ecosystems (continued)
cooperation 2:328–329
coral reef ecosystems 2:330–346
biodiversity
diversity patterns 2:333–334
extinction risks 4:664
interspecific interactions 2:334
major groups 2:331
species diversity 2:331–333, 2:332T,
2:333T
biodiversity-rich countries 1:500T
Census of Marine Life project 2:15F,
2:16
climate change effects 3:449–450,
4:664, 6:150–151
conservation practices
greenhouse gas emissions 2:344
local management and restoration
2:343–344
conservation status 3:171–173T, 3:174
corals
algal overgrowth 2:338
anthropogenic causes 2:340
characteristics and classifications
2:334–335
classifications 4:381T
climate change effects 5:37
conservation practices 2:343–344
coral bleaching 2:338, 2:338F,
2:339F, 2:340F, 2:709–710,
3:160–161, 3:160F
coral-dwelling microbes 2:335
corallivore explosions 2:337–338
direct destruction 2:340
disappearance 2:336–337, 2:336F,
2:337F
disease incidence 2:338–340, 2:339F,
2:340F
diversity 2:334–335
ecosystem goods and services 2:343
evolutionary relationships 2:334–335
greenhouse gas emissions 2:341–342,
2:342F, 2:344
indicator species 7:206–207F
infectious diseases 2:531–532
invasive species 2:341
loss patterns and extent 2:337
mortality agents 2:337–338
nutrition and growth 2:335–336
overfishing 2:341, 5:61
photosynthetic symbioses 5:118–120,
5:119F
poor water quality 2:340–341
reproduction and recruitment
2:335–336
species loss 2:342–343, 5:597
threatened species 7:206–207F
disappearance
anthropogenic impacts 2:336–337,
2:336F, 2:337F
loss patterns and extent 2:337
ecosystem diversity 3:452–453, 5:52
ecosystem engineers 4:201
ecosystem services 1:334T, 5:465–466
El Nin˜o Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
events 3:160–161, 3:160F
fish stocks 3:481–482 global species richness 3:710 grazer-based ecosystem restoration and management 4:16
grazing effects 4:8–9, 4:9F, 4:10F, 6:40 habitat destruction 3:404, 3:405F,
3:447–448
indicator species 7:206–207F
Late Devonian extinction event 5:169–170
Late Permian extinction event 5:171 loss consequences
ecosystem goods and services 2:343 species loss 2:342–343
marine sedimentary habitats 5:108T
mortality agents algal overgrowth 2:338 anthropogenic causes 2:340
coral bleaching 2:338, 2:338F,
2:339F, 2:340F corallivore explosions 2:337–338 cyanide fishing 4:156
direct destruction 2:340
disease incidence 2:338–340, 2:339F,
2:340F greenhouse gas emissions 2:341–342, 2:342F
invasive species 2:341 overfishing 2:341, 5:61 poor water quality 2:340–341 nature-based coastal protection
strategies 5:452–453, 5:453T, 5:454F
nitrogen cycle impacts 5:543 overfishing 3:452–453, 5:54 protection and restoration models 5:465–466
spatiotemporal distributions 2:330–331, 2:331F species numbers 5:108–109
threatened species 7:201T, 7:206–207F
cultural ecosystem services 1:332–340
basic concepts 1:333–335, 1:333F,
2:490T, 7:315–316 cultural diversity effects 1:335–336, 1:335F
cultural services 1:334T desertification 2:490T
esthetic services 5:353–354 general discussion 1:333
habitat services 1:334T marine ecosystems 5:451–452, 5:452T
modeling frameworks 5:353 nature-based recreation models 5:353
provisioning services 1:334T regulating services 1:334T
spiritual services 5:354 sustainable development 1:337–339 valuation language/value articulating
institutions 1:336–337, 1:337T
definition 3:59, 3:169–170 disturbance ecology 2:562–567 anthropogenic impacts 2:566–567 basic concepts 2:562–563 carnivores 2:565–566 herbivores 2:565–566 interaction impacts 2:566
intermediate disturbance hypothesis 2:115–117, 2:563, 4:79
mechanical disturbances 2:563–564 physico–chemical disturbances 2:564–565, 2:565F
dune ecosystems 5:452–453, 5:453T
ecological perspectives 3:6–7 ecosystem boundaries analytical studies 3:241–242
basic concepts 3:238–239, 3:238F control mechanisms 3:241, 3:241F
food web–trophic level relationship 3:240–241, 3:241F
historical perspective 3:238–239 trophic dynamic concept 3:239–240 ecosystem diversity 1:402, 3:6–7 ecosystem function 3:90–95 basic concepts 3:90
ecological succession 3:93, 3:93T ecosystem productivity 3:91–92, 3:91T,
4:156–158
ecosystem services 3:90–91, 3:90T
ecosystem stability 3:93–94 energy flow 3:237–238 fire/fire regimes 3:439
keystone species 3:92–93, 3:92F,
3:246–247 Liebig’s law of minimum 3:91–92 nutrient cycling 3:93
research areas 3:91, 3:91T
research summary 3:94–95 ecosystem function measurements 3:64–71
basic concepts 3:64 biogeochemical cycles 3:68–70 comparison studies 3:64–65 new and regenerated production 3:69–70
nutrient cycling 3:68–70 primary production carbon-14 (14C) measurements 3:66
carbon-based measurements 3:65–66 data interpretation and analysis 3:66–67
fluorescence measurements 3:66 measurement approaches 3:65 oxygen-based measurements 3:65 secondary production
bioenergetic analysis 3:67 biomass accrual 3:67 birth and death rate analysis 3:67–68 egg ratio analysis 3:68
functional type analysis 3:68 instar analysis 3:68 measurement approaches 3:67 stable isotope studies 3:70–71 terrestrial ecosystems 3:72–89 analytical and measurement
approaches 3:72–73, 3:74–75T,
3:76F
biodiversity 3:84–86, 3:84F field manipulations 3:86F, 3:87F, 3:88
functional diversity (FD) 3:84
monitoring networks 3:86F, 3:87F,
3:88