The two studies were situated within a student’s trajectory based upon access to pedagogical experiences that promoted student ownership in middle school and later programs that supporte
Introduction
Many educators have long echoed the refrain “I hate math,” an attitude of apathy toward mathematics that has been linked to lower student achievement (Rich, 2015) In discussions with colleagues, researchers have repeatedly observed this same pattern, prompting questions about why so many students feel disengaged from mathematics (Rich, 2015) In Missouri, fewer than 50% of students in grades 3–8 took the Missouri Assessment, underscoring concerns about math participation and achievement in this key school range.
Program (MAP) in the Spring of 2016 and scored Proficient or Advanced in Math
(Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education, 2019) Thus, more than half of Missouri’s students scored Basic or Below Basic on the Math MAP test (Missouri
Department of Elementary and Secondary Education, 2019) Statistics across the nation mirrored Missouri’s students’ academic performances in mathematics (Pajares & Miller,
1994) A recent examination of nationwide student performance on standardized assessments provided evidence of waning science and reading scores and a steady decline in the area of mathematics (Rich, 2015)
Over the last 20 years, one student subgroup that has continued to perform poorly on standardized assessments has been African-American students (Lee & Ransom, 2011)
The poor performance of African-American students has been researched and documented (Lee & Ransom, 2011; Tate, 1997) Tate (1997) suggested students consistently have scored lower than Asian-American and Caucasian-American students
Math underachievement in the kindergarten through 12th grade (K-12) sectors threatens students’ readiness for both college and future careers (Tate, 1997) Despite advances in technology, medicine, and many other areas of American society, public education has remained largely frozen in time (Lee & Ransom, 2011) Classrooms continue to feature desks arranged in rows, with teachers delivering lectures at the front of the room and relying heavily on textbooks and worksheets (Lee & Ransom, 2011).
Ransom (2011) notes that many teachers rely on outdated curriculum materials and uniform pacing guides, with student discourse and collaboration often scarce (Kena et al., 2016) More recently, education has shifted toward student-led classrooms, moving away from the traditional teacher-led model of information distribution (Kena et al., 2016).
The problem with teacher-centered teaching has been that most of the information given by the teacher could not have been stored in long-term memory (Sousa, 2009)
Teachers often focus on instruction without realizing that many students struggle to form meaningful connections, which are essential for true understanding and application Educational researcher Sousa (2009) argues that new knowledge only becomes long-term memory when it has meaning for the learner, highlighting the importance of tying learning to the learner’s context and relevance.
Effective teachers encourage students to develop their own understanding, to question ideas, and to seek diverse answers They prioritize building student agency, efficacy, and grit so learners emerge as confident leaders in their classrooms, in colleges, in their future careers, and in their communities (Browne & Keeley, 1998).
Recent analyses show that African-American students in public schools have not been considered college- and career-ready in math when compared to their white peers, with the underachievement extending beyond academic skills (ACT, 2012) Moreover, African-American students are often not prepared to navigate life in academia after high school because they lack crucial student ownership behaviors (Connell, Spencer, & Aber, 1994) ACT (2017) reported that student scores increased by four points in English Language Arts, indicating some gains in that domain. -**Support Pollinations.AI:**🌸 **Ad** 🌸 Boost your article’s SEO and clarity—[let Pollinations.AI help you rewrite content that engages and informs](https://pollinations.ai/redirect/kofi).
(ELA) to 31% and two points in math to 27%, racial achievement gaps persisted and, in some cases, widened over time In America’s capital, the District of Columbia Public
According to ACT data from 2017, there was a 50% achievement gap between students in Northwestern Ward Three, a neighborhood largely comprised of affluent white residents, and those in Southeast Ward 7, which is predominantly poor and Black, underscoring the link between racial and economic segregation and educational performance.
At the kindergarten through 12 th -grade school level, the variance in math performance was seen throughout the elementary level (ACT, 2017) For the most part,
African-American students from high poverty areas entered kindergarten without basic math skills, and few of these students were counting to 100 or able to recognize shapes
(ACT, 2017) Consequently, the same students later left middle school still unprepared and lacking the skills necessary to be successful in high school mathematics courses
National data (Balfanz, Ruby, & Maclver, 2006) show that student achievement declines as students move from fourth to eighth grade, with African-American students from poor neighborhoods and failing schools at the highest risk of this decline Pelavin and Michael (1990) similarly found that many African-American students from impoverished areas are inadequately prepared in middle school, often resulting in high school underachievement and fewer opportunities for lifelong success This study aims to examine instructional methods that boost math achievement and foster students’ ownership of their learning.
