Globalization, economic crisis and national strategies for higher education development potx

Varghese Globalization, economic crisis and national strategies for higher education development... Globalization, economic crisis and national strategies for higher education developm

for Educational Planning

N.V Varghese

Globalization, economic crisis and national

strategies for higher

education development

Globalization, economic crisis and national strategies for higher education development

Globalization, economic crisis and national strategies

for higher education development

N.V Varghese

International Institute for Educational Planning

The views and opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of UNESCO or IIEP The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this review do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO or IIEP concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities,

or concerning its frontiers or boundaries

The publication costs of this study have been covered through a grant-in-aid offered by UNESCO and by voluntary contributions made by several Member States of UNESCO, the list of which will

be found at the end of the volume

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Higher education has undergone tremendous expansion in the recent past The growing employment opportunities and the increased skills needed to compete in the global labour market are important reasons for the expansion of the sector This paper argues that higher education in the context

of globalization has become a market-determined process, replacing the near monopoly enjoyed

by the state The growth of private and cross-border higher education refl ects this change The paper discusses cross-border education through three different forms – through the mobility of institutions, of students, and of teachers Cross-border student mobility is encouraged since it is

a good source of getting future highly skilled workers in certain specialized areas Institutional mobility is very often from the developed to less developed countries Student mobility, on the other hand, is from the less developed to developed countries The United States of America (USA)

is the preferred destination for cross-border education and nearly three fourths of all cross-border students are hosted by 10 member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

The current economic crisis, although it started from the fi nancial systems of the developed countries, is global in its reach as it spreads to both middle- and low-income countries The initial indications are that the crisis will result in heavy losses in employment and in household income levels The crisis may lead to reduced funding for education from all sources – government, private sector and households Many universities with investments in foreign banks have already lost their investments Student support systems, scholarships and student loans will be severely affected Some of the largest providers of student loans have lost heavily during the crisis, and some of them have fi led for bankruptcy protection in 2008 The fi nancial crisis may lead to a freeze on recruitment and a cut in programmes The crisis may also lead to reduced aid fl ows

This paper points out that leaving the education sector to markets may not be a good option It argues for active state intervention in higher education There is a need to redefi ne the role of the state in the changed circumstances The ideal situation would have been full state funding but

it has to be recognized that the state has an important role to play, even when it does not have adequate resources to fi nance the higher education sector The state needs to take responsibility for developing rules for establishing private and cross-border institutions, for putting in place mechanisms to ensure quality and regulations to ensure equity Given the limited resources at its disposal, the state may better target its limited resources to disadvantaged groups to improve overall equity in higher education

3 Globalization and market orientation in higher education 14

4 Globalization of higher education and cross-border mobility 16

5 The economic crisis and its implications for higher education and employment 22

6 National strategies for the development of higher education 25

List of abbreviations

AICTE All India Council for Technical Education

DFID Department for International Development

EFA Education for All

FDI foreign direct investment

GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services

GDP gross domestic product

GER gross enrolment ratio

IBE International Bureau of Education

IBM GBS IBM Global Business Services

ICT information and communication technologies

IIEP International Institute for Educational Planning

IIM Indian Institute of Management

IIT Indian Institute of Technology

ILO International Labour Offi ce

IMF International Monetary Fund

IT Information technology

JSE Johannesburg Stock Exchange

MNC multinational corporation

NUEPA National University of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

R&D research and development

RIHED Regional Centre for Higher Education and Development

SNU Seoul National University

TERI The Education Resources Institute

TOI Times of India

UGC University Grants Commission

UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientifi c and Cultural Organization

UK United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

USA United States of America

USDC United States Department of Commerce

1 Introduction

The education system has been expanding globally More people are investing more of their time and money in education now than in the past Although all levels of education have experienced expansion, the rate of growth has, perhaps, been greatest at the higher education level Between

