee to freely respond and express his or her views on, and understanding of a particular event Each individual interview was approximately 15 minutes in length
Each interview session was initiated by the researcher who introduced herself, and then an outline of the specific purpose and intended general form of the interview session to the participant, and recording of the interview session The participants were reminded that the researcher intended to audio- record all speech uttered during the interview session The researcher then asked the participant if he or she had any questions or concerns about their participation in the research project The researcher also responded to all matters raised by the participants and then proposed to proceed with the interview session.
Procedure for Data Analysis
All answers on the returned questionnaire were tabularized in numerical code for the following analyses Data from the questionnaire were coded and entered into a computer data- base using a software package, the “Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)” to analyze and achieve quantitative data for this study A descriptive analysis of all variables was carried out to offer implications to the data The descriptive analysis provides simple summaries and general information about the study‟s data set where the researcher could obtain descriptive procedures Therefore, the researcher would understand the level of distribution and its spread (Robson, 1997)
Whereas, the data obtained from the semi-structured interviews was analyzed through qualitative data analysis The following steps were used to analyze the data using content analysis To begin, the researcher read the transcripts several times to become familiar with the content and categorize them into different groups The information gathered was be coded and grouped into broader groups Finally, the researcher looked over the categories and themes in order to determine any relationships and connections.
Ethical Consideration
Associated with the research design, ethical considerations are important in all research studies, and all researchers must be aware of, and attend to, the ethical considerations related to their studies They should protect research participants so that the participants can provide trustworthy information without causing themselves harm (Lindorff, 2010) As a researcher, it is important to protect all participants and make sure that they are not exposed to any risk in participating in any research (Lindorff, 2010) Hence, confidentiality was also maintained in the transcription of audio tapes, at each stage of the data analysis, in all draft documentation and in the publication of the research findings.
Chapter Summary
This research is dedicated to determining the language learning strategies used by EFL learners in Quy Nhon university In order to achieve this, the methodology chapter uses the mixed method approach for the whole research The authenticity of research is also encapsulated in this mixed method Furthermore, the methodology chapter has provided an overview of the instruments used in the research, including data collection and analysis tools Having established the methodological framework, the next chapter will discuss the data analysis process and major findings and results of this research.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Reliability Test
Reliability is a measure of the extent to which a group of item scores are consistently measured by an instrument (Allen & Yen, 2002) The aim of reliability analysis is to estimate the internal consistency and uniformity of a defined group of numerically coded questionnaire responses Reliability analysis indicates how well the items hang together, how much they inter-correlate, and how precisely they demonstrate a unifying theme To test the SILL‟s reliability, Cronbach-alpha was used The following table shows the level of reliability of each type of strategy All scores are higher than 0.7 which shows the internal consistency of the items
Reliability Measure Number of items Cronbach-alpha
Reliability Measure Number of items Cronbach-alpha
Overall Language Learning Strategies Used by EFL Students at Quy
Following Oxford‟s (1990) scale of strategy use, the students‟ use of various strategies was categorized into three levels (high, medium and low) The strategy that had a mean score between 3.5 and 5.0 was considered as a strategy with high frequency use, the strategy that had a mean score between 2.5 and 3.4 was regarded as a strategy with medium frequency use, and the strategy that had a mean score between 1.0 and 2.4 was seen as a strategy with low frequency of use Table 4.2 below presents the frequency measure for strategy use
Table 4.2 Oxford’s (1990) Guidelines for Understanding Average Scores on the SILL
Frequency Use of strategy Range
High Always or almost always used 4.5 to 5.0
Generally not used 1.5 to 2.4 Low Never or almost never used 1.0 to 1.4
Six language learning strategies categories were statistically analyzed in terms of mean and standard deviation It is also noted that the mean scores were ranked in descending order
Table 4.3 The students’ responses to the use of the six strategy categories (N 0)
