Human Factors in the Design of Virtual Reality Instruction

Human Factors in the Design of Virtual Reality Instruction by Tim Lewis Project Report submitted as part of the requirements for the degree of M.S.. Firs t, to cre a te the optima l s t

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Human Factors in the Design of Virtual Reality Instruction

by Tim Lewis

Project Report submitted as part of the requirements for the degree of M.S Technical Communication

Montana Tech

2017

Abstract

The obje ctive of this proje ct wa s to ide ntify me a s ura ble fa ctors tha t contribute to the qua lity a nd e ffe ctive ne s s of tra ining a nd e duca tion in a virtua l re a lity e nvironme nt The s e cond obje ctive wa s to de ve lop a VR a pplica tion us ing the Oculus Rift he a d mounte d dis pla y a nd ha nd controlle rs to pre s e nt high re s olution 360° vide o with cumula tive multi-choice cha lle nge s to cre a te a me nta l s ta te of flow, imme rs ion, a nd a s us pe ns ion of dis be lie f Fina lly, this docume nt

re pre s e nts a guide line on how to produce virtua l re a lity e duca tion a nd tra ining conte nt with a

re a l-world e xa mple of the proce s s from re s e a rch, de s ign, production a nd us e

Keywords: Virtua l Re a lity, Mixe d Re a lity, Augme nte d Re a lity, Tra ining, Educa tion, Flow,

Imme rs ion, S us pe ns ion of Dis be lie f, Ins tructiona l Te chnology, Ins truction, Le a rning, S kill

Development, Curriculum Development, Simulation Based Instruction

Acknowledgements

S pe cia l tha nk you to the fa culty a nd s ta ff a nd othe r s tude nts in the Te chnica l Communica tion

a nd Libe ra l Arts de pa rtme nts of Monta na Te ch Cha d Okrus ch, Nick Ha wthorne , S cott Ris s e r,

J ulia Quigle y, He nrie tta S hirk, Da nie l S te rling, a nd ma ny othe rs ha ve be e n ins pira tiona l, ins tructiona l, a nd he lpful on ma ny le ve ls

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS III

TABLE OF CONTENTS IV

LIST OF FIGURES V

GLOSSARY OF TERMS VI

1 VIRTUAL REALITY AS A MEDIUM 1

2 VR’S APPLICATION IN LEARNING 3

3 VRINSTRUCTION AS A TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGE 4

Project Planning 5

Solution Design 5

Visual Communication 5

Content Development 5

Final Production 6

4 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

360° Imagery and Video 6

1.3 Suspension of Disbelief 9

1.4 Instructional Design in Virtual Environments 10

Presence, Immersion, and Flow in Virtual Environments 12

5 DEVELOPING A VRINSTRUCTION ENVIRONMENT 20

The VR Hardware 21

The software 23

Application Development 24

Elements of the application design: 25

The 360° Video Production 26

6 CONCLUSION 26

BIBLIOGRAPHY 28

List of Figures

Figure 1: Fa ctors Ne ce s s a ry for S us pe ns ion of Dis be lie f 9

Figure 2: Ke y Fa ctors of Effe ctive Ins tructiona l S imula tions 10

Figure 3: Conditions Tha t Allow Flow 12

Figure 4: Cha ra cte ris tics of Flow 13

Figure 5: Fa ctors of P re s e nce 17

Figure 6: S e ns ory Fa ctors Affe cting Imme rs ion 18

Figure 7: Dis tra ction Fa ctors Affe cting Imme rs ion 18

Figure 8: Re a lis m Fa ctors Affe cting Imme rs ion 18

Figure 9 S tude nt We a ring VR He a ds e t 21

Figure 10: My Ha rdwa re S e le ction Ana lys is 22

Figure 11: Multiple Choice Que s tions in VR 25

Glossary of Terms

Virtua l Re a lity (VR) A me dium tha t s urrounds the us e r in a n inte ra ctive

e nvironme nt

He a d Mounte d Dis pla y (HMD) A high-re s olution s cre e n worn ove r the e ye s with

he a d tra cking s e ns ors a llowing the us e r to look

a round in a virtua l e nvironme nt

360° Vide o A vide o forma t tha t us e s pa nora mic ima ge ry pla ye d in

a s phe re a round the us e r’s pe rs pe ctive Flow A me nta l s ta te of focus on a ta s k tha t is cha ra cte rize d

by he ighte ne d a tte ntion a nd incre a s e d re te ntion of informa tion

S us pe ns ion of Dis be lie f The a ct of not que s tioning the va lidity of a n

e xpe rie nce Imme rs ion The fe e ling of be ing in a n e xpe rie nce fully a s if it is

re a lity

Compute r-a ide d Educa tion Any ins tructiona l conte nt pre s e nte d us ing a compute r

