A study of the effects of teaching grammar in ngo may secondary school based on deductive approach versus inductive approach = nghiên cứu về hiệu quả của việc sử dụng phương pháp diễn dịch và phương pháp quy nạp trong việ

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING QUY NHON UNIVERSITY NGUYEN VO BICH THUY A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR IN NGO MAY SECONDARY SCHOOL BASED ON DEDUCTIVE APPROACH VERSUS I

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

QUY NHON UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN VO BICH THUY

A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR IN NGO MAY SECONDARY SCHOOL

BASED ON DEDUCTIVE APPROACH

VERSUS INDUCTIVE APPROACH

Field: Theory and Methodology of English Language Teaching

Code: 8140111

Supervisor: Truong Van Dinh, Ph.D

BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC QUY NHƠN

NGUYEN VO BICH THUY

NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ HIỆU QUẢ CỦA VIỆC SỬ DỤNG

TRONG VIỆC GIẢNG DẠY NGỮ PHÁP TẠI

Binh Dinh, August 2022

Nguyen Vo Bich Thuy

First and foremost, I am grateful to my supervisor, Ph.D Truong Van Dinh, for his amazing supervision His knowledge and profession teaching-related expertise inspired me greatly during my studying at Quy Nhon University, and he opened new horizons for me in every field I profoundly appreciate his accommodating guidelines and suggestions, great patience, and strong management skills in helping me resolve the obstacles whenever I had difficulties in my thesis I am very lucky to have had him support me for my work

This study was made achievable by the presence of the enthusiastic students at Ngo May Secondary School in Quy Nhon City, who devoted their time taking part in this study I was also thankful to my colleagues for their fascinating assistance, encouragement and management during this phase I feel fortunate to know all of them

Last but not least, I am grateful to all the support that I received from

my beloved parents throughout my thesis education

The research method used in this research was a quantitative method using quasi-experimental design The data was collected through pre-test and post-test After a careful long time of collecting and analyzing the data, it is revealed in the research that the students’ performances in deductive class is better than the inductive one despite the students’ improvement of grammar retention Additionally, through the different instruments such as questionnaires for students, class observation the underlying reasons for the above problems have been revealed Last but not least, the researcher also offers some pedagogical suggestions that emerged from the research findings with the hope to bring about some changes and progresses in English grammar teaching for the sake of effective grammar learning on the students’ learning process

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATION x

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Aim and Objectives 5

1.2.1 Aim of the Study 5

1.2.2 Objectives of the Study 5

1.3 Research Questions 5

1.4 Scope of the Study 5

1.5 Significance of the Study 6

1.6 Structure of the Thesis 6

CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW 8 2.1 Importance of Grammar in Teaching Foreign Languages 8

2.1.1 Definition of Grammar 8

2.1.2 Types of Grammar 11

2.2 Theories of Language Learning 15

2.2.1 Krashen’s viewpoint regarding the role of grammar 18

2.2.2 Monitor Hypothesis 19

2.2.3 Role of grammar in EFL contexts 20

2.3 Approaches to Grammar Teaching 21

2.3.1 Learning Grammar 21

2.3.2 Two main approaches to Grammar Teaching 21

2.3.3 Previous studies on Deductive versus Inductive Grammar Learning 28

2.3.4 Researches into effectiveness of Inductive and Deductive teaching 33

2.4 The knowledge gap in the literature 34

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 36

3.1 Research Design 36

3.2 Variables 37

3.3 Research Entrance Test 38

3.4 Research Setting and Participants 39

3.4.1 Research Setting 39

3.4.2 Participants 39

3.5 Quasi-experiment 40

3.6 Research Instruments 41

3.6.1 Pre-post test 41

3.6.2 Questionnaire 45

3.7 Procedures of the Study 46

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 49

4.1 Description of Data 49

4.2 Pre-post-tests 49

4.2.1 Pre-test Scores 50

4.2.2 Treatment 58

4.2.3 Post-test Scores 60

4.3 Effective Approach in Teaching Grammar 67

4.4 Results of questionnaire 71

4.4.1 Learning the grammatical rules helps me produce grammatically correct sentences 73

4.4.2 I believe that I can improve my grammatical accuracy through practice of grammatical structures 74

4.4.3 Sometimes I have difficulties in producing language in a natural conversation because I focus largely on correct use of grammar 76

4.4.4 I need to know the structural pattern and its function before I can use it proficiently 77

4.4.5 I expect my teacher to present and explain grammatical points 79

4.4.6 Learning grammatical rules is very useful for me 80

4.4.7 I feel insecure when the teacher does not explain the grammatical rules81

4.5 Conclusion 82

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS 84

5.1 Summary of the Study 84

5.2 Significance of the findings 88

5.3 Teaching implications 89

5.3.1 Implication for EFL teachers 89

5.3.2 Implication for different types of learners 90

5.4 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research 90

5.4.1 Limitations of Deductive Approach 91

5.4.2 Limitations of Inductive Approach 91

5.4.3 Suggestions for further research 91

REFERENCES 93 APPENDICES

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Deductive Approach

(Widodo, 2006) 24

Table 2.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Inductive Approach (Widodo, 2006) 26

Table 2.3 The relationship between two types of grammar instruction (Krashen, 1993) 19

Table 3.1 Means of classes in Ngo May Secondary School 38

Table 3.2 Number of participants 40

Table 3.3 The Reliability of the Pre-post Tests 44

Table 3.4 The Reliability of Questionnaire 46

Table 3.5 Conversion of the Actual Score into a Five Scale Score 48

Table 4.1 Group statistics of pre-test results of Experimental and Control Group 51