The purpose of this study was to extend prior literature by employing a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design with a quasi-experimental framework to examine the effect of student-led pedagogy on mathematics achievement and student ownership, with a focus on increasing African learners' engagement.
American students' mathematical mastery and ownership of learning skills can boost college and career readiness, expanding long-term career opportunities and improving the lives of students, their families, and their communities The study employs quantitative analysis to determine the impact of implementing a mathematics student-led classroom, using statistical analysis of STAR Math Assessment scores from sixth-grade students at Berkeley Middle.
School, which was located in the Ferguson-Florissant School District during the 2018-
During the 2019 school year, the study applied qualitative analysis to interpret the findings and illuminate plausible explanations for the impact of implementing mathematics student-led classrooms The researcher examined the effects of student-led classrooms through the Front Seat Learning (FSL) program as a strategy to boost mathematics achievement among youth, with the aim of narrowing the mathematics achievement gap and potentially improving college and career readiness.
Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Null Hypotheses
The overarching research question for the study was the following: What are the
For the quantitative phase of this study, the research questions were:
1 What was the effect of Front Seat Learning on students’ performance as measured by the STAR Math assessment?
This analysis examines whether student mastery of mathematics, as measured by the STAR Math assessment, differs significantly when instruction is delivered through Front Seat Learning's student-led approach versus traditional teacher-led instruction By comparing STAR Math scores across the two instructional models, the results report p-values, effect sizes, and confidence intervals to determine the presence and magnitude of any difference, indicating whether the student-led Front Seat Learning method yields higher, lower, or equivalent math mastery compared with conventional instruction.
For the qualitative phase of this study, the research questions were:
3 Did the Front Seat Learning program in mathematics impact student achievement?
4 Was there a relationship between student ownership and mathematics achievement?
In regard to these questions, the researcher had the following hypotheses:
1 Implementing Front Seat Learning at Berkeley Middle School in the sixth grade will increase students’ mathematical mastery as measured by the STAR
Math Assessment during the 2018-2019 School Year
2 The null hypothesis associated with this question was:
H01: Students’ mathematical mastery will not improve in students that received the student-led intervention Front-Seat Learning as measured by the STAR Math
During the 2018-2019 school year, the STAR Math Assessment revealed a significant difference in gains in mathematical mastery between students who participated in the student-led Front-Seat Learning intervention and those who received teacher-led instruction The findings highlight the impact of instructional approach on math growth, with a measurable gap in mathematical mastery as assessed by STAR Math between the two groups.
2018-2019 School Year (Renaissance Learning, 2018) a The null hypothesis associated with this question was:
H02: There was no difference between the improvement of mathematical mastery in students that received the student-led intervention, Front-Seat
Learning, and the mathematical mastery of students that received teacher-led instruction as measured by the STAR Math Assessment during the 2018-2019
Implementing Front Seat Learning at Berkeley Middle School with 6th-grade students during the 2018-2019 school year increased student ownership, as measured by surveys and interviews with participating students The null hypothesis associated with this question stated that Front Seat Learning would not increase student ownership Analyses of the qualitative interview data and quantitative survey responses indicate higher levels of ownership, responsibility, and engagement among students who experienced Front Seat Learning, supporting the program's effectiveness in fostering student agency in middle school.
H03 posits that there is no significant difference in the improvement of student ownership between students who received the student-led intervention Front-Seat Learning, as assessed through surveys and interviews of participants who experienced Front-Seat Learning during the study period.