As illustrated in Table 4.3, EFL students at Quy Nhon university reported a high use of language learning strategies The mean score of the overall SILL for all participants (M = 3.6) suggested that English majors at Quy Nhon university, on average, usually used language learning strategies when learning English language Specifically, most of students indicated Metacognitive strategies as the most frequently used ones among all the six categories (M=3.77, SD=0.99), followed by Social strategies as the second preferred strategies with an average mean score of (M = 3.71, SD = 1.02) Memory strategies ranked third in position (M=3.59, SD=1.01) while Cognitive strategies were in fourth place (M=3.58, SD=0.95) Compensation and Affective strategies had a relatively slight difference in frequency of use (M=3.52, SD=0.99) and (M=3.40, SD=1.08), respectively
The above statistical data has been verified twice using the interview findings of the question number 5 related to the approaches to learn English effectively All of 20 participants held a positive attitude toward
Metacognitive strategies To be more precise, the majority of participants were likely to plan their learning, consider their learning process, keep track of their performance, and evaluate both the learning process and the results For instance, when being asked how to prepare to learn English effectively, S2 stated that she “always carefully sets out” what she will study in a given week and then “thoroughly evaluates” her learning process to see “what needs to be improved” Likewise, S4 and S5 believed that the awareness of the learning process enhances students‟ control over their own learning They went on explaining that students with metacognitive abilities can deal with “their learning and its execution through managing thoughts, assessing learning, and evaluating the time required for study through the use of appropriate strategies” Meanwhile, S10 endorsed the idea that Metacognitive strategies “enhance personal capacity for self-regulation” and “manage one‟s own motivation for learning”
However, many participants have not utilized the Affective strategies More specifically, the issue of students being afraid, ashamed, or embarrassed to talk in a foreign language is a frequent explanation from students Moreover, they do not frequently communicate to others about how they feel while learning English or record their feelings in a language learning diary More than half students agreed that “it is impossible to control their attitudes and emotions in language learning process” As S7 remarked that “students easily get nervous and lose their ability to handle emotions when performing in front of the crowd” S11 also added that writing emotions down in a language learning journal is useless because
“the original meaning is lost when translated”
To sum up, it can be seen that the overall mean score was 3.60, which indicates the students‟ frequent use of language learning strategies Furthermore, students used most of the language learning strategies at a high level, ranging from 3.40 to 3.77 This findings are consistent with those found in Kunasaraphan (2015), Nguyen & Terry (2017), Habok, & Magyar (2018), Hashim et al (2018) and Toomnan (2019) who also found out that learners frequently used language learning strategies According to Nguyen & Terry
(2017), university students have fully exploited language learning strategies to enhance their learning outcomes because the majority of students have gained opportunities to take LLS-related courses at lower educational levels, allowing them to take advantage of these strategies additionally In this study, Quy Nhon university‟s learners showed a hierarchy of language learning strategies use and were most likely to use the Metacognitive strategy, followed by Social, Memory, Cognitive, Compensation and, finally, Affective strategies Notably, the these findings are in line with other studies (Kunasaraphan, 2015; Rardprakhon, 2016; Nguyen & Terry, 2017; Habok, & Magyar, 2018; Hashim et al., 2018; Toomnan, 2019) which found that learners use a variety of strategies to acquire English based on various factors Their studies reveal the use of learning strategies among university learners varies, depending on individual differences and contextual factors
As for the use of the six language learning strategy sets, Metacognitive strategies were the EFL learners‟ first priority This result shows congruence with the outcome of the previous studies ( Kazamia (2003), Psaltou-Joycey
(2003), Vrettou (2009), and Sougari (2010), which is indicative of the fact that students are concerned with and conscious of their learning process In the same way, Yilmaz (2010) conducts a study investigate the current English language learning strategies employed by English majors enrolled at university in Turkey, in which the highest frequently used strategy resembled the one presented in the current study Due to the fact that the current study‟s participants are university students who have already become reasonably proficient in their second language Therefore, these findings are not surprising and they point to the fact that these participants successfully plan second language tasks, organize materials, detect their mistakes and manage the learning process
Regarding Affective strategies, the results correlate with the previous studies (Oxford, 1990; Bremner,1999; Wharton, 2000; Hong-Nam & Leavell,
2006) which found that Affective strategies are the least frequently used strategies by learners from different nationalities Learners, according to Krashen
(1982), require a low affective filter to assimilate input As a result, language learners should be aware of Affective strategies and utilize them if they are feeling anxious when learning a second language