1991 and 2005, the number of students enrolled in institutions of higher education worldwide more than doubled from 68 to 137.9 million students (UNESCO Institute for Statistics – UIS, 2007) Gross enrolment ratio (GER) increased from 13.8 to 24 per cent in the same period The GER varies between 5 per cent in the African region to 70 per cent in North America and Western Europe While the target of the member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is to achieve the goal of universalizing tertiary education (OECD, 1998), many countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, still remain at a higher education enrolment level

of less than 5 per cent and are concentrating their efforts in the struggle to universalize primary education

While all regions are benefi ciaries of the expansion of higher education, expansion has been uneven

as shown in Table 1.1 Between 1990 and 2005, GER almost doubled in the Arab region, increasing

from 11 to 21 per cent, and in South and West Asia from 6 to 11 per cent; in East Asia and the Pacifi c, GER tripled from 7 to 24 per cent In Latin America, the increase from 17 to 29 per cent was moderate However, expansion of higher education in Africa was slow – an increase from only

3 to 5 per cent Since higher education grew more quickly in other regions, inter-regional disparities increased

Table 1.1 Higher education enrolment in 2005

Regions Enrolment in millions Enrolment share GER 1990 GER 1999 GER 2005Arab States 6.8 4.9 11.0 19.0 21.0Central and Eastern Europe 19.4 14.1 - 39.0 57.0Central Asia 2.1 1.5 - 19.0 27.0East Asia and the Pacifi c 41.6 30.2 5.9 13.0 24.0Latin America and Caribbean 15.3 11.1 17.0 21.0 29.0North America and Western Europe 33.4 24.2 35.6 61.0 70.0South and West Asia 15.8 11.5 6.0 - 11.0Sub-Saharan Africa 3.5 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0Total 137.9 100.0 13.8 18.0 24.0

- No data available.

Source: UIS (2007) and UNESCO (1998).

Expansion of the system is due to several factors First, there is the pressure resulting from expansion

at the lower levels of education While part of this expansion is in response to the voluntary demand for education, another part of it is in response to public action The promulgation of laws governing compulsory primary education has increased national commitment and international support to achieve the Education for All (EFA) goals These initiatives have generated demand for primary education, even from the most disadvantaged groups and from those living in remote areas As a result of the expansion of the lower levels of the education system, demand for education at the secondary and post-secondary levels has in turn increased The move, in many countries, towards the universalization of secondary education has increased the number of candidates eligible to enrol in higher education, thus putting additional social pressure to expand the higher education sector

Second, the rapid expansion of higher education in the recent past is also a refl ection of increasing employment opportunities for university graduates The public sector used to be the largest employer of university graduates in developing countries Employment in the public sector has declined and many countries, in the context of globalization, have promoted the private sector of their economies The slowdown in employment generation in the public sector has, very often, been offset by employment creation in the private sector Furthermore, recognizing the changing skill requirements in the context of globalization, many countries not only universalized school education but also ‘massifi ed’ their higher education systems Now it is globally recognized that an expanded higher education sector has become a necessary condition for a country’s growth in the present environment; it is important in promoting faster technological catch-up and in improving a country’s ability to maximize economic output (World Bank, 2002) As noted earlier, the OECD countries are moving towards the universalization of tertiary education (OECD, 1998) while countries in Africa are taking steps to expand higher education to ‘accelerate catch-up’ (World Bank, 2009)

Third, recent trends in expansion also indicate the fast growth of private and cross-border education The number of students pursuing studies in domestic and private institutions has increased and,

in cross-border institutions, it has almost doubled to 2.7 million in the last decade Although better job opportunities and higher salary expectations can be important reasons, the growth also refl ects changes in the provision of higher education facilities