Front Seat Learning: Mastery-Based Program Implementation Schedule
Note Implementation of Front Seat Learning during the School Year of 2016-2017 at one middle school in
Literature Review
In this section, the researcher surveyed scholarly articles to examine research related to student-led pedagogy and the framework of Front Seat Learning African-
American students fared the worst when trying to obtain career opportunities that provided access to financial security (Ford & Moore, 2014) For example, African-
American students had the highest high school dropout rates (Lee & Ransom, 2011) Of the African-American students who completed high schools and who attended four-year universities, only 37.6% completed and earned degrees (U.S Department of Education,
2016) This was compared to 47.9% of Hispanic and 67.2% of White students (U.S
Department of Education, 2016); in two-year institutions, only 19.8% earned degrees, which compared to 28.6% of Hispanics and 30.4% of White students (U.S Department of Education, 2016)
The disparities began in early childhood and gradually increased throughout
African-American students’ educational careers, especially in the first through eighth grades (U.S Department of Education, 2016) Students who successfully completed rigorous curricula in the early years of their educational experiences were better prepared for high school, which resulted in an increase in college and career readiness (U.S
Department of Education (2016) and ACT’s The Forgotten Middle (2008) show that eighth-grade math achievement exerts a significant influence on college and career readiness, challenging the idea that high school performance is the sole predictor of readiness The findings reveal that African-American students meet college-readiness benchmarks at lower rates than their peers, regardless of high school graduation status, suggesting that the coursework may not adequately prepare them for college (ACT, 2014) To understand how to support students of color, it is essential to study achievement and college- and career-readiness gaps across subgroups—and to consider the experiences of students, victims, and stakeholders—in order to counteract the disadvantages that impede academic potential (ACT).
According to the American Psychological Association, low socioeconomic status is linked to lower educational attainment, higher poverty, greater health disparities, and elevated incarceration rates (Sampson, Morenoff, & Gannon-Rowley, 2002) Educational attainment in turn influences household income, and income then affects overall quality of life (Sampson et al., 2002) Therefore, increasing access to high-quality education for African communities is a pivotal step toward breaking this cycle and improving socioeconomic outcomes.
Americans students will not only increase opportunities for those students but will also strengthen the overall economy
Educational research relies on three primary frameworks—practical, theoretical, and conceptual (Creswell & Clark, 2011) Each framework has distinct characteristics and serves a unique function in shaping research questions, methods, and interpretation of findings Together, they guide how investigators design studies, analyze results, and advance scientific knowledge in education (Creswell & Clark, 2011).
In this study, activities were guided by established formal theories within a theoretical framework that explains the 'why' behind the research, while practical frameworks delineate the 'how'—the methods and procedures used in the study—showing how theory translates into practice (Creswell & Clark, 2011).
This framework reflects a long tradition of practice-based research by practitioners who are deeply involved in the topic (Creswell & Clark, 2011) A conceptual framework serves as a structured product that explains, either graphically or in narrative form, the main elements to be studied—the key factors, concepts, or variables—and the presumed relationships among them (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p 278).
The concept of Front Seat Learning has leaned on the Constructivism Learning
Learning theory is described as a theoretical perspective rooted in scientific research on how children learn (Sams et al., 2019) Constructivist theory holds that children construct their understanding by actively interacting with their environment, shaping meaning through exploration and experience (Honebein, 1996).
When students encounter new information, they reconcile it with their prior knowledge, making learning meaningful by curating understanding through inquiry, exploration, and self-reflection (Honebein, 1996; Ormrod, 2000) The FSL concept leverages the Theory of Constructivism to foster lasting learning experiences through experiential learning (Sams et al., 2019) In this flipped model, students collaborate with peers and receive minimal instructor influence (Flipped Learning Network, 2014) Rather than merely accumulating information from teachers, learners gather data, think critically about their experiences, transmit knowledge to peers, and make sense of information on their own (FSL, 2014).
In Front Seat Learning, knowledge acquisition occurred within individual students and within their communities of students (Sams et al., 2019) This was derived from
Piaget’s Developmental Theory, which stated that students developed knowledge by
Vygotsky’s developmental theory significantly shaped social constructivist learning, emphasizing that development is deeply rooted in social interaction and culture He argued that children’s early learning emerges from their surrounding environments and everyday activities, which means classroom experiences should be contextualized and aligned with students’ lives Consequently, instructional materials and classroom tasks need to be meaningful, culturally relevant, and designed to engage learners within their communities (Vygotsky, 1978).
Children learn through social interaction by absorbing the knowledge around them and constructing new understanding (Vygotsky, 1978) Adults support this process by creating opportunities for learners to reach higher levels of knowledge construction (Vygotsky, 1978) In the classroom, constructivism shifts the focus away from memorization toward the development of critical thinking, helping students engage more deeply with ideas (Vygotsky, 1978) As these thinking skills grow, intrinsic motivation is fostered, guiding students toward becoming lifelong learners (Bonk & Cunningham, 1998).