Table 4.2 Difference of Level between Inductive class and Deductive class before Intervention 53

Table 4.3 Group statistics of pre-test results of Experimental Group 53

Table 4.4 Independent samples T-test of the Inductive and Deductive Classes before the treatment 54

Table 4.5 The percentage of frequency Pre-test score of Deductive class 55

Table 4.6 The percentage of frequency Pre-test score of Inductive class 56

Table 4.7 The percentage of frequency Pre-test score of Control Group 57

Table 4.8 Group statistics of Post-test result of Experimental and Control Group 61

Table 4.9 Group statistics of Post-test result of Experimental Group 62

Table 4.10 Independent samples T-test of the Inductive and Deductive Classes after the treatment 63

Table 4.11 The percentage of frequency Post-test score of Deductive class 64

Table 4.12 The percentage of frequency Post-test score of Inductive class 65 Table 4.13 The percentage of frequency Post-test score of Control Group 66 Table 4.14 Descriptive statistics of Post-test in Control Group and

Experimental Group 67 Table 4.15 The comparison of mean of Pre-test and Post-test in Control Group

and Experimental Group 68 Table 4.16 Descriptive statistics of Post-test in Inductive Class and Deductive

Class 69 Table 4.17 The comparison of mean of Pre-test and Post-test in Experimental

Group 69 Table 4.18 The reliability statistics of Questionnaire 72 Table 4.19 Learning the grammatical rules helps me produce grammatically

correct sentences 74 Table 4.20 I believe that I can improve my grammatical accuracy

through practice of grammatical structures 75 Table 4.21 Sometimes I have difficulties in producing language in a natural

conversation because I focus largely on correct use of grammar 77 Table 4.22 I need to know the structural pattern and its function

before I can use it proficiently 78 Table 4.23 I expect my teacher to present and explain grammatical points 79 Table 4.24 Learning grammatical rules is very useful for me 81 Table 4.25 I feel insecure when the teacher does not explain the grammatical

rules 82

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Dirven’s distinction between pedagogical and descriptive grammar 14

Figure 2.2 The system of Interlanguage (Lary Selinker, 1972) 17

Figure 4.1 Histogram of Control Pre-test Score 52

Figure 4.2 Histogram of Experimental Pre-test Score 52

Figure 4.3 Frequency Distribution Pre-test Score of Deductive Class 55

Figure 4.4 Frequency Distribution Pre-test Score of Inductive class 56

Figure 4.5 Frequency Distribution Pre-test Score of Control Group 57

Figure 4.6 Inductive Approach of rules 59

Figure 4.7 Deductive approach of rules 60

Figure 4.8 Histogram of Control Post-test Score 61

Figure 4.9 Histogram of Experimental Post-test Score 63

Figure 4.10 Frequency Distribution Post-test score of Deductive Class 65

Figure 4.11 Frequency Distribution Post-test score of Inductive Class 66

Figure 4.12 Frequency Distribution Post-test score of Control Group 67

Figure 4.13 Gender 71

Figure 4.14 Learning the grammatical rules helps me produce grammatically correct sentences 73

Figure 4.15 I believe that I can improve my grammatical accuracy through practice of grammatical structures 74

Figure 4.16 Sometimes I have difficulties in producing language in a natural conversation because I focus largely on correct use of grammar 76

Figure 4.17 I need to know the structural pattern and its function before I can use it proficiently 77

Figure 4.18 I expect my teacher to present and explain grammatical points 79

Figure 4.19 Learning grammatical rules is very useful for me 80

Figure 4.20 I feel insecure when the teacher does not explain the grammatical rules 81

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

EFL : English as Foreign Language

FOF : Focus on Form

BAAL : The British Association for Applied Linguistics

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1 introduces the rationale underlying this current study The chapter includes six main parts: the Rationale, the Aims and the Objectives of the Study, Research Questions, the Scope of the Study, the Significance of the Study, and the Organization of the Study

as possible since their brain is ready for learning and most of them have abilities

to memorize well from a very early age

Throughout the history of second language and foreign language, both grammar and grammar teaching have always been at the center of methodological discussion in teaching English Many scholars have been conducting their research on the importance of the teaching and learning of grammar Most of them share the view that the role of grammar and teaching grammar are essential parts in language learning Brown (1994) stated that the teaching of grammar besides vocabularies should be a central aspect of foreign language teaching

With the rise of communicative methodology in the late 1970s, the role

of grammar instruction was restrained, and it was even believed that teaching grammar was not only helpless but also detrimental Nonetheless, recent research has demonstrated the need for formal instructions for learners to

achieve high levels of accuracy, which is one important constituent of language proficiency

Additionally, it is necessary for students to learn grammar so that they can understand English as a second language According to Widodo (2006), grammar has its own superiority in language learning, especially in English as

a foreign language Having good knowledge of grammar is important in order

to have the ability to communicate successfully In other words, improper use

of grammar will not convey meaningful messages

These days, when learners study a new language like English, the foremost spoken language for non-native speakers around the world, it is essential for them to consider it as the most international language since it is the language of education, technology, science, and other fields While in the process of acquiring the native language, people intuitively adopt the descriptive linguistics of the language through daily conversations, target language learners have to make much efforts to master the grammatical aspects of the language Also, it is the fact that classroom instruction in grammar might have an influence on the second language competence Brown (1994) lays an emphasis on the teaching of grammar beside vocabulary as a crucial aspect of foreign language teaching, notably on English It is also one

of the most difficult and contentious sides of language teaching Thus, many works have been done on the importance and requisite of the teaching and learning of grammar

