eRepository @ Seton HallSeton Hall University Dissertations and Theses Fall 12-11-2018 Narrative Inquiry Into the Barriers to and Facilitators of Teacher Implementation and Sustainabilit
INTRODUCTION
Standards, assessments, curricula, and professional development are important, but they are incomplete theories of action if they don’t connect with what actually happens in classrooms and within school cultures To drive meaningful improvement, theories of action must engage directly with day-to-day teaching practices and the lived dynamics of schools.
Amid nationwide increases in cognitive demands, educators are pressed to find, adopt, and sustain effective strategies Arts integration constitutes the core of this pedagogical approach, supported by evidence-based, constructivist methods that aim to boost inner-city elementary students’ critical thinking and literacy skills Placing the learner at the center, this constructivist pedagogy emphasizes inquiry, engagement, exploration, making connections, problem solving, and social interaction, through which students actively develop higher-order thinking, knowledge, and understanding This perspective aligns with Bruner and Vygotsky's theories on learning through active, collaborative, and meaningful experiences.
Arts integration emerged in the early twentieth century as American schools restructured curricula around thematic units and integrated the arts across subjects This move marked a shift toward cross-disciplinary learning within a broader effort to reform education during that era Since then, the prominence of the arts and arts integration has fluctuated, reflecting the changing priorities of American education over time.
The eighth adaptation of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), No Child Left Behind (NCLB) of 2002, affected curriculum narrowing across the country
According to Cawelti (2006, as cited in Volante, 2012), the United States undertook a conciliatory effort to include the arts and to disseminate information about model school-based arts programs In support of this initiative, the U.S government authorized the Arts in Education program (Americans for the Arts, 2014).
Since 2002, the Arts in Education program has averaged $32 million per year in funding from the United States Department of Education to support arts-based initiatives that aim to improve critical thinking and literacy skills for students in high-poverty schools The Arts in Education Model Development and Dissemination Grant (AEMDD) is a three- to four-year competitive federal grant To date, AEMDD grants have funded 185 projects, including rigorous arts integration program evaluation studies (Performing Arts Alliance, 2016).
CAPE, established in 1992 as a six‑year AEMDD-funded demonstration, sustained partnerships among 23 Chicago public schools, 33 arts organizations, and 11 community-based organizations to strengthen the arts in Chicago’s public schools A seminal study from this collaboration examined eight CAPE-participating schools, with ten teachers per school designing two comparable units—one arts-integrated and one non-arts-integrated—while researchers observed instruction and interviewed students; students’ writing from both units was scored for depth of knowledge, analytic assessment, and affective responses, with pre- and post-writing also rated The findings showed growth in CAPE schools across several measures of student achievement and indicated that CAPE students, on average, outperformed students in demographically similar non-CAPE schools on standardized tests (as reported by DeMoss, 2000; Morris, 2002).
In 2010, the four-year Supporting Arts Integrated Learning for Student Success (SAILSS) model, funded by an AEMDD grant, was implemented at Bates Middle School in Maryland, a low-performing school targeted for restructuring The program delivered extensive site-based workshops by teaching artists, teaching labs with students, a cohort-based arts integration certification, off-site trainings, conferences, and workshops A mixed-methods quasi-experimental study comparing treatment and comparison schools used standardized test scores, environmental data, and arts-integration data, along with surveys from parents, students, and teachers The findings showed increased standardized assessment scores, a 77% decline in discipline referrals, and significant positive changes in school climate in the treatment schools from 2010 to 2014 (Snyder, Klos, & Grey-Hawkins, 2014) Millions of AEMDD grant dollars also funded the Kennedy Center’s Changing Education through the Arts (CETA) program in Washington, DC, which with federal funding hosts national conferences to support program replication (Duma, 2014).
Analysis of AEMDD-funded program data shows that students engaged in arts-integrated programs experience substantially larger gains in English Language Arts standardized test scores than their control-group peers This pattern is supported by multiple studies (Catterall & Waldorf, 1999; Ingram & Reidel, 2003; Rabkin & Redmond, 2004; Walker, Tabone, & Weltsek, 2011) Additional research by Posner and Patoine (2009) confirms that arts engagement enhances student cognition, and Rinne, Gregory, Yarmalinskaya, and Hardimon (2011) find that arts-integrated curricula have the potential to increase student retention.
While evidence of the positive effects of AEMDD projects on student achievement prevails throughout the literature, opposing perspectives are also presented
Craig (2006) studied a veteran art teacher’s participation in a nationally funded curriculum dissemination project, clarifying the distinction between curriculum makers—those who exercise agency and collaboratively develop high‑quality arts‑integrated curricular experiences intended to boost student learning and their own professional practice—and curriculum disseminators, who simply convey the curriculum to learners Analysis of narrative accounts indicated that time‑bound submission deadlines were a characteristic of the project, shaping how these roles influenced the dissemination of arts education.