This paper addresses issues related to the globalization of higher education, focussing on border education – the cross-border mobility of students, of teachers and of institutions The expansion of cross-border education refl ects the increasing demand for domestic degrees in the employment market in the developed world, and for foreign degrees for migrant workers in the employment market in the developing world The cross-border education market seems to have the propensity to attract good brains from the developing world to meet the requirements of the global labour market, both domestic and foreign Private individuals are willing to pay a higher price for cross-border education since the returns from their investment are high Private agencies are also willing to invest in cross-border education since such an investment is profi table This paper argues that higher education in the context of globalization has become a market-determined process, replacing the near monopoly position previously enjoyed by the state Therefore, there is a need

cross-to review and revise public policies for promoting higher education The state needs cross-to redefi ne its role in facilitating expansion with equity and in ensuring quality The current fi nancial crisis has underlined the need for public intervention to regulate market processes National strategies for the development of higher education need to focus on developing regulatory measures to promote equity and quality as the system expands These regulations are equally or even more needed in the cross-border segment of higher education

The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 discusses the increasing demand for higher skills in the global labour market Section 3 analyses the way in which market principles have permeated the process of globalization of higher education Section 4 deals with the cross-border mobility

of institutions, students and teachers in higher education Section 5 discusses the implications

of the current economic crisis for the globalization and the development of higher education

Section 6 deals with national strategies to develop higher education, and the fi nal section draws

some conclusions from the analysis carried out in the paper

2 Globalization and demand for skilled labour

The knowledge economy is at the centre of development in the current context Knowledge economies have grown faster and many of them have sustained a momentum of growth over the past decades Employment opportunities, too, have expanded globally on two fronts First, there has been an increase in employment in the developed countries where production is more knowledge-based Skill requirements are high and have attracted highly skilled workers from other countries In fact, the migration of highly skilled workers has been encouraged to meet the skill requirements of the expanding knowledge economies of the developed countries, led by the USA Second, there has been an increase in domestic employment opportunities in developing countries due to the increase in foreign direct investment (FDI) and the growth of private enterprises, including

fi rms focussing on outsourcing

Let us examine the effect of the increase in employment opportunities in the developed world The skill requirements in the knowledge economy are not only different from that of the traditional manufacturing sector, but also the level of skills required and the qualifi cations demanded for job entry are also high and continuing to rise Studies show that, in countries such as Canada, nearly

70 per cent of all new jobs will require a post-secondary level of education (International Labour Offi ce – ILO, 2004)

Many of the knowledge economies have not been in a position to produce the skills required Even countries with the largest network of higher education institutions, such as China, India, and the USA, could not produce highly skilled workers in suffi cient quantity to meet their domestic demand and the global market demand, especially in the knowledge-intensive segments of the economy This has resulted in competition among the developed countries to attract the best brains from other countries, notably from developing countries This in effect led to a ‘battle for brains’ (Chanda, 2000) or a ‘global hunt’ for talent (Kapur and McHale, 2005) to maintain the technological edge and the economic competitiveness of the host countries

Many developed countries changed their visa rules to accommodate skilled and information and communication technology (ICT) workers from other countries For example, the introduction of the H-1B visa in the USA has helped attract skilled workers from other countries, and helped the infl ow

of highly educated Asians Nearly one million highly skilled workers entered the USA under the H-1B visa scheme between 2000 and 2003 The European Union is introducing the ‘Blue Card’ visa to attract skilled workers from developing countries It is also noted that the average qualifi cation level of the migrant population is higher than that of the indigenous population For example, while

9 per cent of all Americans born in the USA possess a university degree (Master’s level), 38 per cent

of Indians born in the USA possess the same This shows how the visa rules and immigration policies are biased in favour of the highly skilled (Kapur and McHale, 2005) Countries such as Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom (UK) have introduced point-based emigration policies which give preferential treatment to candidates with higher level qualifi cations

The second aspect, namely domestic employment opportunities in developing countries, has also increased in the context of globalization Liberalization policies, introduced during the structural adjustment period, have helped attract foreign direct investment (FDI) and multinational corporations (MNC) to developing countries Outsourcing became an attractive strategy for large

Globalization, economic crisis and national strategies for higher education development

fi rms in developed countries and it became an avenue for lucrative jobs in some developing countries One of the reasons for the expansion of FDI and outsourcing activities is the intellectual environment created by the network of universities and the highly skilled labour pool in benefi ciary countries A very good example of this phenomenon is the emergence and rapid expansion of outsourcing fi rms in countries such as China or India

As can be seen from Table 2.1, FDI approached the trillion US dollar (US$) mark and generated

a total of 2.87 million jobs in 2007 The largest benefi ciaries of FDI have been in the Asia-Pacifi c region, followed by North America and Europe The Middle East remained the region with the least FDI infl ow which may partly be due to the availability of domestic resources in the region

Table 2.1 Foreign direct investment and jobs in 2007

* Equivalent to one thousand million.