Most recent papers have demonstrated the necessity of formal instructions for learners to accomplish high levels of accuracy, which is one

of the necessary factors which lead to language acquisition This has led to the resurrection of teaching grammar, in order that its role in second or foreign language learning has become the center of attention in several current studies Therefore, the approaches used to teach grammar turn out to be more arguable

and debatable Morelli (2003) discovers that “Grammar can be taught traditionally or contextually, but students’ perception should be considered by teachers in the decision-making process” (p.72) Ur (2012) emphasizes that

“Grammar does not only affect how units of language are combined in order

to ‘look right’; it also affects their meaning” Although some language

scholars believe that for foreign language learners, meaning should be more emphasized than the form and instructors should teach only vocabulary in order to convey meaning and for communication, others suppose that being proficient at the grammatical structures of a specific language is imperative because grammatical competence is widely acknowledged equal to being fluent in communicative skills Needless to say, grammar provides learners with a pathway to explain how lexical items are combined together, so that meaningful utterances can be formed

In the case of grammar, apparently, different teachers might have appropriate methods for teaching grammar based on their experience Some can conduct it inductively whereas others do it deductively Ellis (2006) states that:

Grammar teaching involves any instructional technique that draws learners’ attention to some specific grammatical form in such a way that it helps them either to understand it meta linguistically and/ or process it in comprehension and/ or production so that they can internalize it (p.84)

Teaching English to Secondary School students is not the same as teaching English at higher level They still prefer playing to paying serious attention to their studying Educating children is different from teaching adults as they have different characteristics and different motivations

According to Harmer (2007), he says that young children especially those up to the ages of thirteen or fourteen, learn differently from older

children, adolescent and adults 1 A teacher plays a significant role because it

is important for him/ her to give a very basic introduction to the students of the first foreign language Consequently, in order to make English teaching be successful, we have to consider some factors such as the quality of teacher, students’ interest and their motivation, the materials used and the others All

of them are engaged in a teaching and learning process

Nevertheless, it can be seen that English in both teaching and learning has traditionally been dominated by a Grammar – Translation method Though, very little research has been conducted with regard to teachers’ observation and actual practices regarding grammar, especially at the secondary or high schools where English is one of the compulsory subjects and grammar is a must in language classrooms Hence, it comes to be an indispensable issue to do research Besides, these two Inductive and Deductive approaches seem to be more associated with the communicative approach, which has currently been advocated in Vietnam

What’s more, there has been an absence of studies of the attitudes’ learners from secondary school towards English grammar instruction, and there is no paper conducted on this issue in Ngo May Secondary School Owing to these reasons, the author has decided to conduct this paper research

“A Study of the Effects of Teaching Grammar based on Deductive Approach versus Inductive Approach” This will make contributions to

investigating the effect of using two approaches, inductive and deductive, on students’ performance in grammar and their attitudes towards teaching English as a foreign language, which means a comparison of these two ways will be mainly conducted based on effectiveness of students’ fluency

1

Harmer, J 2004 The practice of English language teaching Essex: Longman Press (p.82)

1.2 Aim and Objectives

1.2.1 Aim of the Study

This study was carried out

+ to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching grammar with modified inductive approach in comparison with the traditional, deductive one

1.2.2 Objectives of the Study

In order to achieve this aim, the author tries to fulfill the following objectives:

+ to investigate the current state of teaching grammar to students at secondary school students

+ to explore the effects of teaching grammar to secondary school students with two approaches

+ to examine the effectiveness of teaching grammar to secondary school students with deductive and inductive approach

1.3 Research Questions

The study tries to answer these following questions

1 To what extent are the effects of teaching grammar to secondary school students with deductive approach (DA)?

2 To what extent are the effects of teaching grammar to secondary school students with inductive approach (IA)?

3 How do secondary school students perceive their learning of English grammar through the use of inductive and deductive approaches?

1.4 Scope of the Study

The study focuses only on identifying the effectiveness of the two methods, deductive and inductive of teaching grammar and does not deal with the two following aspects:

Firstly, the researcher observed and evaluated only a number of lessons such as tense, conditional sentences, countable and uncountable nouns and

articles due to the big scale of grammatical structures that this research initially proposed to implement It was not possible to cover all the grammatical structures within four weeks as students needs to develop all skills for their coming exam As a result, the grammatical structures which were selected to be taught mainly related to grammar tenses, conditional sentences followed by articles

Secondly, the author is fully aware that the following parameters such

as age, sex and attitude are important because they affect students’ learning capabilities, but due to the limited time and research competence, they are beyond the scope of this study

1.5 Significance of the Study

Theoretically, this study highlights the necessity of implementing Deductive and Inductive approaches to teaching at school and contributes to the perfection of the study of the methods of teaching a specific area of language teaching

Practically, this study states a comprehensive point of view about the Deductive and Inductive Approaches to teaching grammar so that teachers can manipulate the two approaches in their teaching of grammar In addition

to this, students can learn English grammar with the two different approaches more effectively

1.6 Structure of the Thesis

The thesis consists of five chapters:

The first chapter, Introduction, consisting of rationale, aims, objectives,

significance and organization of the study, introduces the reason for choosing this research and provides readers with an overall look on the study Then it presents the purpose and the significance of the study Finally, it describes the organization of the study

The second chapter, Theoretical Background and Literature Review,

briefly presents the previous studies on Grammar, and two teaching methods that have been conducted by other researchers