The AEMDD grant did not allocate processing time for teachers or students, and the dissemination grant did not provide time for revising instructional plans to accommodate inquiry-based re-directions and extensions.
Classification of Teacher Implementation of Arts Integration
Arts integration in schools has taken many forms, from using the same song or artwork across multiple subjects to incorporating graphic arts such as drawing within science, social studies, or language arts Bowie (2009) identifies three levels of implementation for arts integration: service connections, symmetric correlations, and syntegration Snyder (2001) outlines curriculum integration levels—connection, correlation, and integration—that align directly with Bowie's typology, a relationship also noted by Burnaford, Brown, Doherty, and McLaughlin (2007).
Service connections across subjects occur when concepts and outcomes are learned and reinforced in one subject using materials and resources from another, with no specific outcomes from the servicing subject (Bowie, 2009, p 5) A common early childhood example is using “The Alphabet Song” to promote retention of letters, which supports literacy but does not intentionally yield music learning outcomes Bowie cautioned that such lessons, while useful as instructional aids, should not be viewed as arts lessons Snyder agreed that “connection” is the most commonly implemented form of cross-curricular integration in schools yet the least effective for integrating disciplines, noting that “One discipline is used in the service of another” (Burnaford et al., 2007, p 26).
Bowie (2009) describes the Symmetric Correlations model as leveraging shared resources from two or more subjects to produce authentic outcomes across integrated disciplines, even though these results are often shaped by the specific context of each subject Snyder defines correlation as the sharing of common materials or activities between disciplines, but she argues that this approach does not foster the development of broad cross-disciplinary ideas She notes that schools implementing arts integration at the correlation level frequently seek funding for teaching artists, professional development, and resources, yet before standardized exams, skills-based test preparation dominated, and arts-integrated, correlational curricula have often fallen by the wayside.
The third and most holistic type of arts integration in Bowie’s framework is
Syntegration is a theme-based approach to curriculum that integrates subjects through the authentic exploration of a unifying theme, requiring the blending of interdisciplinary strategies and resources Even in a holistic syntegrated unit plan, each discrete subject can achieve genuine standards-based indicators and outcomes while preserving its own integrity.
Bowie argues that a deep, multifaceted understanding of the overall theme emerges when each subject contributes, enabling true arts integration within this framework Snyder agrees, defining integration as choosing a broad cross-cutting theme that spans content areas so disciplines can interpret and explore it in unique yet related ways (Burnaford et al., 2007, p 24) He adds that such integration is reflected in school structure, with scheduling and goal-setting adjusted to support interdisciplinary teaching and learning.
Bresler (1995, as cited in Mishook & Kornhaber, 2006) developed a typology of arts integration, a classification system that comprises “co-equal, cognitive integration,”
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This review begins with literature reflecting the impact of the macrosystem that addresses the influence of overarching social/cultural ideologies, values, belief systems, concepts of success, concepts of function of education, status hierarchies, and capitalism on arts integration in American schools during the period from the late nineteenth through the early twenty-first century The impact of exosystemic early educational policies and mandates, as promulgated through the iterations of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, is also a point of focus within this review The literature entailing essential aspects of the mesosystemic construct—school culture—as it relates to the implementation and sustainability of arts integration is included Deeply embedded in and influenced by all levels of the ecosystem is individual teacher This review also includes literature that explores how disposition, values, and sense of self-efficacy affect a teacher’s ability to undertake pedagogical reform in the form of arts integration
This literature review synthesizes relevant scholarly material, including journal articles, qualitative and quantitative dissertations, case studies, meta-analyses, and national reports, accessed through Google Scholar and the archives ERIC (EBSCO), ERIC (ProQuest), JSTOR, ED.gov.state.nj.us/education, parcconline.org, scholarship.org, and edweek.org The primary search terms employed encompassed integration, arts education, curriculum integration, constructivism, teacher perception, teacher self-efficacy, school culture, state standards, NCLB, ESSA, teaching artist, professional development, educational ecosystem, intervention, initiative sustainability, pedagogy, direct instruction, change theory, educational equity, critical thinking, transfer theory, multiple intelligence theory, semiotics, interdisciplinary collaboration, collaborative planning, academic achievement, and Title I.
Relevant data referenced from books and e-books are also included within this chapter
In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education issued A Nation at Risk, a landmark report that framed education as essential to the nation’s economic strength and global competitiveness Presented as an open letter to President Ronald Reagan and the American public, the report warned that academic performance was poor across nearly all levels and that the nation’s schools were being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity It called for urgent educational reform to restore excellence and ensure the United States maintained its economic leadership.