Source: The Earth Times, 4 March 2008.

The USA was the largest recipient of FDI; in 2007, the country received US$237 billion in FDI, accounting for 13.6 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP), and employing fi ve million workers in

the USA, accounting for 4.5 per cent of private sector employment (Table 2.2) Nearly 80 per cent of

the FDI to the USA came from Europe and Japan in 2006 (United States Department of Commerce – USDC, 2008) Among the countries, the UK had the highest FDI in the USA “China and India cemented their key roles as sources of investment (FDI) in 2007, with the two countries now accounting for almost 6 per cent of global jobs created from foreign investment, compared to

4 per cent in 2006” (IBM GBS, 2008)

Table 2.2 FDI and employment generation in selected countries in 2007

Countries Investment in billion US$ Jobs in millions

Source: For USA, USDC, 2008 Other countries: The Earth Times, 4 March 2008.

The development of the software sector is a clear indication of the benefi ts of globalization in India The share of software in India’s exports increased from 4.9 per cent in 1997 to 20.4 per cent in 2002-2003 and software accounted for US$28.5 billion of export earnings in 2004-2005 The sector is expected to create another four million jobs in the future Countries such as China, India, the Russian Federation and Vietnam are the largest benefi ciaries of FDI infl ows and subsequent

Globalization and demand for skilled labour

employment generation Although the jobs generated by FDI or by outsourcing may not form a large share of total national employment, these jobs are associated with high-level skills, high salaries, and attracting university graduates

With liberalization policies, multinational corporations (MNCs) increased their presence in developing countries through the expansion of existing fi rms and the entry of new fi rms These fi rms look for highly skilled workers though, initially, the MNCs were generally engaged in activities which required less skilled workers than their parent companies This trend is changing and these companies, located in many countries such as China, India, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan, have entered into activities that require highly skilled personnel They welcome talents from national universities, graduates with foreign degrees or degrees awarded by foreign universities in the countries hosting these companies

The domestic private sector – outsourcing and others – also grew appreciably in the last two decades or so Many of them adopted new technologies, aligned with knowledge-based production and the globalization process Public policy, too, was conducive in promoting these initiatives These technology-intensive fi rms have generated employment which also demanded high-level skills and higher education qualifi cations The skill requirements in many of the knowledge-intensive domestic enterprises have been similar to the MNCs operating in the country or similar fi rms operating abroad This was also a process of economic integration of the less developed countries to global transactions and networks

One of the important contributory factors in attracting FDI is an easily available pool of highly skilled workers The attraction of FDI to the USA is because “the American workforce ranks as one of the best educated, most productive and most innovative in the world”, and the “USA higher education system is unparalleled” (USDC, 2008: 4) This is also the case with regard to the fl ow of FDI to other countries For example, the credit for attracting FDI and for the fast expansion of the software sector

in India goes to ‘technical young people and English-speaking scientifi c professionals’ (Business

and Economy, Indian Business Industries, 2008)

Over a period of time, many developing economies have been increasingly integrated into the global production process There has been a felt need to develop a workforce which meets the requirements of global demand This has been essential to meet international standards and quality in production Many countries, especially the benefi ciaries of the globalization process, started re-orienting their education system, particularly higher education, to meet not only national requirements, but also those of the global labour market One indicator of this process is a shift

in emphasis in university study programmes, from traditional subject areas to engineering, management and IT-related areas Another indicator is the introduction of English language courses Countries have realized the importance of the English language in the globalization context and recognize the premium enjoyed by the English language in cross-national transactions As one of the recent OECD reports notes, “English is the premier language of business and professions and the only global language of science, research and academic publication” (OECD, 2008: 20) One may notice as an indicator of reorienting higher education systems that countries such as China, India, Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia and many African countries have moved, on the one hand, towards expanding higher education and, on the other, towards diversifying the providers and programmes of study and towards promoting or introducing English language teaching; this is also the case in Francophone African countries All of these factors have contributed to reorienting higher education to meet the skill requirements of the global market, whether located in the same country or abroad, and to the globalization of education

