ecosystems (continued)
socioeconomic and political system
revisions 4:161
technologically benign substitutions
4:161
intertidal ecosystems 4:332–344
anthropogenic impacts 5:56–57, 5:58F,
5:59F
biodiversity measures 4:339–340
boulder fields 4:336–337, 4:336F
ecological function 4:340–342
general discussion 4:332
habitat–niche relationship 4:45–46
mangrove forests 4:337, 4:338F, 4:339F
marine sedimentary habitats 5:107,
5:108T
pattern variations
competition 4:334, 4:335F
general discussion 4:333–334
interaction chains 4:334
physical disturbances 4:335–336
predation 4:334–335
recruitment 4:333–334
processes and characteristics 4:332–333
research summary 4:342–343
sandy beaches and mudflats 4:337–339
tides and waves 4:332–333
values and services 4:342, 4:342
lake and pond ecosystems
acidic and mercury deposition 1:11F
freshwater invertebrates 4:369–378
altered water regimes 4:377–378
background information 4:369–370
biodiversity loss 4:376–377
decomposition and recycling
functions 4:375
disturbances 4:375
ecological functions and processes
4:375
endemism 4:374–375
exotic species invasions 4:378
global patterns 4:373
habitat depletion and loss 4:376–377
habitat heterogeneity 4:375
influencing factors 4:373–374
isolation factors 4:374–375
life cycles 4:370, 4:372F
major groups 4:370, 4:371T
major habitats 4:369–370, 4:369F
major threats 4:376–377
material transfer and uptake
4:375–376
number of species 4:370–371, 4:371T
origins 4:374
pollution 4:377
primary production 4:376
reduced water quality 4:377
research background 4:373–374
river continuum concept (RCC)
4:373F
species interactions 4:375
taxonomic groups 4:371–373
zonal representatives 4:374F
geographic distribution 4:370T
habitat loss and degradation 7:371T
landscape legacies 4:527–528
living dead 4:590–598 animal populations 4:594–595 anthropogenic impacts 4:594–595
deforestation 4:591–593, 4:592F extinct megafauna 4:591–593, 4:593F
food chains 4:595–596
forest ecosystems 4:590–591, 4:591F
requirements 4:593–594 restoration programs 4:597 small plants 4:594
wildland patches 4:596–597, 4:596F
mangrove ecosystems 5:10–22 Amazon ecosystems 1:164 aquaculture impacts 1:193–194
C4plants 2:371T
characteristics 7:271–272 conservation practices 6:77
definitions and terminology 7:369T
diversity general discussion 5:18 genetic diversity 5:22 global patterns 5:18 local variations 5:20–21
regional patterns 5:20, 5:21F
ecological interconnections 5:18 economic exploitation and use 5:22
global extent 7:370T
global patterns Atlantic-Caribbean-East Pacific
(ACEP) region 5:18–19, 5:19F,
5:20T
faunal diversity 5:19–20, 5:20T
Indo-West Pacific (IWP) region 5:18–19, 5:19F, 5:20T
latitudinal range 5:18, 5:19F
longitudinal differences 5:18–19, 5:19F
habitat destruction 1:513, 1:513T, 3:404 intertidal ecosystems 4:337, 4:338F,
4:339F local variations animal distribution 5:21–22 tree distribution 5:20–21 mangrove trees
characteristics and geographical distribution 5:10–11
families and genera 5:11T mangrove habitat 5:10–11, 5:10F pneumatophores 5:12F reproduction 5:11–12, 5:12F root system 5:12F
salinity/salt tolerance 5:11, 5:11T waterlogged soils 5:11, 5:12F
marine fauna bivalves 5:17 characteristics 5:14–15
crustaceans 5:15–16, 5:20T
ecosystem engineers 5:16–17
fish 5:15, 5:15F, 5:20T grapsid crabs 5:15–16, 5:15F
hermit crabs 5:16 meiofauna 5:18
molluscs 5:16–17, 5:20T
mud crabs 5:16
ocypodid crabs 5:16, 5:16F
root communities 5:14–15
shrimp 5:16
snails 5:17–18, 5:17F
marine sedimentary habitats 5:107, 5:108T
nature-based coastal protection
strategies 5:452–453, 5:453T, 5:454F protected area systems 6:492T, 6:499T
reproductive adaptations 7:397 restoration programs 7:375–378 shrimp farming versus mangrove
conservation 3:51–53, 3:52F South America 3:111F, 3:116 Southeast Asia 1:513, 1:513T
terrestrial fauna amphibians 5:13
birds 5:13–14, 5:20T
characteristics 5:12–13
insects 5:13, 5:13F mammals 5:14, 5:20T reptiles 5:13, 5:20T threatened species 7:201T
marine ecosystems 5:45–55 anthropogenic impacts 5:56–63 artificial reefs 5:61
ecosystem engineer species 5:60–61 eutrophication 5:53–54
invasive species 5:54, 5:60–61 major threats 5:56
mariculture 5:61 overfishing 3:410, 5:54, 5:61 pollution 5:61, 6:150–151 research summary 5:62 rocky intertidal communities 5:56–57, 5:58F, 5:59F rocky subtidal communities 5:57–58, 5:60F
sea otter populations 5:58–60 biodiversity
genetic diversity 5:50
higher taxa 5:47–49, 5:50T species 5:49–50, 5:50T
biodiversity loss 4:664 biodiversity-rich countries 1:498 chlorophyll production 5:46 climate change effects 6:150–151 conservation 5:32–44
abundance impacts 5:34–35 assisted colonization 5:41 climate change effects 3:449, 5:32 community impacts 5:37–38 conservation strategies 5:38–39 distribution impacts 5:35–36 ecosystem-based management 5:40 evolutionary impacts 5:36 fisheries management 5:40–41 future research areas 5:41 marine protected areas 5:39–40 ocean acidification 5:33–34 predictive models 5:39 research needs 5:41 restoration 5:41 rising seawater temperatures 5:33
conservation status 3:171–173T, 3:174
continental shelves 5:52 Convention on Biological Diversity (1930) 2:318