The third chapter, Methodology and Procedures, handles the aims of

the study, research design, research method as well as research questions Firstly, it presents the research questions and the hypotheses of the present study Secondly, it describes the research design and the participants of the study Thirdly, it introduces the research instruments used to collect data for the study and the materials used for the intervention in detail Lastly, this chapter will come to an end with the procedure to conduct the study and the methods of data analysis

The fourth chapter, Findings and Discussion, presents the findings

based on the results of the data analysis First of all, the reliability of the instruments is introduced Next, the reliability of the sample is shown Then, the results collected from the tests will be analyzed Finally, the data of the face-to-face semi-structured interviews will be analyzed in order to give more explanations for the findings of the study

The last chapter, Conclusions, summarizes the conclusions drawn from

the study of the effects of teaching grammar based on Deductive Approach versus Inductive Approach

CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND

LITERATURE REVIEW

The purpose of this study is to examine the effectiveness of using Deductive and Inductive approaches to teach grammar It reviews the literature knowledge related to previous studies on using two methods in assessing language learning

2.1 Importance of Grammar in Teaching Foreign Languages

2.1.1 Definition of Grammar

Learners might face a number of problems when they learn a language For instance, they commonly have to deal with the complicated rules of the language or the inappropriate performance of strategies from their schools Specifically, they often do not know what to pay attention to; therefore, there might be a tendency that the discrepancy frequently occurs between students and their teachers on the use of Grammar resulting in negative effects One of the first people who did research on Grammar-based teaching, Krashen (1981) points out that:

Grammar instruction played no role in acquisition, a view based on the conviction that learners (including classroom learners) would automatically proceed along their built-in syllabus as long as they had access to comprehensible input and were sufficiently motivated Grammar instruction could contribute to learning but this was of limited value because communicative ability was dependent on acquisition (p.85)

Sharing this view, Harmer (1987) adds:

Without some understanding of grammar, students would not be able to

do anything more than utter separate items of language for separate functions The expression of functional language is only possible

through the use of the Grammar of the language (p.12)

The term “grammar” has continually been a controversial subject of research due to the fact that it helps students understand how the language works in every utterance It has been placed in a central position in the context of language teaching and the concept of grammar has been variously defined from the original viewpoints to the current perspectives Despite its common usage, there are multiple definitions of Grammar with the corresponding scholars At the end of the 20th century, Harmer (1987)

presents the expression of Grammar in numerous languages “The grammar of

a language is what happens to words when they become plural or negative, or what word order is used when we make questions or join two clauses to make one sentence” (p.1)

Also, according to a definition provided by Thornbury (1999), grammar

is partly the study of what forms (or structures) are possible in a language Thus, grammar is a description of the rules that govern how a language’s sentences are formed (p.1)

Apart from vocabulary, students ought to know grammar and deeply understand how a set of rules is used to change word forms, then connected together to make the proper meaning Some scholars believe that focusing on form combined with a communicative language classroom is a more effective technique for teaching grammar than focusing on an isolated structure or purely on communication (Schmidt, 1990; Fotos & Ellis, 1991) According to Huang (2005), teaching English grammar as a Foreign Language class will make a great contribution, mainly in terms of enabling students to achieve linguistic proficiency This can be interpreted that learners speaking foreign languages without grammar or with limited knowledge of grammar may easily get confused with complicated expressions Moreover, in spite of being one of significant and inevitable factors in developing the language outcomes

of learners, a number of students purely know English without being able to make use of grammar appropriately, especially in expressing their own thoughts or feelings Hence, the grammatical understanding of grammar finally will affect the ability of students in having a decent and comprehensive communication

Harmer (1987) holds the view that,

Without some understanding of Grammar, students would not be able

to do anything more than utter separate items of language for separate functions The expression of functional language is only possible through the use of the Grammar of the language (p.12)

Besides, Crystal (2004) highlights the significance of profound comprehension towards grammatical rule

Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves The more we are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way we and others use language It can help foster precision, detect ambiguity, and exploit the richness of expression available in English Additionally, it can help everyone, not only teachers of English, but teachers of anything for all teaching grammar is ultimately a matter of getting to grips with meaning (p.223)

According to Larsen-Freeman (2009:518), he represents that the definition of grammar when associated with language learning has some meanings They are:

a mental systems that generate and interpret novel utterances

b a set of prescription and proscription about language forms and their use for a particular language

c description of language behavior by proficient users of a language

d the focus of a given linguistic theory

e a work that treats a major structures of a language

f structures and rules that are compiled for instructional and assessment purposes

g structures and rules that are compiled for instructional purposes of the teacher

From the definition described above, a conclusion can be concluded that grammar has always been the elements of a language and the rules of how to arrange these elements into a meaningful sentence That is to say, grammar teaching helps learners rapidly recognize language patterns or structures so that they can use them in their speaking, reading, listening and writing skills In addition, it enhances the development of accuracy and improves learners’ possibility in the process of language acquisition In other words, it can be inferred that having a transparent perception of grammar is like having a key to be proficient in linguistic success Additionally, Widodo (2006) emphasizes the importance of both teaching and learning grammar that grammar gains its prominence in language teaching, particularly in English as

a foreign language (EFL) and English as a second language (ESL), as much as without a good knowledge of grammar, learner’s language development will

be severely constrained (p.122)