Compute r Ge ne ra te d Ima ge ry (CGI) A 3D mode ling te chnique tha t a llows a nima tion of

virtua l e le me nts Optima l Expe rie nce A me a s ura ble e ve nt a nd tha t inte rna l a nd e xte rna l

fa ctors influe nce it

1 Virtual Reality as a Medium

We s ha pe our tools a nd the re a fte r our tools s ha pe us This phra s e ha s be e n us e d by

ma ny pe ople to de s cribe how the communica tion tools we cre a te a nd us e a ffe ct our conce pts

a bout re a lity a nd e ve n our ide a s of wha t is pos s ible The la te s t e volution of inte ra ctive me dia is

de mons tra ting this in a profound wa y tha t promis e s to s ha pe how pe ople communica te , le a rn,

a nd pla y

Virtua l Re a lity (VR), Augme nte d Re a lity (AR), a nd Mixe d Re a lity (MR) de vice s a re now

re a dily a va ila ble a t a cons ume r le ve l price point Curre ntly, VR, AR, a nd MR a re pre s e nte d through compute r-ge ne ra te d s imula tions a llowing us e rs to e xpe rie nce virtua l e nvironme nts with

us e r inte rfa ce s tha t provide vis ua l, a uditory, a nd s e ns ory e xpe rie nce s , tra ns porting us e rs into a diffe re nt re a lity He a d Mounte d Dis pla ys (HMDs ) a re worn ove r a us e r’s e ye s , a s the y move the ir he a d, the pe rs pe ctive cha nge s with the ir move me nts Ha nd controlle rs with ha ptic

fe e dba ck a re us e d to inte ra ct with the e nvironme nt furthe r The s e us e r inte rfa ce s cre a te a

re ma rka bly re a lis tic s e ns e of imme rs ion in a virtua l e nvironme nt

Us ing virtua l e nvironme nts to communica te is a n a ncie nt conce pt tha t ha s fa s cina te d

pe ople throughout his tory Ancie nt te mple s a nd ca the dra ls we re ve rs ions of s ome of the firs t virtua l e nvironme nts , a s the y we re cre a te d to e voke e motions a nd pre s e nt na rra tive s tha t

a llowe d the a udie nce to e xpe rie nce a diffe re nt re a lity S ta ge d pla ys with e la bora te s e ts , a ctors

in cos tume s , a nd s pe cia l e ffe cts s uch a s s moke a nd lights ha ve be e n us e d for ce nturie s to imme rs e the a udie nce into a virtua l re a lity In mode rn his tory, Wa lt Dis ne y cre a te d na rra tive

e nvironme nts with e xte ns ive s pa tia l inte rfa ce s a nd virtua l re a litie s whe n he built Dis ne yla nd’s

“P ira te s of the Ca ribbe a n” a nd othe r the a trica l e xpe rie nce s tha t cre a te d fully imme rs ive virtua l

e nvironme nts (P e a rce , 1997)

Now, mos t compute r-ge ne ra te d virtua l e nvironme nts a re cre a te d with low fide lity, 3D mode ls , a nd 3D re nde re d e nvironme nts us ing Compute r Aide d Gra phics (CGI) The CGI

me thod to cre a te virtua l e nvironme nts wa s firs t us e d in the 1980s a nd be ca me the prima ry tool for vide o ga me de ve lopme nt a nd e xpe rime nta l s imula tion tra ining by NAS A a nd the US Milita ry Cre a ting virtua l e nvironme nts us ing CGI is a time -cons uming proce s s re quiring a high de gre e of

s kill, e xpe ns ive s oftwa re , a nd powe rful compute rs Eve n with s ta te -of-the -a rt te chnology life -like

re a lis m ha s re ma ine d e lus ive for CGI virtua l e nvironme nts

Adva nce s in digita l vide o ca me ra s a nd s oftwa re tha t s titche s a nd re nde rs 360° ima ge ry

a nd vide o ha ve s te a dily brought incre a s e d re s olution, fra me ra te , a nd e a s e of production a re

ma king it e a s ie r a nd quicke r to cre a te photore a lis tic, virtua l e nvironme nts This ra pidly cha nging

te chnology is ma king the production of 360° ima ge ry a nd vide o dra s tica lly quicke r a nd che a pe r tha n cre a ting the re nde re d CGI virtua l e nvironme nts