The application of the Constructivist theorist approach in education began in the
In the United States during the late 20th century, constructivist teaching approaches were being developed and widely applied in education, reflecting the influence of Vygotsky (1978) Across developed countries, Hiebert et al (1999) report that high-performing education systems tended to use constructivist instructional methods In these contexts, educators emphasized logical explanations, real-world applications, scientific inquiry, complex problem solving, collaborative discussions, and open-ended, project-based tasks (Stigler & Hibert, 2004).
Dewey (1929), Piaget (1980), and Vygotsky (1978) helped shape student-led classroom models like Front Seat Learning, emphasizing active participation and social interaction in learning Carl Rogers (1969) argued that knowledge discovered by students themselves is the most significant influence on learning Building on these ideas, Montessori’s model stands as one of the earliest student-centered approaches, where children learn through independent, self-directed inquiry with previously presented knowledge, and with a strong emphasis on student collaboration (Kendall, 1993).
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) theory explains that students can learn more from their peers than from their teachers (Vygotsky, 1978) Peer-to-peer interaction fosters collaborative thinking, leading to increased learning, a concept supported by Piaget (1980), who emphasized social interaction as a driver of cognitive development.
Vygotsky, 1978) The Self-Determination Theory explained why autonomously- motivated students thrived, and it explained why students benefited when teachers support their autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000)
Students become intrinsically motivated when they can contribute to and gauge their own learning, a key idea in Self-Determination Theory (SDT) as outlined by Ryan and Deci (2000) SDT roots itself in traditional motivation theory while integrating an explicit focus on intrinsic motivation, using empirical methods to understand how autonomy, competence, and relatedness support deeper engagement in learning In short, SDT explains how fostering these psychological needs enhances students' intrinsic motivation and sustained effort.
Research Methodology
Mixed-methods research is the deliberate integration of quantitative and qualitative data within a single study, as outlined by Creswell and Clark (2011) This approach creates a synergistic analysis that yields a richer, more nuanced understanding than using either method alone, enabling a comprehensive data analysis and the emergence of a cohesive thematic picture.
2011) The researcher’s philosophy was pragmatic in that the focus was on successful practice and the inquiry and drawn from both quantitative and qualitative assumptions
Guided by a pragmatic worldview, the study allowed researchers to select methods and procedures that best fit its goals, while exploring real‑world experiences and diverse viewpoints throughout the investigation (Creswell & Clark, 2011; Creswell, 2009).
This study contributes to understanding student-centered learning by employing a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design to examine the effect of Front Seat Learning on mathematics achievement and students’ ownership in classroom settings Through the quantitative phase, the study measures changes in mathematics achievement associated with Front Seat Learning, while the qualitative phase investigates learners’ sense of ownership, agency, and engagement By integrating these methods, the research offers nuanced evidence on how Front Seat Learning influences both performance and perceived control, with implications for classroom practice and policy in advancing student-centered education.
African-American students in urban environments face persistent achievement and college- and career-readiness gaps (Creswell, 2009) The researcher posits that a student-led classroom instructional approach can help narrow these gaps by increasing learner agency and engagement This study employs a comparative experimental design to establish the efficacy of Front Seat Learning as a student-led classroom model relative to traditional teacher-led instruction The overarching research question asks: What are the effects of Front Seat Learning on student achievement, engagement, and readiness for college and career pathways in urban school settings?
Learning program on math achievement and student ownership?
Research Questions: In the quantitative phase of this study, math achievement was measured using the STAR Math assessment To answer the quantitative research question, the researcher collected math assessment data at multiple time points, specifically in August 2018 and Winter 2018, to examine changes in performance across periods and support robust analysis of trends over time.
Spring of 2019 by administering the STAR Math screener to all students and comparing it to data of students who had not been exposed to FSL
For the qualitative phase of this study, the research questions were:
1) Did the Front Seat Learning in mathematics impact student ownership?
2) Is there a correlation between student ownership and mathematics achievement?
To address the research question, the researcher developed student surveys and an interview protocol, which were administered in May 2019 to record students' mindsets and behavioral dispositions related to ownership.