To gain an insight into the language learning strategies use among the surveyed students, the descriptive statistics for each category, together with the qualitative data gained from the semi-structured interview These data are analyzed and discussed as followings:
Memory strategies used by the subjects are shown in Table 4.4
1 I think of the relationships between what I already know and new things I learn in English
2 I use new English words in a sentence so I can remember them
3 I connect the sound of a new English word and 3.69 1.013
Item no Statement M SD image or picture of the word to help me remember the word
4 I remember a new English word by making a mental picture of a situation in which the word might be used
5 I use rhymes to remember new English words 3.50 1.033
6 I use flashcards to remember new English words
7 I physically act out new English words 3.67 1.024
9 I remember the new words or phrases by remembering their location on the page, on the board, or on a street sign
There are nine items of the Memory strategies used to ask English majors‟ language learning strategies in learning English Table 4.4 indicated that EFL students‟ utilization of Memory strategies in learning English fell within the mean score of 3.37-3.76 Particularly, the strategy “I use new English words in a sentence so I can remember them” (item 2) was the most repeatedly used by them (M=3.76; SD=.994) Besides that, they also said that they always “connect the sound of a new English word and image or picture of the word” (item 3; M=3.69; SD=1.013) Meanwhile, the least frequently used was the strategy “remember the new words or phrases by remembering their location on the page, on the board, or on a street sign” (item 9), where its mean score and standard deviation carried only respectively 3.48 and 987
The remaining strategies of the Memory category were used at a high level
Data from the interviews generally aligned with quantitative findings One of the questions asked during the interviews was “How do you learn and memorize new words or vocabulary?” Concerning how to remember new
English words, eleven of twenty students highly appreciated the way of
“noting down the new vocabulary in the lesson or English movies and sticking them around the house” More specifically, S2 and S3 expressed that they often “use new words in the conversation” with their friends, so they can
“remember them better and longer” In the same vein, S6 commented that
“making connections between new vocabulary with the real subjects and situations is an effective approach to store them in the mind.” Therefore, these strategies are regarded as the best ways to enhance language knowledge as well as all language skills, e.g., listening, reading, speaking, and writing When being asked about the reason for the low use of some Memory strategies, the participants revealed that they seldom remembered the new words or phrases by remembering their location on the pages, on the board, or on street signs because of the following reasons
“It is not an effective way for me as I actually do not have a good memory to memorize where the new words on the pages” (S11)
“It seems me as an unusual way to learn new words because I have no idea how I will come across them on street signs” (S10)
Similarly, S8 expressed dissatisfaction with the strategy of remembering new words or phrases by “memorizing their location on the pages, on the board, or on a street sign”, explaining that she had forgotten all the new words that were written on the board by the time she got home
Most and least frequently used language learning strategies
4.3.1 Most frequently used language learning strategies
Table 4.10 The 3 most frequently used language learning strategies
Rank Items Strategies M SD Strategy
1 Item 30 I pay attention when someone is speaking English
2 Item 34 I try to find out how to be a better learner of English
3 Item 12 I practice the sounds of
Overall, it is observed from Table 4.10 that Metacognitive strategies are represented by two strategies in the top 3 used by EFL students at Quy Nhon university This was in conformity with the ranking for the strategy categories, where Metacognitive category had the highest mean The second group of strategy which is also represented in the top 3 is the Cognitive strategies with item 12 In particular, the number-one strategy was “paying attention when someone is speaking English” (item 30: M=3.95; SD=1.011);
“trying to find out how to be a better learner of English” (item 34: M=3.91;
SD=1.056) came next, followed by learning speaking by “practicing the sounds of English” (item 12: M=3.89; SD=.955)
The Metacognitive strategies of “paying attention when someone is speaking English” (item 30) and “trying to find out how to be a better learner of English” (item 34) were the most used ones having a very high mean score
(as also in Vrettou 2009) Clearly, the students are aware of the significance of attention and conscious planning on their learning progress That seems to be linked to the necessity of learning English and getting a language certificate Moreover, it probably has to do with our educational system where regular tests are given and students try to be better through grades in their regular school reports That may be the reasons why the Metacognitive strategies ranked the highest places on the list