This utilitarian outlook shaped policy as early as 1867, when New England textile products were judged inferior to European textiles at the Paris Expo In response, Massachusetts officials quickly mandated the inclusion of drawings in the exhibits, a move that underscored an effort to raise standards and better showcase regional industry against foreign competition.
Burnaford et al (2001) describe the Massachusetts school curriculum as marking the beginning of state-mandated arts curricula, establishing a formal role for the arts in public education Shortly before the turn of the century, the National Education Association (NEA) published a report that emphasized mathematics, science, and modern languages, effectively sidelining the arts The conspicuous omission of the arts in the NEA report signaled the start of a long and capricious journey for arts education in American schools.
The Progressive movement of the twentieth century ushered arts curriculum back into focus In 1918, the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education were issued by the
According to the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, seven core principles—health, command of fundamental processes, worthy home membership, vocation, civic education, worthy use of leisure, and ethical character—should anchor secondary education and be taught through an integrated curriculum across music, art, literature, drama, social studies, and science.
(Department of Interior Borough of Education, 1918)
A decade and a half later, Dewey argued that curriculum integration connects academic subjects to increase intellectual curiosity and understanding, while revealing the world around us as a perennial source of aesthetic delight This view highlights the arts' significance and the broader benefits of an integrated curriculum At the University of Chicago’s Laboratory School, Dewey supported this approach, insisting that no subject should be taught in isolation and that the arts are not a segregated endeavour but a quality that makes certain experiences worthwhile These ideas continue to inform conversations about arts integration and holistic education.
In 1936, a sub-committee of the National Council of Teachers of English published A Correlated Curriculum, built on Ruth Mary Weeks’s whole child–real world learning philosophy and providing the conceptual framework later researchers would use for curriculum integration Early advocates saw curriculum integration as a democratic, fair process that prepared students for life, while the arts thrived both inside and outside schools during the post–World War II economic expansion However, with Sputnik’s rise in 1957, the emphasis shifted toward science and mathematics as national priorities, and arts curricula diminished from the educational frontier (Fowler, 1996).
Since its enactment in 1965 as a cornerstone of President Lyndon Johnson’s War on Poverty, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) aimed to close achievement gaps by providing Title I funding to students from low-income families ESEA emerged from political unease over persistent post‑World War II poverty and the momentum of the Civil Rights Movement, representing a proactive federal response that even embraced arts and arts education as part of national healing Over the decades the Act has been reauthorized several times to adapt to changing needs, while the 1980s’ global economy heightened fears about competition In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education issued A Nation at Risk, a report that intensified calls for accountability across sectors and, in the process, relegated the arts to the background within schooling.
The Goals 2000 Educate America Act (1994), proposed by President Clinton, advocated for the arts to be included among the essential core curricula and recognized arts education as a core discipline within the National Education Goals, with the aim of achieving high academic achievement for all students (Kirst & Kirp, 2000).
To boost education quality, the U.S Department of Education and the National Endowment for the Arts created the Goals 2000 Arts Education Partnership to craft an action plan that maximizes the arts’ contribution to student achievement and helps meet national education goals (Kirst & Kirp, 2000) The idea proved short-lived and was later revisited under the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB).
The eighth adaptation of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, Public Law 107-110, was reauthorized as “No Child Left Behind” with the endorsement of President
In January 2002, President George W Bush unveiled the No Child Left Behind Act, which mandated that states, districts, and schools ensure every student achieves 100 percent proficiency in English Language Arts and Mathematics by 2014 To support this goal, funding was redirected toward high-stakes testing in these core subjects, and the federal government increased its oversight of public schools to track progress and accountability.
In “The Road Less Traveled,” Brent McKim (2007) asserted,
Under the No Child Left Behind framework, the policy has produced numerous unintended consequences As emphasis gravitates toward high-stakes testing in mathematics and literacy, the core values that underpin a democratic society—critical thinking, creativity, problem-solving, effective communication, collaboration, respect, and appreciation for diversity—tend to be sidelined.
Such an exclusionary policy might have garnered greater justification had the desired outcome been attainable However, echoing the consensus of stakeholders nationwide,
Michelman (2012) indicated that a broad consensus among educators and policy experts held that No Child Left Behind (NCLB) was deeply flawed, and that its one-size-fits-all approach caused frustration for both state leaders and local educators.
In 2007, ESEA was scheduled to be reauthorized, which would have replaced No Child Left Behind (NCLB) However, due to eight years of delay attributable to
After congressional stalemates, the ninth reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, now known as the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), became law on December 10, 2015 The legislation grants school districts greater autonomy in selecting their educational services, allowing for more locally tailored approaches Importantly, it preserves a commitment to a free and appropriate education aligned with the Common Core standards, explicitly including graphic arts, music, and other forms of artistic expression as integral components of a well-rounded curriculum.
Equity, Socio-Economics, and the Arts