2.1.2 Types of Grammar

One way to distinguish between types of grammar is to pay attention to their distinct characteristics which are taught in the classrooms This helps linguists clarify many discrepancies or names in terms of identifying the type

of grammar Also, Langacker (1987) proposed a different type of grammar called cognitive grammar which hypotheses that the grammar of a language is

an essential role of human cognition and not a separate process that operates independently of meaning Those types of grammar will be discussed in the groups of prescriptive, descriptive, pedagogical and cognitive grammar since

the researcher does believe those should be in academic settings In this study, the author will adopt an “extended” definition of grammar that Brown (2007) states that “Grammar is the system of rules governing the conventional arrangement and relationship of words in a sentence”

2.1.2.1 Descriptive Grammar

According to Hinkel (2018), descriptive grammar refers to how the set

of linguistic rules of a particular language is used by its native speakers in everyday use consisting of standard and non-standard varies It is based on a non-judgemental construction of grammar and does not deal with what is correct or incorrect in language use Certain forms and linguistic constructions might not be considered defensible in the language use Descriptive language focuses on how language works and is spoken by people

in various contexts and for specific purposes without being critical regarding correctness (Nunan, 2005) Besides, Hinkel (2018) declares that descriptive grammar shows the way a language is used and understood which is somehow determined by social-cultural variables referring to the use of cultural descrimination, how learners communicate with native speakers or how familiar they are with the educational system It also implies the importance

of how language is a living phenomenon and thus undergoes change This signifies that grammatical rules change continuously according to the daily usage by its native speakers

2.1.2.2 Prescriptive Grammar

Descriptive grammar refers to the contradiction between the correct and incorrect use of language, and the principal focus is on standard and linguistic forms and constructions (Hinkel, 2018) Nevertheless, nature speakers still use their forms on a daily basis in various ways It is claimed that prescriptive grammar is a “manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language” (Crystal,

2006) Besides, Hudson (1980) states that the dichotomy not only leads to different types of grammar but causes a social division by associating prestige with people who are able to use grammar flawlessly as well Additionally, prescriptive grammar tends to be used for teaching non-native speakers who are not influenced by linguistic forms and constructions (Birch, 2005) Teaching a language needs to address major rules and types to help learners become aware of the language used in every field such as education, profession or other social settings Also, the use of prescriptive grammar in teaching English is a foremost characteristic in academic contexts and is in consistent with the deductive grammar instruction that learners need to develop their grammatical knowledge so that they can comprehend how the meaning and the construction of sentences are able to be affected by the use

of grammatical rules

2.1.2.3 Pedagogical Grammar

Pedagogical grammar, Newby (2015) defined it as a selection of grammatical descriptions, exercises and resources to facilitate the learning process; therefore, it embraces the grammatical descriptions as well as the methodological methods that are used so as to simplify the process of learning

by the participation of both students and teachers The main focus of pedagogical grammar is the use of the foreign language that is necessary for communication with the people in the linguistics centers Furthermore, Allen (1973) characterized pedagogical grammar as an informal framework of descriptions, activities , materials and spoken rules which may help the learner’s acquisition of the targeted language and their fluency In addition to this, as stated by Odlin (1994), pedagogical grammar also signifies the types

of grammatical analysis and the instructions that cater to the needs of the students According to Little (1994), it refers to pedagogical content and process or a mixture of both More specifically, while the former is related to

the description of the language system through the use of various reference sources, the latter is associated with the pedagogical treatment of the language, aiming at facilitating the learners’ linguistic development

Moreover, Dirven (1990) classifies the differences between pedagogical and descriptive grammar in the following diagram

of methodology There are some aspects which are part of the combination of both descriptive and pedagogical grammar Though, the former distinguishes from the latter in terms of “the degree of technicality, the scope, selection, sequencing, presentation of material and the relevance to teaching and learning” (Derewianka, 2001) Hence, in this research, the significance of the pedagogical grammar on the instruction will be linked with the secondary school students who are in need of developing the complete understanding of grammar Having briefly described the definition of grammar as well as the explanation of different types of grammar rules, the following section will discuss the significance of cognitive grammar and how it can be applied in pedagogical grammar

2.1.2.4 Cognitive Grammar

Cognitive grammar is associated with cognitive linguistics which is an alternative model developed by Ronald Langacker (2008), who argue that cognitive grammar can provide a more accurate and sophisticated interpretation of grammatical structures In accordance with Evans (2007), cognitive grammar is primarily concerned with the modeling of a language system referring to the mental grammar which enables students to understand, produce sentences and communicate with other people Cognitive linguists state that language acquisition can be explained in terms of constructions being derived implicitly from exposure to language owing to the brain ability

to recognise the patterns (Lakoff, 1987) Besides, these constructions that are inductively derived are exactly the same as those that are illustrated by any grammar system Pattern recognition is a case of inductive learning and depends on having a wealthy linguistic environment

2.2 Theories of Language Learning

Many researchers have argued for and against the effectiveness of various teaching approaches over the last few decades Rod Ellis (2007) believed that it was counterintuitive to deny that instruction can assist learners

to acquire a second language as it is contrary to the personal experience of countless teachers and students (Green & Hecht, 1992, p 168) Similarly, Herron and Tomasello (1992) stated that researchers were confirming what a majority of language teachers had had confidence in for many years – that formal instruction is beneficial when trying to learn certain grammatical structures Green and Hecht (1992), Shaffer (1989), as well as Krashen (1982, 1980), Dulay and Burt (1982, 1973) all asserted that direct teaching has little influence on the learner’s built-in syllabus Sascha W Felix (1987), as referenced and translated by Green and Hecht (1992), even went as far as to argue that “Languages can certainly be learnt, but they cannot, strictly

speaking, be taught” (p.168)