The Cognitive strategy of “practicing the sounds of English” (item 12) was the third most used one with a high mean score as well, which have already been explicated regarding the importance of pronunciation in learning at Quy Nhon university It seems that EFL students acknowledged that intelligible pronunciation is a very essential component of communicative competence Thus, to succeed a pronunciation program, the students must set achievable goals of practicing the English sounds that are applicable and suitable for the communication needs
In nutshell, the top three strategies frequently used by EFL students at Quy Nhon university include “paying attention when someone is speaking in
English”, “finding out how to be a better learner of English”, and
“practicing the sound of English” This finding echoes the study of Hanania
& Smith (2010), who found that attention helps highlight the process of selecting task-relevant information and minimize irrelevant information Hence, the vast majority of English majors paid a lot of attention to look for opportunities to enrich the vocabulary and improve pronunciation and become better language learners
4.3.2 Most frequently used language learning strategies
Table 4.11 The 3 least used language learning strategies
Rank Items Strategies M SD Strategy
1 Item 43 I write down my feelings in a language learning dairy
2 Item 28 I read English without looking up every new word
3 Item 15 In English class, I start conversations in the English
As illustrated in Table 4.11, the Affective, Compensation and Cognitive strategies were chosen by the smallest number of students More specifically, the strategy of “write down my feelings in a language learning dairy” ranked first in terms of least strategy use (item 43: M=2.99; SD=1.182), making it slightly less frequent than “read English without looking up every new word” (item 28: M=3.18; SD=.996), and “starting conversations in the English”
The Affective strategy of “writing down one‟s feelings in a language learning diary” (item 43) is not common to EFL teaching or learning either
According to Shin (2006) and Tangpermpoon (2008), writing is the most difficult skill for developing learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) or ESL because of being out of practice or inconsistent with their writing schedule In particular, writing in English is known as the most challenging skill for students at Quy Nhon university The majority of them supposed that writing in a language learning diary can prove to be time-consuming losing in popularity among the learners
The Compensation strategy of “read English without looking up every new word” (item 28) occupied the second in terms of least strategy use Such result was consistent with Yang (2009), who discovered that it‟s perfectly normal to look up the meaning of words you do not know to have a larger vocabulary and a command of the English language In fact, many English majors at Quy Nhon university have the habit of looking up to comprehend every single new word in the reading passages Hence, keeping a dictionary of all new words will give them the confidence to learn even more words, especially when they can see how many new words they've already learnt
The third least used Cognitive strategy was “starting conversations in the English in class” According to Zhang (2009), speaking remains the most difficult skill to master for the majority of English learners, and they are still incompetent in communicating orally in English In terms of Quy Nhon university‟s context, the factors that made students not to speak English conversation were lack of preparation, fear of making mistakes, fear of being laughed by friends when standing in front of people However, speaking practice absolutely helps students learn useful language for communication, which should be appreciated by EFL students Therefore, teachers should teach students how to build confidence, develop their fluency and provide more opportunities in the classroom for their English practice
To sum up, the EFL students sometimes “wrote down their daily experiences in a diary”, “read English without looking up every new word”, and “started conversations in English class” Despite the benefits of free speaking and writing activities, these activities were not viewed as the favorite strategies among Vietnamese university students In fact, the low frequency in writing English of EFL learners may be attributed to the insufficient practice of writing activities in English classes.
Chapter Summary
This chapter has attempted to present the quantitative and qualitative results and findings of this research As mentioned earlier in the thesis, the first two main aims of this research were to investigate the language learning strategies and to categorize the most and least common language learning strategies used by a group of EFL learners at Quy Nhon university
Analysis of these data revealed that the six language learning strategies were used by all of the students at a high level Specifically, Metacognitive strategies were used the most frequently, followed by Social, Memory, Cognitive, Compensation and Affective strategies, respectively With respect to individual strategies, item 30 “I pay attention when someone is speaking English”, item 34 “I try to find out how to be a better learner of English” and item 12 “I practice the sounds of English” were the highest frequently used strategies On the other hand, item 43 “I write down my feelings in a language learning dairy”, item 28 “I read English without looking up every new word” and item 15 “In English class, I start conversations in the English” were the least frequently used strategies showing significant difference with a large number of other strategies.