Negotiating the labyrinth female executives in higher education leadership in vietnam and australia

Negotiating the labyrinth: Female executives in higher education leadership in Vietnam and Australia Thi Loan Lam B.A.. 122 Chapter Four: Data Results of Online Surveys: Vietnamese and

Negotiating the labyrinth: Female executives in higher education leadership in Vietnam and Australia

Thi Loan Lam

B.A (English Language Teaching), Danang University of Foreign

Language Studies MSc (Non-formal Education and Training for Development),

Reading University Supervisors:

Professor John Fischetti

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Statement of Originality

I hereby certify that the work embodied in the thesis is my own work, conducted under normal supervision The thesis contains no material which has been accepted, or is being examined, for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made

I give consent to the final version of my thesis being made available worldwide when deposited in the University’s Digital Repository, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968 and any approved embargo

Full name : Thi Loan Lam

Date : 30th November, 2018

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Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to all my wonderful family members A special devotion goes to my Mum and Dad, who made sacrifices throughout their lives, worked hard to bring me up, give me an education and encouraged me during this very challenging journey, especially my Dad, who could not wait until I commenced my PhD studies This

is also dedicated to my wonderful parents-in-law who have supported me and taken care

of my family so that I was able to concentrate on my studies in Australia I sincerely thank

my husband and my two sons for their patience and understanding A special devotion goes to my younger sister and brother who have supported me and cared for our mother

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Acknowledgements

Sincere and heartfelt thanks are due to my supervisors, my panels, my family, colleagues and friends for their support during my wonderful PhD journey I would particularly like to thank my enthusiastic principal supervisor, Professor John Fischetti, who made my PhD journey such an amazing experience Professor Fischetti has not only provided me with so many wonderful opportunities to attend workshops contributing to

my research, but also shared his profound knowledge, professional experience and management skills to help me develop my professional skills and intellectual capabilities

He has worked hard to ensure the successful completion of my thesis

Expressions of gratitude go to my co-supervisor, Mr Greg Preston, for his great support, constructive feedback, valuable advice and helpful guidance on statistics that helped guide me through the most complex stages of my data analysis I also wish to thank my former supervisor, Professor Ron Laura, for his insightful comments and encouragement in the early stage of my study I also acknowledge Dr Helen Hopcroft for her invaluable time, critical feedback and peer reviewing skills

My sincere acknowledgement goes to my sponsor – the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training – for offering me a full scholarship, the Vietnam International Education Development Scholarship, to undertake this research

I wish to express my deepest gratitude to all of my extended family for their understanding and support that helped maintain my enthusiasm for my study I would also like to take this opportunity to express my sincere appreciation and gratitude to all those friends and colleagues who have directly or indirectly encouraged me, supported, and finally celebrated with me during this challenging but awesome PhD journey

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements iv

Table of Contents ……….…. v

List of Tables xv

List of Figures xvii

Glossary of Abbreviations xix

Chapter One: Introduction 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Background to the Study 4

1.3 Statement of the Problem 8

1.4 Purpose of the Study 11

1.5 Theoretical Framework 14

1.6 Significance of the Study 16

1.7 Outline of the Study 18

Chapter Two: Literature Review 20

2.1 Introduction 20

2.2 Leadership Defined 20

2.3 Leadership Styles 22

2.3.1 Authoritarian leadership, participative leadership and delegative leadership 22

2.3.2 Leadership in higher education and effective leadership 28

2.4 Changes in Higher Education for Female Leaders 30

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2.4.1 Higher education leadership initiatives 35

2.4.1.1 Higher education leadership in Vietnam 38

2.4.1.2 Higher education leadership in Australia 40

2.4.2 Differences in higher education leadership 44

2.4.3 Shifting genders in university leadership 48

2.4.3.1 Women’s leadership characteristics 49

2.4.3.2 Women’s leadership development 49

2.5 Journey to the Top: Female Leaders in Higher Education 52

2.5.1 Overview of female leaders’ representation 53

2.5.1.1 In the Vietnamese context 55

2.5.1.2 In the Australian context 56

2.5.2 Reasons for the under-representation of women 57

2.5.3 Challenges for women leaders 71

2.5.4 Facilitators of female leadership 80

2.5.5 Women’s achievements in higher education 85

2.6 Responding to Challenges when Negotiating the Leadership Labyrinth 88

2.6.1 Balancing work and family 88

2.6.2 Leadership practices 90

2.7 Summary of Chapter Two 94

Chapter Three: Methodology 97

3.1 Introduction 97

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3.2 Mixed-Methods Research Design 97