Deductive approach is one of the most common approaches that is used for teaching grammar It is considered to be called rule-driven learning Relating to teaching grammar, the deductive approach allows learners to understand the contents they are provided by teaching grammatical rules and then presenting the examples of sentences Thornbury (1999), however, admits that the deductive approach has both benefits and drawbacks The deductive method gets to the point quickly, yet it might be confusing for students In this research, the researcher taught tense by employing deductive approach for one classroom The goal is that the students will acquire and master the grammar tense

This thesis deals with the students of the secondary school students in ninth grade The students in this grade are introduced to an English grammar lesson During the time they have learned at school, they have learned about many tenses The use of certain approaches to teach grammar at this level might somehow help them in mastering the intended lesson In this study, the researcher uses deductive approach and inductive approach so as to teach English grammar From the discussion in the previous part, the researcher comes to the conclusion that the implementation of deductive approaches is more useful to improve secondary school students’ grammar mastery compared to inductive one

The process of formation and testing was considered the first step in reconstructing interlanguage It is stated that interlanguage is systematic as learners rely on the grammatical rules they have already absorbed to formulate their utterances These might incorrectly from the native’s perspective, but are “grammatical” in the context that they adhere to the rules learners have internalized Exposure to the second language input can lead to the extraction of new forms and rules externally, while transferring data can

cause uninterrupted alterations to the system This would make it unstable compared to a continuum phenomenon Interlanguage is supposed to contain overlapping grammar in which old rules coexist with new and revised rules

The final stage of the process never leads to the complexity of native competence Lary Selinker (1972) illustrates the learner’s independent language or interlanguage through the following diagram:

Figure 2.2 The system of Interlanguage (Lary Selinker, 1972)

All learners have implicit as well as explicit knowledge The first thing

is concerned with language users’ unawareness of the foreign language which can be expressed whereas the second refers to language learners’ awareness

of the second language which can be verbalized on request These two concepts are connected to Krashen’s difference between acquisition and learning Despite being assumed by Krashen that the second language cannot become acquired, Ellis (1997) highlights the possible reality of a direct interface between the two systems In other words, he believes that explicit knowledge might convert into implicit knowledge considering the language learners’ development stages More specifically, explicit grammar instruction might be integrated with the learners’ implicit knowledge Thus, explicit knowledge might assist learners in the development of the phenomenon of interlanguage From the learners’ perspective, explicit knowledge can be received not only through explicit instruction but also through the use of consciousness raising activities

However, there are some obstacles such as the nature of the grammatical rules and the distinguishing stages of learners’ learning progress Explicit instruction can help in the process of acquiring a language but is not

sufficient The input could be based on input-flooding exercises which provide a plethora of examples of a particular linguistic form, word and utterance (Ellis, 1997) Input flooding will not lead to the fossilization of interlanguage grammars since learners are blasted explicitly with substantial examples of the target structures

2.2.1 Krashen’s viewpoint regarding the role of grammar

Language teaching is not about teaching complicated structures of the foreign language such as formulating rules but rather “language appreciation”

or linguistics (Krashen, 1985) Furthermore, teaching grammar can result in language acquisition when the students are highly motivated in learning a new language and the target language is used as a medium of instruction When this happens, teachers and their students believe that learning and presenting formal grammar and rules is important to comprehend That is, the requirements for comprehensible input are met by the instructors’ guidance as well as the learners’ participation which creates a suitable setting for acquiring a language In addition to this, Krashen (1985) recognises that this

is a crucial viewpoint; the teachers and students are both descriptive as they both believe that the study of grammar determines the language learners’ progress

Grammar teaching can be utilized to introduce linguistics by analyzing grammar constructions in not only English but also other languages with the intention of understanding the notion of linguistic universal principles Despite stating that the learned knowledge cannot become acquired (Krashen, 1985), Ellis (2002) highlights the possible existence of an interface between acquisition and learning He claims that explicit knowledge might change to implicit considering the learners’ development stage To be more specific, explicit grammar instruction might be incorporated with the implicit knowledge As a consequence, explicit knowledge might assist language users in the development

of the phenomenon of interlanguage From the learner’s perspective, explicit knowledge can be received through explicit instruction and the use of consciousness-raising activities It can be considered as a type of form-focused instruction designed to help language users become intentionally aware of various linguistic forms (Ellis, 2002) Accordingly, he also contends that direct instruction can help in improving language accuracy as well as facilitating the development of interlanguage Nonetheless, there are some impediments such as the nature of grammatical structures and the different stages of learners’ learning progress Explicit instruction can help in the process of acquiring a language but can not afford on its own The input could be based on input-flooding tasks which provide a plethora of instances of a particular linguistic form, word or utterance (Ellis, 2002) Input-flooding will not lead to the fossilization of interlanguage grammar since language users are bombarded explicitly with substantial examples of the targeted forms

Table 2.1 The relationship between two types of grammar instruction

Know about the rules “Pick up” the rule

The rule is learned consciously The rule is learned subconsciously The rule is learned explicitly The rule is learned implicitly

2.2.2 Monitor Hypothesis

The Monitor Hypothesis believes that the learned system functions as a monitor by planning, and correcting the utterances during the production Krashen (1982) claims that so as to initiate the monitor system, three conditions are required that is time, knowledge and form of the grammatical

rule Therefore, time in the classroom should be spent but not on developing learned knowledge (VaPattern & William, 2015) However, additional justification and suggestions on how acquired knowledge can be achieved in the classes need to be provided Furthermore, this hypothesis enables students

to modify the form of a word or utterance prior to production In addition to this, Krashen also agrees that only “simple rules” could permit the use of a monitor, dealing with more complex grammatical properties, the monitor could whether be used or not

