life cycles 4:370, 4:372F
major groups 4:370, 4:371T
major habitats 4:369–370, 4:369F
major threats 4:376–377
material transfer and uptake
4:375–376
number of species 4:370–371, 4:371T
origins 4:374
pollution 4:377
primary production 4:376
reduced water quality 4:377
research background 4:373–374
river continuum concept (RCC)
4:373F
species interactions 4:375
taxonomic groups 4:371–373
zonal representatives 4:374F
lateral and vertical boundaries 3:565F
light attenuation 3:560
mean composition 3:562T
mean water depth 3:561F
Near East 5:470–471, 5:470F, 5:470T,
5:471F
nonextremeophilic Archaea 1:224T
number of lakes 3:561F
nutrient loading gradient 3:568, 3:568F
organic matter 3:562, 3:564F,
3:565–566
photosynthesis 3:560, 3:564F
physical characteristics 3:560–562
primary productivity 3:563T,
3:566–569, 3:568F
protected area systems 6:494–498,
6:496F, 6:497F
river–floodplain connectivity 7:151
Southeast Asia 1:510–512, 1:511F, 1:512
species richness
freshwaters 3:571–572, 3:571T
freshwater sediments 3:571–572,
3:572T
lakes and ponds 3:583–584
site characteristics and ranges 3:572T
trophic levels 3:562, 3:563T
usefulness 3:570
water storage 3:560–562, 3:561T
functional roles 5:582
government legislation and regulations
3:718
grassland ecosystems 4:1–7
biodiversity
animal species diversity 4:3–4
biodiversity change scenarios 4:5–6,
4:6F
characteristics 4:3
ecosystem functionality 4:4–5
future outlook 4:5–6, 4:6F
plant species diversity 4:3
Relative Yield Total (RYT) 4:4–5, 4:5F
soil microbial diversity 4:4
conservation status 3:171–173T
determinant factors 4:1–3, 4:2F
ecosystem services 3:96–98
functional diversity (FD) measures
3:604–605, 3:605F
geographic extent 4:1, 4:2F
neotropical seasonally dry forests 5:496
water availability 4:1–3, 4:2F
guilds 4:36 high-elevation Andean ecosystems 4:96–110
background information 4:96
geographic distribution 4:96–97, 4:97F
habitat characteristics 4:96–97
number of species 4:102T
pa´ramo ecosystem characteristics 4:101–103, 7:275–276 geographic distribution 4:96–97, 4:97F
northern Andean alpine cushion formations 4:103
northern Andean dwarf Polylepis
forest 4:103
number of species 4:102T
physical characteristics and patterns 4:97–98
plant diversity 4:98–99, 4:99T representative species 4:102F
subpa´ramo zone 4:102–103 superpa´ramo zone 4:103 true pa´ramo zone 4:103 physical characteristics and patterns 4:97–98
plant diversity
endemism 4:99–100, 4:99T
origins and diversification 4:100–101 species richness 4:98–99
puna
central Andean dwarf Polylepis forest
4:105 cushion bogs 4:105 desert puna 4:104–105 dry puna 4:104 geographic distribution 4:96–97, 4:97F
humid puna 4:104
number of species 4:102T
physical characteristics and patterns 4:97–98, 4:103–104
plant diversity 4:98–99
representative species 4:104F
salar vegetation 4:105 research summary 4:107 southern Andean steppes altitudinal zonation 4:106–107, 4:106F
bogs and seeps 4:107
cushion plants 4:106–107, 4:106F
geographic distribution 4:96–97, 4:97F
latitudinal gradients 4:106–107
number of species 4:102T
physical characteristics and patterns 4:97–98, 4:105–107
plant diversity 4:98–99
representative species 4:105F
historical perspective 3:59–60 historical research 5:581–582 human-dominated ecosystems basic concepts 2:350–351
human-dominated landscapes 2:349F,
2:350–351, 2:350F human-dominated seascapes 2:351
human-dominated techno-ecosystem 3:60–63, 3:62F
human impacts 2:350 trait-based studies 2:356–357 untouched ecosystems 2:350 human impacts 4:153–161 alien species invasion continental ecosystems 4:155 general discussion 4:155 island biogeography 4:155 onshore ocean waters 4:155–156 pathogens 4:156
current impacts alien species invasion 4:155 general discussion 4:153–154 habitat alteration 4:153–154 driving forces
environmentally unsound technologies 4:159 faulty economic factors 4:159 faulty political arrangements 4:160 faulty social arrangements 4:159–160 IPAT equation 4:158–159
market failure 4:159 overconsumption 4:159 population growth/overpopulation 4:159
ecosystem deterioration measures epidemiological environment 4:158 faltering food production 4:157–158 fisheries decline 4:158
net primary production (NPP) 4:156–158
observable symptoms 4:158 water quality decline 4:158 habitat alteration
climate change effects 4:155 conversion to farms 4:154 conversion to grazing 4:154 conversion to infrastructure 4:154 dam projects 3:573–574, 4:154 deforestation 4:153–154 fire suppression 4:140, 4:154 forest fragmentation 4:154 general discussion 4:153–154 mining impacts 4:154 ocean toxification 4:155 onshore ocean siltation 4:155 ozone depletion 4:155 recreational activities 4:155 selective harvesting 4:154 wetland drainage 4:154–155 historical perspective 4:153 overexploitation
aquarium fish 4:156 esthetic resources 4:156 food harvests 4:156 general discussion 4:156 natural products 4:156 scientific and educational use 4:156 solution strategies
proximate steps 4:160 ultimate steps 4:160–161 ultimate solutions consumption control 4:161 population reduction 4:160–161