3.3 Population 103

3.3.1 Participant selection for the survey phase 104

3.3.2 Participant selection for the interview phase 107

3.4 Instrument Development 108

3.4.1 Online survey construction 108

3.4.2 Interview development 112

3.5 Data Collection 113

3.5.1 Quantitative data collection: survey 114

3.5.2 Qualitative data collection: interview 117

3.6 Data Analysis 119

3.6.1 Quantitative data analysis 119

3.6.2 Qualitative data analysis 120

3.7 Methodological Limitations of the Research 121

3.8 Summary of Chapter Three 122

Chapter Four: Data Results of Online Surveys: Vietnamese and Australian Executive Leaders 125

4.1 Introduction 125

4.2 Vietnamese and Australian Participants’ Demographics 125

4.2.1 Professional information 125

4.2.2 Personal information 128

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4.2.2.1 Family types 128

4.2.2.2 Marital status 128

4.2.2.3 Participants’ children 129

4.3 Barriers Confronting Vietnamese and Australian Female Executives 130

4.3.1 Barrier sub-scales: factor analysis 132

4.3.2 Significant differences of barriers: independent sample t test . 134

4.3.3 The correlation between barriers items 136

4.4 Favourable Conditions Supporting Vietnamese and Australian Respondents . 139

4.4.1 Opportunity sub-scales: factor analysis .141

4.4.2 Significant differences of strategies used: independent sample t test . 144

4.4.3 The correlation between favourable condition items 146

4.5 Strategies Used by Vietnamese and Australian Respondents 149

4.5.1 Leadership values 149

4.5.1.1 Strategy sub-scales: factor analysis 151

4.5.1.2 Significant differences between strategies used: independent sample t test. 153

4.5.2 Individual considerations 155

4.5.2.1 Leadership characteristics of respondents 155

4.5.2.2 Leadership competencies of respondents 156

4.5.3 The correlation between strategies 157

4.6 Survey Results from Open-ended Questions 160

4.6.1 Results from Vietnamese female respondents 160

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4.6.1.1 Favourable conditions 160

4.6.1.2 Predictive barriers 163

4.6.1.3 Strategies used to confront challenges 165

4.6.2 Results from Australian respondents 171

4.6.2.1 Favourable conditions 171

4.6.2.2 Predictive barriers 176

4.6.2.3 Strategies 180

4.7 The Similarities and Differences between Vietnamese and Australian Survey Respondents 184

4.7.1 Favourable conditions facilitating female executives 184

4.7.1.1 Leadership skills 184

4.7.1.2 Qualifications 185

4.7.1.3 Workplace policies/practice 185

4.7.1.4 Support 187

4.7.1.5 Luck 188

4.7.2 Barriers confronted by female executives 188

4.7.2.1 Work pressures 188

4.7.2.2 Lack of opportunities 189

4.7.2.3 Biased leadership selection processes 190

4.7.2.4 Salary incentives 190

4.7.2.5 Limited professional training 191

4.7.2.6 Family commitments 192

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4.7.3 Strategies used by Vietnamese and Australian female executives 193

4.7.3.1 Leadership skills 193

4.7.3.2 Knowledge competence 193

4.7.3.3 Work ethic 194

4.7.3.4 Vision 194

4.7.3.5 Making an effort and seeking opportunities 194

4.7.3.6 Networking 195

4.7.3.7 Mentoring 195

4.8 Summary of Chapter Four 196

Chapter Five: Qualitative Analysis and Results 197

5.1 Introduction 197

5.2 Demographic Information 197

5.3 Barriers Confronting Interview Respondents 198

5.3.1 Absence of workplace encouragement for promotion and career development 198

5.3.2 Limited institutional integration 200

5.3.3 Limited workplace incentives 202

5.4 Favourable Working Contexts that Facilitates Female Executives’ Career Development 205

5.4.1 Open opportunities 205

5.4.2 Individual competencies 207

5.4.2.1 Professional knowledge 207

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5.4.2.2 Skills 209

5.4.2.3 Prior Experience 210

5.4.3 Encouragement from workplace and family 212

5.4.3.1 Institutional support 212

5.4.3.2 Family support 213

5.5 Strategies Used by Female Executive Respondents 215

5.5.1 Networking 215

5.5.2 Mentoring 217

5.5.3 Administrative skills 219

5.5.4 Vision 229

5.5.5 Knowledge competencies 232

5.5.6 Building credibility 236

5.5.7 Work ethic 238

5.5.8 Taking risks, prior experiences and supporting teams 239

5.6 Summary of Chapter Five 241

Chapter Six: Discussion 243

6.1 Introduction 243

6.2 Leadership Styles and Competencies Enabling Female Executives to Obtain Executive Roles 244

6.2.1 Leadership practice with regards to leadership styles 244

6.2.2 Leadership practice with regards to competencies 246

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6.2.2.1 Knowledge competencies 246

