Communal farming was rare, in contrast to northern Europe, and most plots of land were owned and worked by individual families.. Throughout southern Europe vines and olives were im-porta
Trang 1In southern Europe and the Mediterranean region the
demands of a different climate gave rise to different methods
of working and dividing productive land Less rainfall and
drier summers made it necessary to retain moisture in the
soil Thus, shallow and less frequent plowing was done with
the iron ard, a smaller and lighter version of the moldboard
plow that broke up the soil without digging a furrow Many
fields in the south were enclosed, with farmers working a
small number of larger plots as well as orchards Communal
farming was rare, in contrast to northern Europe, and most
plots of land were owned and worked by individual families
Throughout southern Europe vines and olives were
im-portant crops, along with wine grapes, which in medieval
times ranged over a larger region of Europe than in modern
times In Spain, which was conquered and settled by the
Is-lamic Moors from the eighth century, new crops imported
from North Africa and the Middle East included rice,
cot-ton, and citrus fruits The introduction of Merino sheep made
Spanish wool among the finest in Europe One legacy of sheep
raising in Spain was a powerful union of shepherds known as
the Mesta, which was in frequent conflict with farmers over
use of land, migratory routes, and grazing rights
In areas where the manorial system was in force, peasants
owed a percentage of their harvest (often half) to the local
no-ble and exchanged their labor for the use of the land and the
lord’s protection against sieges, assaults, and highway thieves
Many villages also paid a tithe of one-tenth of their harvest
to the church The bailiff collected the rents and supervised
the work and lives of the peasants (Some lords held the right
to prevent their laborers from moving to a residence or
mar-rying a spouse outside the village.) The peasants worked a set
number of days (often three every week) on land held directly
by the lord and supplied labor when canals, ditches, or wells
had to be dug or roads or mills built The manorial system
endured for centuries with little change The local nobles
pro-vided the only authority and security known to most rural
peasants, who rarely left their isolated villages and for whom
moving any distance in search of better conditions or work
was unthinkable Without urban markets for crops,
produc-tion remained low; the peasants subsisted on what they could
grow and had no motivation to produce a surplus or plant
new crops In addition, a scarcity of coin forced many rural
communities to operate on a barter system for tools,
house-hold goods, and food
In the later medieval period, as a network of roads and
new long-distance trading routes developed, production
in-creased and city squares provided new marketplaces for the
sale of produce and farm goods Such weekly markets in the
central square have survived in many European towns An
increase in production allowed some peasants to buy or
bar-ter for additional lands and thus accumulate a store of money and property These relatively wealthy peasants could lease fertile land and pasture to tenants Those without means could hire themselves out as laborers or servants or take up crafts like smithing, toolmaking, or carpentry
sPring PloWing and Planting
Medieval farming communities were the scene of frequent negotiation over duties, particularly over the share of labor to
be borne in the seasons of plowing, planting, and harvesting For rural peasants the year began in the spring with the re-turn of fair weather and the greening of fields and forests af-ter the last winaf-ter frosts The planting season began when the soil thawed and could be turned easily by the plow A plow-man directed the big teams of oxen, which were replaced in later times by horses The moldboard positioned behind the plowshare turned the soil over after it was broken
Spring crops included barley, oats, legumes, peas, and vetches (plants grown for forage or as animal feed) Winter crops, such as wheat, were already growing where they had been planted the previous fall Seed was scattered by hand, and sometimes various crops were mixed together in a single field Peas and beans were planted carefully in shallow holes, dug
by a narrow stick Each kind of seed was planted in an ideal density, which would prevent the field from being choked by weeds or by too many plants of the crop being planted After seed was planted, it was harrowed (covered with soil) The harrow, made of bundles of sticks or built from a wooden frame, was dragged over the field; the peasants used hammers or mallets to break up large clods of soil The young crop then had to be defended It was a common task of peas-ant children to chase crows and other predators from the fields (taking care not to harm any of the lord’s private game
or doves)
The days between plowing and harvest were not idle Ru-ral peasants had to repair hedges and fences, dig ditches and wells, tend to their homes and gardens, maintain tools, care for stock animals, and provide the lord with obligatory ser-vice Women were responsible for home care, sewing clothes, storage of dried crops and herbs, tending kitchen gardens, preserving meat, milking cows and goats, churning butter, making cheese, and slaughtering chickens and pigs for meals
summEr labors
The hot summer months were reserved for making hay in the communal pastures Hay was used as animal feed, and a good hay crop meant a steady supply of meat and milk through the winter months Medieval haymakers used long wooden scythes to mow, with women following to move and turn the hay to make sure it dried evenly The hay was bundled
2 agriculture: Europe