Perry, Thomas D., 2018: Dissertation, Gardner-Webb University, High School/Homework/Achievement/Student Learning/Personal Development/Family Relationships/Preparation Homework/Practice H
Introduction
Homework has always aroused strong passions, both pro and con (Gill &
Schlossman (2004, p 180) highlights that homework is a topic that quickly generates discussion among educators, parents, and students Even with a long history of homework and extensive research, researchers today still only partly understand how homework affects student achievement Vatterott (2009) observes that homework has long been treated as a positive, widely accepted part of a student’s routine in the United States; over time, American homework has evolved from simple memorization and recitation used to reinforce classroom learning to more complex tasks such as projects and presentations.
Although homework offers both academic and nonacademic advantages and disadvantages, most studies show inconclusive evidence that assigning homework increases student achievement Some studies report positive effects for certain students, while others show little to no impact on achievement, highlighting that researchers have not reached consensus on homework's strengths and weaknesses as an instructional technique (Kohn, 2006, p 25).
A second area of debate focuses on whether different types of homework affect student achievement Lee and Pruitt’s (1979) taxonomy—which identifies four types of homework: preparation, practice, extension, and creativity—has been cited as an area in need of further research (Foyle, 1984; Foyle & Bailey, 1986; LaConte, 1981) Although extensive research has examined the overall impact of homework on student achievement and the homework versus no-homework debate (Cooper & Valentine, 2001; Murphy & Decker, 1989), evidence on the relative effectiveness of different homework types remains limited (Lee & Pruitt, 1979; Pendergrass, 1985).
After participating in required schoolwide reading and group discussions on Vatterott’s (2009) book, Rethinking Homework: Best Practices that Support Diverse
In a rural high school in the foothills of North Carolina, teachers were divided over why homework matters for student achievement Opinions were nearly evenly split between pro-homework and anti-homework stances Anti-homework teachers argued that homework is unnecessary and that a skilled teacher should cover the curriculum within the 90-minute block class, resulting in little to no homework assigned In contrast, pro-homework teachers maintained that homework is essential to learning, reporting about 45 minutes to an hour of nightly assignments for students.
Beyond the ongoing debate about homework versus no homework, discussions have also focused on which types of assignments most effectively promote student achievement At the target high school, teachers tended to emphasize only two of the four categories in Lee and Pruitt’s (1979) taxonomy—practice homework and preparation homework Practice homework is the simplest, most common form designed to help students master skills taught in previous lessons, while preparation homework ranks as the second most common type among assignments.
Preparation assignments are designed to prepare students for the skills they will learn in their next class meeting (Lee & Pruitt, 1979, p 32) Lee and Pruitt further classify two other homework types as extension and creative: extension assignments determine whether a student can transfer a new skill or concept to a new situation, and creative assignments require students to integrate many skills and concepts in producing a response (Lee & Pruitt, 1979, p 32) Because these two types typically demand more time from students and more effort for teachers to prepare, monitor, and grade, they are assigned less often (Lee & Pruitt, 1979, p 32) The four types of homework are illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Lee and Pruitt’s Taxonomy of Homework Assignments
Researchers have long examined the impact of homework on student achievement, yet most studies frame the debate as homework versus no homework or focus on assignment duration and frequency Relatively little research has explored how different types of homework affect learning outcomes, particularly at the high school level According to Gill and Schlossman, this gap in the literature underscores the need for studies that evaluate the effectiveness of varied homework formats rather than merely the amount of homework assigned.
(2004), research on homework should be focused on the type and quality of homework, not on just the homework versus no homework debate
This study addresses gaps in the literature on homework and student achievement, as well as gaps related to the different types of homework It reviews research on the relationship between homework and student learning/achievement and examines Lee and Pruitt’s (1979) taxonomy of homework It also investigates teacher, parent, and student perceptions of homework and its effects on student achievement.
This mixed-methods study examines whether homework is related to student achievement for high school students at a rural school in the foothills of North Carolina, investigates whether the two types of homework—preparation and practice—are differently associated with achievement, and explores stakeholder perspectives from teachers, students, and parents on how homework affects learning, personal development, and family relationships.