3 Globalization and market orientation in higher education

Globalization has changed the purpose and orientation of education in many countries While universities were associated with and seen as an integral part of the national development efforts

in the past, they are increasingly becoming an integral part of the production of skills for the global market Higher education is becoming an attractive area of investment and the trade in higher education brings more profi t than that in other sectors As a result, competition has increased between providers of education In the past, competition was, in many countries, between public universities, but today the competition is between public and private universities on the one hand, and national and trans-national institutions on the other hand Knowledge and the production of knowledge are becoming a contested terrain left open to the market process

Knowledge is universal, although the institutions producing knowledge, namely universities, are very often national Universities maintain a dual characteristic – international in content and discourse, and national in ownership and operation Internationalization implies the imparting

of knowledge, skills and values that have universal application It can imply either cross-border activities or changes in the orientation of courses offered in domestic universities, referred to as

‘internationalization at home’ or ‘campus-based internationalization’ (Knight, 2008) Globalization,

on the other hand, assumes a blurring of borders and national systems of education (Teichler, 2004)

Economic and educational activities have traditionally been dominated by the public sector The expansion of the private sector in economic activities led to the criticism that public-funded education did not address the needs of industry and the economy, the argument being that the corporate world knows what the market needs are and, therefore, can be a reliable provider of education This provided an opportunity for the corporate sector to operate in education and apply market principles to the management of education institutions

The provision and promotion of education activities under the market framework of operation are based on the demand for and supply of educational services While the demand for education refl ects the paying capacity of households, the supply of educational services refl ects the capacity and willingness of public or private agencies to invest in education Globalization actively promotes market ideology as a unifying force, linking economic activities at the national and cross-national levels With globalization, market operations are extended to social sectors and across borders Consequently, education in the context of globalization becomes yet another profi table venture, cultural activities become commercial products, the public is defi ned as a customer, the university becomes a provider, and the learner becomes a customer or purchaser of services (Yang, 2005).Within the education sector, higher education becomes an eligible candidate for incorporation into the market framework Given the role of research and development (R&D), activities in the knowledge economy investing in knowledge production (research) became rewarding economic activities Studies (OECD, 2008; Hanson, 2007) show a close association between ‘investment in knowledge’ and innovations which improve domestic innovations and economic competitiveness Research and universities became valuable entities to the corporate sector and important agents

of the globalization of higher education The research universities of the USA and their doctoral

Globalization and market orientation

programmes have become a powerful engine for the globalization of higher education (OECD, 2008)

The academic prestige and standing of a university are closely linked to its research capacity and its credibility Many students seeking a foreign degree, especially a doctoral degree, would take into account these factors when choosing the country and institution where they wish to study This is also a contributory factor in attracting a large number of cross-border students to countries such

as the USA, which has six of the top ten universities in the world (USDC, 2008)

4 Globalization of higher education and cross-border mobility

The high demand for highly skilled persons in the developed world has promoted the migration

of skilled workers from the developing world When it was found that study programmes were a better source for future recruitment of skilled personnel, many countries opted to promote cross-border education The fast growth of cross-border student mobility is an indication of this trend Studies show that a majority of those who enter the USA as students would like to stay on after completing their studies, and this is an attractive source of skilled personnel Information on the return plans of doctoral graduates in USA universities indicates that nearly 90 per cent of Chinese and Indian doctorate students would like to stay in the USA after their studies The percentage is higher among science and technology graduates, given the better employment prospects (Kapur and McHale, 2005) This shows that cross-border education is fertile ground for recruiting future highly skilled workers in many developed countries (Tremblay, 2002)