The design of this study was an experimental pre-test and post-test design because students were placed into the teachers’ classrooms by random assignment (Creswell,
In this study, the researcher controlled extraneous variables to increase the likelihood that the independent variable would directly affect the dependent variable, aligning with Creswell (2009) A comparative analysis was used to determine the effectiveness of Front Seat Learning, a student-led classroom model Participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group Both groups were pre-tested with the STAR assessment to establish baselines for the independent variable, Front Seat Learning The experimental group received the Front Seat Learning treatment, while the control group did not After the intervention, both groups were post-tested to assess the impact of manipulating the independent variable on the dependent variable.
During the quantitative phase, the study compared student-led instructional approaches with traditional teacher-led instruction by applying independent samples t-tests and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) These statistical methods were chosen to examine the relationship between pedagogy and student achievement and to control for relevant covariates The researcher conducted the quantitative analysis after the final assessment to determine whether instructional method significantly affected achievement outcomes and to identify any adjusted effects when covariates were accounted for.
STAR screener The qualitative data was collected and analyzed at the conclusion of the quantitative phase in order to provide a more in-depth understanding of how Front Seat
Learning impacted student achievement and behavioral dispositions
Figure 3 Exploratory, nested, concurrent, mixed-methods research design
Setting, Population Sample, and Participation
The researcher studied participants enrolled in an urban middle school located in a St Louis, Missouri school district At the time of the study, the school's enrollment consisted largely of students eligible for the free lunch program The racial composition was 97% African-American, 2% Caucasian-American, and 1% identifying as other The school’s attendance rate stood at 83% Sampling involved selecting individuals or groups from the population to serve as representatives of the broader student body (Creswell, 2009), with the goal of generalizing findings to the population as a whole The researcher employed probability sampling because of randomization, ensuring that every sixth-grade student at the school had an equal chance of being selected for the study (Creswell, 2009).
The study took place in two phases—the Quantitative Phase I and the Qualitative
Phase II required participants to have completed both the Fall 2018 and Spring 2019 Screeners All students in both the control and experimental groups were required to participate in Phase I and to complete the STAR Math Assessments The control group 6A consisted of 27 general education students, including 20 females and 9 males The experimental group consisted of 32 general education students, including 17 females and 15 males, with three students in this group receiving special education services.
In Phase II, the Qualitative Phase relied on surveys and interviews to collect data All students in 6A and 6B were required to complete the survey, yielding 41 responses The sample size for the quantitative phase was sufficient to capture data from the entire population under study, while the qualitative data analysis used a smaller, more focused sample than the quantitative phase As Creswell and colleagues note, qualitative sampling is typically smaller and purposively chosen to deepen understanding and complement broader quantitative findings.
Clark (2011) notes that individuals are complex, with qualitative observations from interviews differing from numerical data, which makes analysis more complex due to the number of themes identified in the data (Creswell, 2011) This report does not document the effects of student-led classrooms in suburban or rural settings across socioeconomic status or grade level, nor does it aim to compare the results of the selected population with those of their counterparts.
To focus the analysis, the study limited qualitative and quantitative data collection to a single site, a design choice that helps identify variables within a specific setting, as described by Creswell and Clark (2011) An experimental pre-test/post-test framework was employed to assess the relationship between the quantitative and qualitative variables The instructional methods were manipulated between the control and experimental groups, making the instructional approach the independent variable Specifically, the researcher determined whether subjects were exposed to student-led Front Seat Learning or the traditional teacher-led, whole-group instructional model.
The dependent variable in this study was the amount of growth in mathematical achievement from August 2018 through May 2019 as measured by the STAR Math
Assessment The dependent variable was measured to determine if the manipulation of the independent variable had any effect on student growth on mathematical mastery
Figure 3 Comparative Analysis Plan based upon this study and referencing Sams et al
Threats to internal and external validity were acknowledged, and triangulation was used as a validation strategy to address them The study analyzed multiple data forms within and across sources to strengthen validity Specifically, in-person interviews, standardized test scores, and students’ surveys were examined to establish construct validity by using multiple data sources.
Yin (2009) argues that using multiple data sources as evidence is particularly valuable for reducing threats to validity, because triangulating data from diverse sources enhances the credibility and overall validity of the study.