In re ce nt ye a rs , ma s s ive s tride s ha ve be e n ma de in te chnology incre a s ing computing powe r, improving s cre e n re s olutions , a nd e nha ncing gra phics The s e a dva nce me nts in

te chnology a llow imme rs ive VR, AR, a nd MR to come ce nte r s ta ge a s a pra ctica l me thod to pre s e nt photore a lis tic virtua l e nvironme nts to the ma s s e s

Like a ll e volutions in communica tion te chnology, the e me rge nce of VR provide s ne w opportunitie s to cre a te a nd de live r more s e ns ory rich informa tion To cre a te e ffe ctive conte nt in

VR re quire s a ne xt le ve l a pproa ch compa re d to othe r me diums With othe r me diums like print

a nd vide o, the us e r’s a tte ntion is intuitive ly focus e d on the na ture of the me dium, s uch a s the

te xt on the pa ge , the fra ming of the vide o, or the dura tion a nd pa ce of the a udio With VR, the

us e r ca n look a wa y from the inte nde d s ubje ct a nd dis re ga rd the pa ce a nd time line of the

conte nt, but s till be imme rs e d in the e xpe rie nce This dyna mic ma ke s the cre a tion of VR conte nt more comple x tha n the cre a tion of othe r me dia conte nt, but it a ls o ma ke s the e xpe rie nce more

re a lis tic

2 VR’s Application in Learning

Tra ining is ge ne ra lly cha ra cte rize d a s the de ve lopme nt of s pe cific s kills while e duca tion

is the a ccumula tion of the ore tica l knowle dge a bout a s ubje ct The us e of VR s hows promis e in both tra ining with s imula tions tha t provide ins truction a nd pra ctice of s kills , a nd a ca de mic

e duca tion tha t e xpla ins comple x topics in inte ra ctive a nd vis ua lly compe lling wa ys In both

ca s e s , VR ins truction ha s be e n s hown to be e ffe ctive a t fos te ring intrins ic motiva tion, re fle ctive thinking, a nd pe rce ive d le a rning e ffe ctive ne s s , thre e ke y e le me nts of e ffe ctive le a rning conte nt (Zha ng, J ia ng, Ordóñe z de P a blos , Lytra s , & S un, 2017)

Toda y, workforce tra ining a nd a ca de mic ins truction is s till de live re d much how it ha s

be e n for de ca de s The gold s ta nda rd is in-pe rs on ins truction, though compute rs ha ve be e n

us e d to e duca te a nd tra in pe ople for de ca de s Compute r-a ide d ins truction provide s e a s e of

a cce s s from a nywhe re a s it fits in the us e r’s s che dule , it ma inta ins cons is te nt s ta nda rds , a nd

re duce s the ne e d for tra ve l Compute r-a ide d ins truction ta ke s a va rie ty of forms s uch a s te xt, illus tra tions , vide os , vide o confe re ncing, inte ra ctive pre s e nta tions , a nd s tory drive n ga me s While compute r-a ide d ins truction is e ffe ctive for s ome a pplica tions it is ge ne ra lly uns ucce s s ful in

ma inta ining us e rs ’ inte re s t (Mona ha n, McArdle , a nd Be rtolotto 2008)

My proje ct inve s tiga te d ove rla pping topics in e -le a rning, ps ychology, a nd VR te chnology tha t provide me a ningful a nd time ly knowle dge a bout how to be s t us e VR to communica te a nd

le a rn Thre e ke y fa ctors le a ding to improve d me mory a nd s kill re te ntion of ins tructiona l conte nt

in VR we re ide ntifie d

Firs t, to cre a te the optima l s ta te of mind for le a rning, the VR tra ining conte nt ne e ds to create a psychological state of flow for the user during the training experience Second, is to produce training content that encourages a suspension of disbelief Third, is to develop a sense

of immersion within the training experience, an element that is essential in order to create flow and the suspension of disbelief

Flow is a psychological condition characterized by a heightened state of focus, a

decrease in distraction, and an increase in the short and long-term retention of information experienced during that state Being ‘‘in flow’’ is the subjective experience of engaging just-manageable challenges by tackling a series of goals, continuously processing feedback about progress, and adjusting action based on this feedback (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014a)