1 What differences in academic achievement exist among students assigned no homework compared to those assigned homework?
2 What differences in academic achievement exist among students assigned primarily preparation homework compared to those assigned primarily practice homework?
3 What perceptions of stakeholders (teachers, students, and parents) exist about the impact of homework on student learning?
4 What perceptions of stakeholders (teachers, students, and parents) exist about the impact of homework on the personal development of students?
5 What perceptions of stakeholders (teachers, students, and parents) exist about the impact of homework on family relationships?
Homework remains a topic of national interest and local importance, with many teachers continuing to assign it and a large number of parents expecting their children to receive it, but a growing body of research indicates that homework may not be essential in schools and can negatively affect the quality of life for students and their families (Kohn, 2006; Kralovec & Buell, 2000; Vatterott, 2009).
There’s a growing trend toward limiting or banning homework in schools Orchard School, an elementary in South Burlington, Vermont, ended homework during the 2016–2017 school year In 2015, Bellows Free Academy in Franklin County, Vermont, stopped assigning homework for all middle school students By contrast, high schools have been more reluctant to change their homework policies, with homework at the high school level remaining common and subject to ongoing discussion.
“positive practice and accepted without question as part of the student routine” (Vatterott,
At Ridgewood High School in Norridge, Illinois, teachers assign homework that does not count toward students' final grades, a practice noted by Pawlowski (2014) with reference to 2009 This setup reflects an ongoing conversation about the purpose and value of homework, a debate that spans all levels of schooling.
In 2016, Orchard Elementary School in Vermont opted to ban homework based in part from the content read in the controversial book The Homework Myth by Kohn
In 2006, Principal Mark Trifili said there was a serious spike in anxiety among students caused by homework and banned homework at his school (Weekman, 2016, p 2) "They are just kids They’re pretty young and just want to put in a full day’s shift at work, and so we just don’t believe in adding more to their day," Trifilio told the Associated Press (Weekman, 2016, p 2) Alfie Kohn, author of the book, explained to the Associated Press that homework is "all pain and no gain" (Weekman, 2016, p 2).
Harris Cooper, a Duke University professor, has spent 30 years studying the effects of homework He challenges the idea that homework is “all pain and no gain,” noting that while its impact may be smaller for elementary students than for middle and high schoolers, homework is beneficial for all kids (Cooper, Robinson, & Patall, 2006) He frames the discussion with a medicine analogy: homework should be taken in the right dose—too little does nothing, too much can be harmful—a point he shared with the Associated Press as cited by Weekman (2016, p 2).
“You’ve got to get the dose right, and if you do, it can do wonders” (Weekman, 2016, p
This study aims to inform the homework versus no homework debate by testing whether teachers at the target high school who consistently assigned homework produced higher student growth scores, as measured by the North Carolina Education Value-Added Assessment System (EVAAS) It also investigates which types of homework—preparation or practice—were associated with greater student growth, using data from EVAAS and teacher surveys By integrating EVAAS student growth data with survey results, the research identifies how consistent homework practices relate to student gains and clarifies which homework type contributes more to growth, with findings discussed in the context of existing work such as that cited by Warton.
Literature Review
After a full day in school, students often take on additional assignments at home—homework For decades, people have debated whether homework improves student achievement, yielding a wide range of beliefs about its benefits and drawbacks Even among supporters, opinions differ on which types of homework are most effective Despite this, research has not produced definitive evidence in favor of or against homework, leaving the issue unsettled To structure the inquiry, the study uses five research questions to guide the literature review and explore how different homework approaches relate to learning outcomes.
1 What differences in academic achievement exist among students assigned no homework compared to those assigned homework?
2 What differences in academic achievement exist among students assigned primarily preparation homework compared to those assigned primarily practice homework?
3 What perceptions of stakeholders (teachers, students, and parents) exist about the impact of homework on student learning?
