Justin Corfi eld British occupation of Egypt Through diplomatic negotiations in 1881–82, the Brit-ish and French reached an agreement whereby the French occupied Tunisia in North Africa
Trang 1Publisher, 2000; Ghosh, S C Dalhousie in India 1848–56
New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1975; James,
Lawrence Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India
New York: St Martin’s Griffi n, 2000; Morris, Henry The
Governors-General of British India 2 Vols Delhi: Discovery
Publishing House, 1984
Justin Corfi eld
British occupation of Egypt
Through diplomatic negotiations in 1881–82, the
Brit-ish and French reached an agreement whereby the
French occupied Tunisia in North Africa and Britain
took Egypt The British militarily defeated Egyptian
nationalist forces led by Ahmed Urabi at the Battle of
Tel-el-Kebir in 1882 The Dufferin Commission was
then sent to Egypt to make recommendations as to
what should be done
Initially, the British claimed that the occupation
was a temporary one, but geopolitical considerations
and ongoing confl ict in the Sudan under the Mahdi
led to the long-term occupation of Egypt by the
Brit-ish The British superimposed their own administration
and became the de facto rulers of Egypt while
main-taining the facade of Egypt as an autonomous province
of the Ottoman Empire as arranged during the rule of
Muhammad Ali
The khedive was retained, with British advisers in
the key government offi ces A nonelective legislative
council of Egyptians served in an advisory capacity
This two-tiered, often-cumbersome administration led
to British control over all aspects of government from
the judicial to fi nancial to education
Evelyn Baring, later Lord Cromer, was appointed
consul general in 1883 Cromer was the virtual ruler
of Egypt until 1907, when he was forced by the British
government to retire following an increase of Egyptian
nationalist discontent A fi scal conservative, Cromer
attempted to lessen the fi nancial burdens on the
fella-heen (peasants) but devoted few resources to education
or other social programs The British did improve the
irrigation systems in Egypt and also abolished forced
labor The railway system that benefi ted British
com-mercial interests was also extended to the detriment of
road and water transportation systems Mixed courts
dealt with all cases involving foreigners, and civil courts
with Egyptian judges and lawyers served the Egyptian
population A lively press that covered a wide range of
political and social issues also developed, although the
British carefully monitored it for subversive or anti-British opinions
Over the years the number of British advisers proliferated The presence of foreign troops and often arrogant British bureaucrats increased nationalist oppo-sition to the occupation, particularly among the urban educated youth Mustafa Kamil who led the Watan (Nation) Party from 1895 until his death in 1908 was one of the most vociferous and fi ery of the new genera-tion of Egyptian nagenera-tionalists
Much to the dismay of the British, Tewfi k’s successor, Khedive Abbas Hilmi supported the nationalist cause Mounting Egyptian nationalism led to the emergence
of political parties that the British vainly attempted to control British control was not formalized until Egypt was declared a British protectorate with the outbreak of World War I in 1914
See also Urabi revolt in Egypt
Further reading: Berque, Jacques Egypt: Imperialism and
Revolution Translated by Jean Stewart London: Faber & Faber, 1972; Earl of Cromer Modern Egypt 2 Vols London: Macmillan and Co., 1908; Mansfi eld, Peter The British in Egypt New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971
Janice J Terry
Buganda, kingdom of
The early history of Buganda begins with the dynas-ties starting in roughly 1300 Among them, the Chwezi were the most prominent The balance of power was changed by the arrival of Luo-speaking people from the Upper Nile who were looking for good land, which they found in Uganda Arriving in the 1500s, they represented a continuation of the migration of peoples from the Sahara region as desert encroached on the grazing area of their cattle These pastoralists came
as conquerors in many cases, imposing their ways on the more advanced people who became their unwilling subjects
In 1497 the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama stopped in East Africa to take on Arab sailors familiar with the Arabian Sea In 1498 he would visit India Yet the riches of East Africa were not lost on the Por-tuguese, and they would return to attempt to carve out their own commercial empire in East Africa, with again the slave trade as one of their most lucrative markets
In 1505 the Portuguese, with their fi rearms, would take both Kilwa and Mombasa as part of a virtual conquest
Buganda, kingdom of 69