Suspension of D isbelief allows users to believe the unbelievable and resist judgement

of authenticity; it’s the cognitive act of accepting information as fact Suspension of disbelief allows the user to accept the virtual experience as real, even with its constraints of movement or lack of visual or audio realism (Muckler, 2016)

Immersion is a satisfying psychological state of perceiving to be in an environment that meets expectations A sense of immersion is achieved when the user’s experience feels like the real world with scenarios and interactions they would expect in the real world, allowing them to relax their focus on what is different than reality (Douglas, 2000)

3 VR Instruction as a Technical Communication Challenge

My prima ry obje ctive wa s to ide ntify me a s ura ble fa ctors tha t contribute to the qua lity a nd

e ffe ctive ne s s of ins tructiona l conte nt in virtua l re a lity The n, build a proof of conce pt tha t

incorpora te s the s e fa ctors in a virtua l re a lity ins tructiona l e xpe rie nce Fina lly, to cre a te this docume nt to re pre s e nt the e xpe rie nce , the knowle dge ga ine d a nd le s s ons le a rne d, de ve loping

a n ins tructiona l virtua l re a lity e xpe rie nce

The proje ct a pplie d the Te chnica l Communica tion core compe te ncie s le a rne d during the cours e work a nd me ntoring I re ce ive d a t Monta na Te ch The proje ct e ncompa s s e d the Us e r Expe rie nce (UX) de s ign proce s s with a dis cove ry pha s e , a product de finition, ide a tion, te s ting, prototype , a nd build & de ployme nt pha s e s (La ue r & Brumbe rge r, 2016)

Project Planning

The goa l of this proje ct, to cre a te e ffe ctive le a rning e xpe rie nce s in VR, be ga n with a pla n tha t outline d ma na ge a ble ta s ks a nd divide d the m into pha s e s The proje ct pla nning pha s e outline d a re s e a rch time line , e s tima te d a budge t, a nd ide ntifie d the s kills ne e de d to e xe cute the proje ct This pla n gre w a nd a da pte d a s my re s e a rch unve ile d ne w be s t pra ctice s a nd the

te chnology cha nge d

Solution Design

Afte r re s e a rching wha t ma ke s a n e ffe ctive le a rning e xpe rie nce in VR, I be ga n ide ntifying crite rion for the proof-of-conce pt This s ta ge of the proje ct include d a forwa rd-looking s urve y of

VR ha rdwa re a nd s oftwa re a va ila ble , the bus ine s s tre nds tha t we re e xpe cte d to re ve a l ne w

ha rdwa re a nd s oftwa re , a nd how thos e tools ca n s us ta ina bly provide de ve lopme nt options to

e ffe ctive ly de live r le a rning e xpe rie nce in VR

Visual Communication

A ke y e le me nt in the production of a VR le a rning proof-of-conce pt module wa s

de te rmining how to be s t communica te vis ua lly compe lling le a rning conte nt in the VR me dium This proje ct re quire d a gre a t de a l of re s e a rch a nd s kill de ve lopme nt in 360° vide o production,

VR de ve lopme nt me thods , a nd informa tion communica tion te chnique s Be s t pra ctice s in VR communica tion e volve d quickly a s the te chnology ma ture d

Content Development

Re a l world e duca tiona l conte nt wa s ne e de d for the a pplica tion be ca us e the focus of this proje ct is to de ve lop a VR le a rning a pplica tion e ncompa s s ing fa ctors of optima l le a rning

e xpe rie nce s I conta cte d indus try e xpe rts to de ve lop tra ining curriculums tha t could be

pre s e nte d in VR, the n, I produce d 360° vide os in re a l world s e ttings to pre s e nt the s e tra ining curriculums