Higher education, in the context of globalization, has become a market-driven activity, and education has become a tradable commodity and part of the trade negotiations under the General Agreement

on Trade in Services (GATS) (Knight, 2002) GATS covers all internationally traded services and overall covers 12 different service sectors including education Within the education sector, GATS covers fi ve categories of education services: primary, secondary, higher, adult, and others

Cross-border trade in education under the GATS framework takes place in four modes They are:

1 Cross-border supply of the service where consumers remain in their country E-learning-based distance education programmes are good examples of this type of cross-border education

2 Consumption abroad where the consumers (students) cross the border This includes full-time study for a degree, part of the study at home and the remaining part in a foreign country, and exchange and joint degree programmes

3 The commercial presence of the provider in another country in the form of branch campuses

or twinning and franchising arrangements between universities from the developed and developing world, but also between universities of the developed world as a whole

4 The presence of persons in another country to provide the service The most visible form of this mode is the mobility of professors from one country to another as an employee of a foreign university, as part of an academic partnership, or to teach in a branch campus

This paper will discuss cross-border education manifested through the mobility of institutions, teachers and students (modes 2, 3 and 4) since reliable information on mode 1 is not easily available

4.1 Cross-border institutional mobility

Institutional mobility takes place in different forms – through branch campuses, franchising or twinning arrangements A branch campus denotes the delivery of the programme entirely by the foreign institution; franchising denotes the in-country delivery by an authorized domestic institution; and twinning denotes joint ownership and delivery by institutions in the home country and the host country Although franchising and twinning are less visible than branch campuses, they constitute, quantitatively, larger segments of institutional mobility (Martin, 2007)

Globalization and cross-border mobility

Universities from Australia, the UK and the USA are more commonly found in other countries Malaysia has, for example, branch campuses from Nottingham University of the UK, and Monash University and Curtin University of Australia (Sirat, 2006) As of 2004, China had more than

700 approved educational institutions having joint programmes with foreign institutions Many

of these are from Australia such as the Universities of Queensland and Victoria which run joint programmes with Chinese universities (Garrett, 2004)

Cross-border providers from different countries have branch campuses in Singapore These include Johns Hopkins University (USA) University of Chicago (USA), INSEAD (France), and Jiao Tong University (China) Bond University and Monash University, both from Australia, and the Business School of the Netherlands have branch campuses in several countries of Africa

India has several foreign institutions in operation, mainly from the UK and the USA A study of

131 foreign-affi liated institutions in India (Bhushan, 2005) showed that 59 were partnered with universities in the UK and 66 partnered with universities in the US In some cases, the same institution has tie-ups with more than one foreign institution For example, the Indian School of Business has tie-ups with Kellogg, Wharton and the London School of Business Several high-level delegations have visited India to establish branch campuses or collaboration with Indian institutions For example, Professor Rick, President of Universities UK, led a delegation of UK Vice-Chancellors to India in 2008 to discuss institutional collaboration and student and teacher mobility

between premier institutions in India and the UK (UK universities to support expansion of India’s

HE sector, media release from Universities UK, 29 April 2008)

Private higher education institutions offer an easy entry point for foreign institutions In fact, in many countries, transnational providers operate through private institutions and offer courses

in limited subject areas They offer market-friendly courses, catering to private businesses, both foreign and national Courses in business administration, computer science, accounting, marketing, economics and communication are very common in such institutions and nearly 80 per cent of the courses offered by foreign institutions are either in business or hotel management (Bhushan, 2005) Collaboration with foreign universities and institutions helps local private universities since,

in some cases, it allows them to obtain academic credibility, quality appeal, and also enables them

to levy high fees, at times in hard currency

4.2 Cross-border teacher mobility

Teacher mobility can be seen as an example of the impact of globalization on education The movement of teachers across borders, especially at the school level, shows how a less attractive profession in the developed world becomes a very attractive position for migrant teachers from the developing world The cross-border mobility of teachers is primarily due to two reasons: (a) to meet quantitative shortages; and (b) to enhance the prestige of the institution and the quality of instruction Teacher shortages can be due either to the non-availability of qualifi ed persons or to