Krashen (2003) further differentiates between three types of learners: the optimal monitor users, the monitor under-users and the monitor over-users Assessing an individual’s psychological profile can define the type of language learner they are In general, under-users are learners with an extrovert personality while over-users are those with an introvert personality that often indicate a lack of self-confidence

2.2.3 Role of grammar in EFL contexts

English as a Foreign Language, or EFL, refers to learning and using English as a foreign language in a country where English is not considered as

a native language In other words, it refers to learning English with the aim of facilitating learners’ study in that language EFL classrooms are delivered in

an “emergent language” where teaching emerges from students’ thoughts, ideas, and opinions consisting of grammar and vocabulary arising from the context The teachers’ aim is to make all learners comprehend the language use so that they can interact and communicate among themselves Brown (2001) also claims that topics related to culture can be taught in an EFL classroom, including verbal and non-verbal communication Besides, EFL lessons usually have a beginning, middle and finish following the presentation-practice-production model (PPP) based on learning objectives With reference to grammar, EFL is primarily about spoken and dialogic

language (for which written sentence grammar is not specifically relevant)

2.3 Approaches to Grammar Teaching

2.3.1 Learning Grammar

Grammar is considered as one of the must-learn language aspects Therefore, if someone wants to learn a new foreign language, they will generally be given grammar lessons This depends on the level of the students who are learning the target language In terms of the research on language acquisition which includes a focus on learning grammar (form-focused instruction), grammar teaching convincingly shows more practical results than teaching focusing merely on the meaning Nassaji and Fotos (2007) states that learning grammar can be divided in two models: FOFs (focus on forms) and FOF (focus on form) The former focuses on studying grammar which is taught separately from the context Whereas, the latter focuses on the meaning and on the grammar that appears on the material being studied

Moreover, according to Harmer (2007), in the learning of grammar, there are two common approaches contrasted: deductive and inductive approaches In the deductive approach, students will be given an explanation

or grammar formulas from the teacher Based on that explanation, students then create a phrase or sentence in the language they have learned On the contrary, the inductive approach is the opposite of the deductive approach To

be more specific, on learning grammar with an inductive approach students do not learn the formula used but students are given examples of sentences first From these examples given by the instructor, students will themselve try to figure out the formulas of the sentences

2.3.2 Two main approaches to Grammar Teaching

In accordance with the aforesaid thesis, there are many various concepts about teaching English Grammar However, there has been a transformation in the preceding teaching classroom methods that mainly paid

attention to the forms More specifically, for instance, in the Grammar – Translation Method or Audio Language Method, the patterns are not chiefly emphasized in such previous teaching approaches, it has gradually changed to functional language communicative contexts This is in line with what Huang (2010) states that grammar instruction has moved from its central position in traditional language teaching approaches to playing virtually no role in communicative approaches (p 29)

Consequently, teachers have applied varied approaches to teach grammar so that students can absorb these rules and exceptions better and can use them efficiently in everyday conversations Ellis (2006) stresses finding

an appropriate method for the lecturers to educate their students has been a subject of debate Also, students can achieve their best performance by applying their techniques for studying Larsen-Freeman (2015) investigates

Whether students learn language rules best by giving them information deductively or by reading textbooks, or if students are better off being given examples from which they find out the rules inductively by themselves One learning approach would favor induction, with the added benefit that students learn how to figure out the rules on their own (p.97)

The two instructional approaches for teaching grammar mentioned in this paper are Inductive and Deductive In simple words, a deductive approach is a technique that works from general to the specific while an inductive approach is a technique that works from specific to general

On one hand, Thornbury (1999) thinks that students will save their time and get straight to the main point in the deductive classroom However, he also reckons that it is not a good idea if the teacher teaches grammar rules by starting the lesson with a grammar presentation, especially for young learners

On the other hand, Bourke (1996) states the deductive approach tends

to focus on form rather than meaning It encourages learners’ passiveness compared to activeness with reference to students’ involvement in the learning process

2.3.2.1 Deductive Approach

According to Sriraman and Adrian (2004), deductive reasoning usually starts with the general and advances to the specific The Advance Organizer is a deductive methodology that can be used to create presentations that establish a scaffold of significant topics at the start of a class A docent using an Advance Organizer to structure a tour in an art environment is one example Joyce, Weil and Calhoun (2015) define the model as “a powerful concept used by art historians This organizer has many subordinate ideas that can be linked to the particular characteristics of the art objects being viewed” (p 198) Besides, advanced organizers support the goal of learning subject matter by “improving presentational methods of teaching” (p 199) A meaningful learning classroom takes place when teachers address three concerns:

(1) how knowledge is organized (curriculum content)

(2) how the mind works to process new information (learning)

(3) how teachers can apply these ideas about curriculum and learning when they present new material to students (instruction)

In line with this view, Thornbury (1999) highlights that a deductive lesson starts with the presentation of a grammar point provided by the teacher

in order that the grammar pattern will be highlighted through examples That

is to say, in the deductive classroom, the instructor teaches grammar by presenting grammatical rules and gives some examples later If the students have understood, they are asked to apply the rule and make some sentences by themselves That helps to explain why Erlam (2003) states that in a deductive approach classroom, the analysis of the targeted grammar patterns will come first accompanied by the drills and activities To put it another way, deductive

principles are available for classrooms where the Grammar – Translation method is applied, so students are able to get acquainted with the structure first (Nunan, 1991) Subsequently, their own examples are produced based on their acquisition towards the represented pattern According to Fortune (1992),