6.2.2.2 Leadership competencies 247

6.2.2.3 Executive competencies 250

6.2.2.4 Leadership self-efficacy 250

6.2.2.5 Cultural and cross-cultural competencies 253

6.3 Impacts of Barriers on Achieving Executive Positions 255

6.3.1 Institutional barriers 255

6.3.1.1 Leadership selection processes 255

6.3.1.2 Workload 259

6.3.1.3 Socio-cultural challenges for women 260

6.3.1.4 Other barriers 261

6.3.2 Individual barriers 263

6.4 Career Facilitators Enabling Female Executives 264

6.4.1 Individual ability 265

6.4.1.1 Management skills 265

6.4.1.2 Professional knowledge 266

6.4.1.3 Flexibility and adaptability 267

6.4.1.4 Self-motivation 267

6.4.1.5 Dispositions and work ethic 268

6.4.1.6 Experience 269

6.4.1.7 Credibility 271

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6.4.2 Institutions’ awareness 273

6.4.3 Family support 274

6.5 Leadership Strategies Enabling Female Executives to Develop and Maintain their Current Career 275

6.5.1 Empowering career development 275

6.5.1.1 Empowerment via networking 278

6.5.1.2 Empowerment via mentoring/sponsorship 281

6.5.1.3 Self-empowerment 285

6.5.2 Strategic vision 285

6.5.3 Professional and personal development 287

6.6 Summary of Chapter Six 289

Chapter Seven: Recommendations and Conclusion 290

7.1 Introduction 290

7.2 General Findings 291

7.2.1 Leadership styles and competencies 291

7.2.2 Barriers and opportunities 293

7.2.3 Leadership Strategies 294

7.3 Leadership Strategy Framework 295

7.4 Implications and Recommendations of the Study 302

7.4.1 Implications for knowledge 304

7.4.2 Implications for institutions and policy makers 304

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7.4.3 Implications for university leaders 305

7.4.4 Implications for current and future female leaders 306

7.4.5 Recommendations for future research 307

7.5 Conclusion 308

References 313

Appendices 354

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List of Tables

Table 3.1 Survey and interview research phases and data collection 102

Table 3.2 Description of population and sampling 104

Table 3.3 Sections within the survey questionnaire 110

Table 3.4 Scales and Cronbach’s alpha scores in the questionnaire 117

Table 3.5 Specific questions in survey questionnaire and interview protocol answering the research questions 123

Table 4.1 Comparative levels of position, which have different names … ………….126

Table 4.2 The age group distribution of Vietnamese and Australian respondents … 127

Table 4.3 The distribution of barriers confronting Vietnamese and Australian executive leaders ……….….…132

Table 4.4 The barrier sub-scales and items significant ……….……… … 135

Table 4.5 The correlation between barrier items ……… …137

Table 4.6 Opportunities supporting Vietnamese and Australian leaders … …… ….141

Table 4.7 The favourable condition sub-scales and significant items …….….………145

Table 4.8 Correlation of favourable conditions items ……… …………148

Table 4.9 Strategies used to maintain and develop Vietnamese and Australian respondents’ career trajectories ………150

Table 4.10 The strategies sub-scales and significant items ……….154

Table 4.11 The most successful characteristics for advancing an executive career …155

Table 4.12 The most effective aspects of leadership competencies in advancing an executive career ……… ……… 156

Table 4.13 The correlation between strategy items ……….……….159

Table 5.1 Demographic information of both Vietnamese and Australian interview respondents ……… 198

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Table 5.2 Frequency of responses: Strategies used by executives ……….215 Table 5.3 The frequency with which management skills were reported by female

executives ……….… 219 Table 6.1 The alignment of my leadership framework to the theory of Structural

Power in Organisations of Kanter (1993) ……….…….277

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List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Different gender percentages of senior managerial roles at 25 public universities in Vietnam 56Figure 2.2 Cultural dimensions in Vietnam and Australia ……… ……… 68 Figure 3.1 Complementary model of Mixed-Methods (Two phases Mixed-Methods).100 Figure 3.2 Procedures of data collection ……… 103 Figure 3.3 Australian Universities from which universities in New South Wales were selected……….… 105 Figure 4.1 The distribution of number of children across age groups of Vietnamese and Australian participants ……….…….130 Figure 7.1 Executive leadership development 297Figure 7.2 Leadership framework 303

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List of Appendices

Appendix A Survey Questionnaire 354

Appendix B Interview Question Protocol 369

Appendix C Factor Analysis 370

Appendix D Correlation Results 379