Final Production

The fina l production of the VR le a rning a pplica tion wa s the culmina tion of ye a rs of

pla nning, re s e a rch, a nd coordina tion I worke d with tra ining e xpe rts , progra mme rs , bus ine s s

a na lys ts , a nd ma rke ting profe s s iona ls pe rforming thous a nds of hours of work to a ccomplis h this goa l The product is a functioning proof-of-conce pt tha t re pre s e nts the principle s of UX, conte nt

de ve lopme nt, vis ua l communica tion, s olution de s ign, a nd proje ct ma na ge me nt I le a rne d

throughout my gra dua te e duca tion in Te chnica l Communica tion

4 Literature Review

This lite ra ture re vie w inve s tiga te s s ource s s he dding light on fa ctors tha t influe nce

ins tructiona l e ffe ctive ne s s within virtua l e nvironme nts This re vie w focus e s on conce pts de ta iling the a pplica tion of 360° vide o, 360° ima ge ry, a nd othe r s e ns ory mode s a s tools to te ll s torie s ,

s ha re e motions , a nd communica te pe rs pe ctive s

In a ddition, this re vie w conne cts conce pts a bout flow psychology and instructional theory

within virtual environments and simulation based instruction Finally, the review compares those concepts with research and theory to measure factors of presence and immersion in virtual environments, thus, identifying how these similar fields of study relate to learning outcomes

using 360° video based learning

360° Imagery and Video

In a fascinating series of academic work, Karol Kwiatek and Martin Woolner documented their research and real-world applications using 360° imagery and video to educate and

increase awareness of cultural and historical stories (2012) They created “choose your own adventure” style narratives using innovative applications of web technology and 360° video and imagery

These dynamic views allow the locational experiences of art, culture, and poetry to be shared around the world asynchronously, transporting the audience to the virtual environments

Cultural memory can be described as a form of collective memory that conveys an identity with

a location dimension Loco-descriptive narrative is defined as an interactive narrative, which is designed to allow the audience to experience the location and to navigate between decision locations within the narrative (Kwiatek, 2012)

In one example, Kwiatek created a web-based 360° image and video experience of a location that inspired a poet The audience visited the virtual environment and experienced the factors that inspired the poet The experience allowed the audience to understand what

motivated the poet by virtually walking a day in his shoes The 360° loco-descriptive narrative allowed the audience to read poetry in the same environment that inspired the poet to create his poetry (Kwiatek, 2012) Another Kwiatek example of a 360° video project was of a church that was destroyed in World War II, with nothing but ruins left Before the church was destroyed, photographers took film panoramas of the inside of the church After the church was destroyed, this project created a 3D model of the church using the historic photos stretched over the 3D model The project rendered 360° video from the 3D model and displayed the 360° video on a web-based interactive viewer The users could see the church as it was before World War II

Kwiatek is critical of simple hotspot-linked still panoramas like Google Street View

because of the awkward transition Instead, she describes how to create interactive storytelling with a mixture of 360° still imagery and 360° video The goal of this imagery/video combination

is to bring a photorealistic representation of the space into the story environment; mixing with video shows actions and transitions that call on people’s reflections and emotions about a place and an experience (Kwiatek, Woolner, 2009)

In another project, Kwiatek documented the use of 360° video to investigate learning Through her research, she found that students were more motivated to learn about a given topic

if the they were immersed in a 360° virtual environment She found that these students were doing more self-learning and were not simply memorizing information for short periods of time

Kwia te k found tha t imme rs ive e nvironme nts motiva te d le a rne rs to move a t the ir own pa ce through a s e rie s of e ve nts a nd a “choos e your own a dve nture ” s tyle na rra tive In a ddition, to

ke e p le a rne rs e ve n more e nga ge d, us e rs could furthe r e xplore topics of gre a t inte re s t including his torica l trivia a nd ge ogra phica l s pa ce s (Kwia te k, 2012)

Ra ma lho a nd Cha mbe l a re a nothe r re s e a rch te a m tha t ha s inve s tiga te d 360° vide o in

s imila r wa ys The y us e the te rm hype r vide o to de s cribe 360° vide o a nd ima ge ry with links

be twe e n e a ch othe r The ir re s e a rch s e e ks to ide ntify prope rtie s a nd pa ra me te rs tha t le ve ra ge a multis e ns ory a pproa ch to incre a s e imme rs ion a nd us e r s a tis fa ction in diffe re nt conditions

Ra ma lho a nd Cha mbe l de fine imme rs ion a s “the s ubje ctive e xpe rie nce of be ing fully involve d in

a n e nvironme nt or virtua l world.” The y go on to s a y tha t imme rs ion ma y be incre a s e d by a 360°

s urround ima ge ry tha t include s a dditiona l s e ns ory moda litie s in the e xpe rie nce s uch a s

loca tiona l a udio a nd incre a s e d vividne s s through photore a lis m Ra ma lho propos e s tha t the

fe e lings of imme rs ion a re s trongly re la te d with the pe rce ption of pre s e nce ins ide the virtua l

e nvironme nt (Ra ma lho, Cha mbe l, 2013)