Deductive Approach is defined as “the bread and butter of language teaching around the world and still enjoys a monopoly in many course books and self- study grammar books” (p.79)

However, one of the remarkable drawbacks of this approach is that the students might find it hard to be more active in teaching-learning activity More specifically, they can only learn grammar directly by learning what their teacher teaches to them or what is presented in the textbook

There are more advantages and disadvantages of deductive approach Widodo (2006) clarifies the advantages and disadvantages of deductive approach in Table 1

Table 2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Deductive Approach

5 It confirms many learners’ expectations about classroom

learning particularly for those who have an analytical style

4 The explanation is seldom as memorable as other forms of presentation (for example, demonstration)

5 The deductive approach encourages the belief that learning

a language is simply a case of knowing the rule

2.3.2.2 Inductive Approach

In contrast, in an inductive approach, Thornbury (1999) indicates that learners themselves have to find out the grammar rule in a conversation or a text rather than an isolated sentence He (2000) continuously asserts that with the inductive approach, the learner first studies via examples in which the grammatical structure is used, without having known the rule, and from those examples he/ she has developed his/ her understanding of the rule (p 55)

It is the fact that Ellis (1996), Nunan (2005) and Thornbury (1999) state that an inductive approach is more suitable to be implied in grammar-teaching, particularly for young learners Furthermore, that the students can also be more active in each teaching learning activity is considered as the advantage

of an inductive approach However, it also has disadvantages and one of them

is energy-consuming Particularly, Widodo (2006) represents its pros and cons in Table 2

According to Brown (1990), it is necessary for instructors to provide various learning activities that should enable students to think easily When

young students tend to learn what they are curious about, they will learn faster and cover more territory than we would do (Faw, 1980) In other words, it is like the inductive approach The students learn grammar through activities and let them comprehend the materials without explaining explicitly It is explained in the following table about the advantages and disadvantages of an inductive approach (Widodo, 2006)

Table 2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Inductive Approach

(Widodo, 2006)

Advantages

1 Learners are trained to be familiar with the rule discovery; this could enhance learning autonomy and self-reliance

2 Learners’ greater degree of cognitive depth is “exploited”

3 The learners are more active in the learning process, rather than being simply passive recipients In this activity, they will

be motivated to learn English

4 The approach involves learners’ pattern-recognition and problem solving abilities in which particular learners are interested in this challenge

5 If the problem-solving activity is done collaboratively, learners get an opportunity for extra language practice

4 It encourages the teacher to design data or materials that will

be taught carefully and systematically

5 The approach may frustrate the learners with the students’ personal learning style, or their past learning experience

2.3.2.3 Differences between Deductive and Inductive Approach

Applying deductive or inductive approach and utilizing it with efficiency whereas teaching grammar depends on student’s abilities in the classroom All learners are not the same and also the way they used to learn not only a new language but other subjects as well are partly different Hence, the comparison of these two approaches is constantly the topic that has argued among language teachers Despite this, there is no certain viewpoint that shows which approach is more useful in teaching grammar than the opposite one

The Deductive and Inductive Approaches are relatively dissimilar to each other in several aspects Gollin (1998) shows the differences in deductive versus inductive language learning

A deductive approach is most closely associated with the Grammar – Translation Method of teaching languages, while an inductive approach is considered characteristic of audiolingualism, where meaning and grammar were not explicitly explained but induced from carefully graded exposure to and practice with examples in situations and substitution tables (p.88)

Furthermore, it is suggested that the deductive approach might be the most traditional in grammar teaching It is because teachers can make a case for the rule through this approach in their native language and ask for the students to do the tasks On the contrary, in inductive technique, the structures are normally discovered and not directly put in plain words In other words, learners have sufficient opportunities for self-directed learning

In addition, the role of the teachers in the classroom shows another difference from these two approaches In a deductive classroom method, teachers become the organizer or the controller as they need to present the name of the Past Perfect Tense, the pattern, its usage and exercises relating to that tense Conversely, in an inductive classroom, teachers like the guide who

facilitate students’ study and explore that grammar structure themselves

What’s more, studies comparing the inductive and deductive approaches of teaching have found that inductive teaching is superior in terms

of idea attainment Some scholars argue that inductive thinking is universal among diverse populations and similar across cultures Ceballos’s (1986) study was aimed to determine how deductive and inductive strategies affected the secondary school students’ understanding of science and social studies In

addition to this, he came to conclusion “… inductive and deductive approaches were equally effective in promoting concept formation/attainment and in fostering the metacognitive strategies that are crucial to higher-order thinking”

2.3.3 Previous studies on Deductive versus Inductive Grammar Learning

The issue of grammar instruction has always been and continued to be

at the forefront of language teaching studies (Brown, 2000) At last, it is grammar which allows language users to string together clusters of words in a manner that is both correct and meaningful (Thornbury, 1999) Although they both share their viewpoints about the importance of grammar in common, many researchers still hold sharply contrasting views regarding how it should

be instructed in language classrooms Larsen-Freeman (2001) concludes that there are two main opposing approaches in formal grammar teaching, the deductive and the inductive approaches According to Thornbury (1999), the former involves providing learners with a specific rule and subsequently using the rule to generate meaningful examples of the structure Many teachers also usually use a deductive approach because it presents the knowledge directly

On the contrary, the latter employs a more indirect approach by providing language learners with real-life instances of a particular structure and having them analyze in the hope that they will be able to be aware of the similarities between the various examples and infer the underlying structure (Ellis, 2010)