the unattractiveness of the profession (Varghese, 2009b) The former is the case in many African

countries, while the latter seems to be the case in some developed countries Another reason for cross-border teacher mobility, in the context of globalization, may be to attract foreign students The globalization process has provided new employment opportunities, especially in the private sector These jobs offer higher salaries Teaching jobs have traditionally not been fi nancially very attractive and, with new avenues of employment opening up, the appeal of the teaching profession has been further eroded A study on teacher shortages in the UK has shown that salaries and working conditions for teachers have not kept pace with those of other sectors (Robinson and Smithers, 1998) To overcome teacher shortages, the UK and USA governments (New York) have engaged

Globalization, economic crisis and national strategies for higher education development

in the large-scale recruitment of teachers from Caribbean countries such as Jamaica, and from African countries such as South Africa This has led to teacher shortages in the sending countries, which have accused the host countries of ‘raiding their resources’ (Appleton, Morgan and Sives, 2006) and have demanded compensation from the recruiting countries Bilateral discussions have resulted in the development of a strategy of ‘managed migration’ (Morgan, Sives and Appleton, 2006) and a Commonwealth protocol on teacher recruitment following the discussions at the Commonwealth Education Ministers’ Conference held in Edinburgh in 2003 It needs to be noted that teacher migration is not always from developing to developed countries Teachers also move within developed countries and among developing countries Teachers from Australia, Canada and New Zealand are found in the UK Teachers from India, Kenya, Zambia and Zimbabwe are found

in Botswana However, large-scale migration still continues to be from developing to developed countries

Teacher mobility in higher education takes different forms Some universities have departments specializing in regional studies and these departments attract teachers from those respective regions For example, the Center for Latin American Studies of Chicago University attracts at least three visiting professors every year, and more than 30 professors from Latin America have visited and taught in the university this decade (Tinker visiting professors) At times, teacher migration is

in selected subject areas This is more often the case in those areas where there is high demand from the corporate sector As mentioned earlier, very often students, on completion of their doctoral studies, would like to stay in the host country and take up a teaching job It is estimated that more than 8,000 Indian teachers work in universities in the USA Indian professors, including some Nobel laureates, are engaged in research and teaching activities, predominantly in science, engineering and social science subject areas (Melwani, 2009) Under the Erasmus Mundus programme, more than 1,000 university teachers from developing counties came to Europe between 2004 and 2008 Under the same programme, efforts have been made to establish collaborative arrangements to promote student and staff mobility between 12 European and 8 Indian universities (EurAsia News, 09.06.2008 )

Some universities appoint foreign professors to improve their image and international competitiveness

in order to promote research, improve the quality of teaching, and to attract foreign students For example, the Ministry of Human Resource Development of the Republic of Korea plans to recruit 300 foreign professors in the coming years The proposal indicates that “It is part of our efforts to enhance the quality of education at national universities to meet the global standard” (Tee-Jong, 2008) Seoul National University (SNU), a state-funded university, is planning to recruit

150 professors to promote its international competitiveness Further, language profi ciency to lecture in English is an important consideration when recruiting domestic (Korean) teachers to SNU (Korean Times, 22 January 2001 ) The Japanese Government has initiated steps to change the faculty composition to attract more foreign students Between 1983 and 1995, the number of faculty members from foreign countries in Japan increased from 1,168 to 3,558 (Koshi, 1997)

4.3 Cross-border student mobility

Cross-border student mobility is increasing rather fast In 2005, nearly 2.7 million students pursued cross-border education (UIS, 2007) The market for cross-border students is expanding; the profi ts remain very attractive and hence the competition among higher education institutions to attract foreign students continues The most familiar pattern of cross-border student fl ow used to be from developing to developed countries According to data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS, 2007), North America and Western Europe continue to be the favourite destinations for most