In one proje ct, the y a ugme nte d a 360° vide o e xpe rie nce with a dire ctiona l wind

ge ne ra tor a nd a 3D s ound s te re o s ys te m An e motiona l re cognition s ys te m wa s us e d to tra ck

a nd log the us e r’s fa cia l e xpre s s ions The e motiona l re cognition s ys te m ca te gorize d e ight

e motions (ne utra l, a nge r, conte mpt, dis gus t, fe a r, ha ppine s s , s a dne s s , s urpris e ) throughout the

e xpe rie nce Us ing a ta s k-ba s e d conte xtua l inquiry proce s s ide ntifying e rrors , he s ita tions , a nd

pe rforma nce of the ta s ks , the re s ults of e motiona l s ta te s we re compa re d throughout the

proce s s Afte r the e va lua tion, us e rs a ns we re d a s e rie s of que s tions The re s e a rch found tha t incre a s ing the s e ns ory re a lis m with multis e ns ory la ye rs incre a s e d us e rs ’ pe rce ptions of

imme rs ion (Ra ma lho, Cha mbe l, 2013)

1.3 Suspension of Disbelief

Muckle r re s e a rche d how the s us pe ns ion of dis be lie f during s imula tion ba s e d le a rning

fa cilita te d the re te ntion of informa tion He r re s e a rch de te rmine d tha t le a rne rs in a s imula tion

e nvironme nt mus t a cce pt the unre a lis tic a s pe cts of the e xpe rie nce to fully e nga ge in the

e xpe rie nce (Muckle r, 2017)

1 Fidelity (realism and believability)

2 The Fictional Contract (users ability to feel immersed)

3 Psychological Safety (feeling that consequences of failure are not harmful)

4 Emotional Buy-in (how relevant and applicable the experience is)

5 Assigned Meaning (the message the experience holds)

Figure 1: Factors Necessary for Suspension of Disbelief

Fidelity is the degree of realism and believability of the simulation This is a result of the learner’s familiarity with the simulated environment, the degree to which they can interact with the simulated environment, and the realistic nature of the scenario Emotional buy-in is based

on how relevant and applicable the simulation is to the learner’s understanding of the tasks and the learner’s goals for experience The simulation must invoke the emotions of the real-life event and the learner must experience an emotional attachment to the experience The fictional contract is based on the learner’s ability to feel immersed in the simulation, how easily they get into character as the star of the simulation, and their ability to play along with the simulation (Muckler, 2017)

Psychological safety is built by creating a simulation that is conducive to learning The learner must feel confident enough to take risks and feel like consequences of failure are not overly harmful The learner must feel free from humiliation or serious penalties if they make poor decisions or fail the training Assigned meaning depends on how the learner assigns meaning to

the e xpe rie nce The a s s igne d me a ning incorpora te s e le me nts of fide lity, e motiona l buy-in, a nd

ps ychologica l s a fe ty (Muckle r, 2017)

1.4 Instructional Design in Virtual Environments

Cook pe rforme d re s e a rch on a pplica tions of te chnology to e nha nce s imula tion a s a n

e duca tiona l tool His re s e a rch te a m ide ntifie d a dva nta ge s a nd dis a dva nta ge s of ins tructiona l

s imula tions de pe nding on the me cha nis ms , ins tructiona l obje ctive s , a nd conte xt Ba s e d on a

re vie w of s imula tion ins truction s tudie s in the he a lthca re indus try, Cook ide ntifie d ins tructiona l

de s ign fe a ture s tha t le d to e ffe ctive s imula tion a nd me a s ure d the m a cros s s e ve ra l ca s e s tudie s

Key Factors of Effective Instructional Simulations (Cook, et al, 2013)

1 Context Variation (multiple scenarios)

2 Cognitive Interactivity (repetition, feedback, task variation, task sequencing)

3 Curricular Integration (required as a formal element of training program)

4 Distributed Practices (training spread over time)

5 Feedback to Learning (telling them what they did right and wrong)

6 Group Practice (two or more learners interacting)

7 Individualized Learning (responsive to individual learners needs)

8 Mastery Learning (learners must attain standard of performance before advancing to next task)

9 Multiple Learning Strategies (mixing work example, discussion, feedback sequencing, task variation)

10 Range of Task Difficulty

11 Repetitive Practice

Figure 2: Key Factors of Effective Instructional Simulations

Other research on instructional design with e-learning technology has laid a clear framework

on how to measure instructional effectiveness of technology-based learning Liaw, Huang and Chen each have a large body of work in e-learning and evaluation of effectiveness in online education Liaw describes how surveying personal attitudes about educator’s perceived

e xpe rie nce with the e -le a rning te chnology ca n de te rmine how e ffe ctive the e duca tion

e xpe rie nce is Ins tructor a ttitude s ca n be de te rmine d with que s tions tha t me a s ure pe rce ive d

us e fulne s s of the te chnology a nd the us e r’s fe e lings of s e lf-e ffica cy with the e -le a rning

te chnology (Lia w, Hua ng, & Che n, 2005; Lia w, 2007)

Ide ntifying e duca tor a nd s tude nt a nxie ty a nd comfort with the te chnology is a ke y fa ctor

in e duca tiona l e ffe ctive ne s s of a n e -le a rning tool Comfort with the te chnology ca n be

me a s ure d with que s tions a bout the difficulty the y ha ve us ing the tool to a ccomplis h the ir ta s ks Anxie ty with the us e of the te chnology ca n be me a s ure d with que s tions tha t ide ntify the

e duca tor’s pe rce ive d us e fulne s s of the tool a nd pe rce ption of the ir a bility to a ccomplis h the ir

ta s ks within the with the te chnology (Lia w, Hua ng, & Che n, 2006)

Zha nga , J ia nga , Ordóñe z de P a blos b , Lytra s c a nd S un contribute d gre a tly to the body

of knowle dge of VR by re s e a rching wha t fa ctors influe nce pe rce ive d e ffe ctive ne s s of VR

ins truction in us e rs The ir re s e a rch found tha t Ta s k Te chnology Fit while us ing VR a s a le a rning tool wa s a ba s ic re quire me nt While VR le a rning conte nt ma y offe r a high-fide lity e xpe rie nce , a gre a t de gre e of us e r control, a nd a ccura te ly re pre s e nts the re a l-world, it will not ne ce s s a rily

fa cilita te the de ve lopme nt of conce ptua l unde rs ta nding Appropria te le a rning goa ls a nd UX tha t utilize the ha rdwa re is e s s e ntia l for le a rne rs to fe e l the e xpe rie nce s us e ful a nd e a s y to us e

The y found pe rce ive d le a rning e ffe ctive ne s s in us e rs re quire s the te chnology to be

a cce s s ibility a nd ha ve a high qua lity The curriculum a nd le a rning goa ls mus t be a good fit for the te chnology a nd the informa tion pre s e nta tion Fina lly, the e xpe rie nce mus t s timula te a proce s s of re fle ctive thinking in the us e r If the s e fa ctors e xis t, the us e r is like ly to ha ve a high

de gre e of pe rce ive d le a rning e ffe ctive ne s s which is a core e le me nt of e ffe ctive ins truction (Zha nga , e t a l., 2017)

Presence, Immersion, and Flow in Virtual Environments

The inve s tiga tion in fa ctors tha t ma ke 360° vide o a nd ima ge ry e ffe ctive for ins truction highlighte d the importa nce of P re s e nce a nd Flow in the dis cus s ion Miha ly Cs iks ze ntmiha lyi’s earlier research makes the case that an Optimal Experience is a measurable event and that internal and external factors influence it Optimal Experiences are an ordered state of

consciousness, depending on factors of information flow, too much or little, predictability, and usability of the information all affect the experience

Within an Optimal Experience, the person is challenged to the edge of their skills While the challenges in the experience do not exceed what the person can accomplish The Optimal Experience is the state in which a person does not feel anxiety because they cannot accomplish the task, but they are not bored from lack of tasks or tasks below their skill level An optimal experience is a state in which thought is ordered in response to continual challenge, without internal conflicts of worry or other distractions The person is focused on the challenge at hand without thinking about other things The person is in a state of Flow within a stream of

information with complete concentration on achieving successful reactions to the challenges (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014a)

In Flow, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s outlines his research on the characteristics of a heightened psychological state that is measurable and can be created with a reliably repeatable process

1 Opportunities for action that are challenging and appropriate at the current skill level

2 Clear and achievable goals

3 Immediate feedback about progress

Figure 3: Conditions That Allow Flow