4 What perceptions of stakeholders (teachers, students, and parents) exist about the impact of homework on the personal development of students?
5 What perceptions of stakeholders (teachers, students, and parents) exist about the impact of homework on family relationships?
Homework is a topic of national and local significance It has been an important and controversial topic for the past 2 centuries Homework research has centered on the mental and physical health of the student, the homework versus no homework debate, and recently on the components of homework This study set out to fill the gap of ambiguity surrounding the research associated with homework and student achievement as well as the gap of limited research associated with the different types of homework
The literature review for this study includes a collection of six homework research areas that were relevant to the research topic These areas consist of the history of homework; purposes of homework; positive and negative effects of homework; types of homework; perceptions of homework from the viewpoints of teachers, parents, and students; and the effects of homework on student achievement
Over the last century, the homework debate has swung like a pendulum between pro- and anti-homework attitudes, a pattern that remains evident in today’s discussions (Vatterott, 2009, p 3) Public sentiment has repeatedly shifted from support to criticism and back again as new research and classroom realities shape opinions about the role of homework in learning The historical arguments for and against homework are strikingly familiar, mirroring the points raised in contemporary debate and highlighting a long-standing tension between workload, achievement, and educational equity (Vatterott).
During most of the 19th century, homework rarely appeared as a problem, and complaints were few The burden fell mainly on high school students, who were expected to devote about 2–3 hours each night—weekends included—to assignments This extra study time outside of school was deemed necessary because learning relied on drill, memorization, and recitation of the material Educators reasoned that those who wanted to attend high school had to be willing to study and do homework; students unwilling to put in the effort could choose to drop out (Gill & Schlossman, 2004, p 174).
In the early 1900s, at the turn of the century, homework was viewed favorably as an important tool for disciplining children's minds The mind was seen as a muscle that needed regular exercise, and memorization was prized as both knowledge acquisition and a beneficial mental workout Because memorization could be done easily at home, homework became a key schooling strategy (Cooper, Lindsay, Nye, & Greathouse, 1998).
By the early 1900s, the pro-homework culture began to wane as Progressive reformers launched an anti-homework crusade that extended beyond classrooms into broader American society These reformers challenged traditional schooling and put forward two central concerns that defined the movement First, they questioned homework’s value as a pedagogical tool, arguing that students learned less when they studied late into the evening despite their best efforts Second, they warned that excessive homework could harm children’s health—mentally, emotionally, and physically The critique, echoed by researchers such as Gill and Schlossman, helped reshape debates about education and the role of homework in American schools.
As pediatrics evolved as a medical specialty, an increasing number of physicians spoke out about homework's impact on children's health and well-being Critics of homework even labeled it a sin against childhood.
Although the homework burden on high school students drew more criticism than in the previous century, the primary concerns centered on children in Grades 4–8, because homework before Grade 4 remained very uncommon Consequently, discussions about homework load tended to focus on early-grade students, where assignments are rare before fourth grade.
Schlossman (2004) notes that the drill, memorization, and recitation routine once deemed essential for exercising the mind in the 19th century drew sharp scrutiny from Progressive education reformers, who also challenged the necessity of homework (Kralovec & Buell, 2000).
Local and state women’s organizations, notably the Parent Teachers Association (PTA), pressured local school boards to regulate and minimize the amount of homework teachers could assign (Gill & Schlossman, 2004) By 1900, the editor of the era’s educational press was highlighting debates over homework, signaling early public scrutiny of homework policies in American schools.
Vatterott (2009, p 4) notes that Edward Bok’s Ladies’ Home Journal ran a series of anti-homework articles advocating abolishing homework for all students under 15 and setting a nightly cap of one hour for high school–age students.
1920s to 1940s Attacks on homework advanced further between the 1920s-
In the 1940s, the heyday of Progressive education (Gill & Schlossman, 1996), several communities abolished homework in some or all grades, a shift prompted by concerns that homework constituted a health hazard, concerns reinforced by major advances in pediatrics.
Concerns raised by the American Child Health Association contend that heavy homework can threaten children's health by depriving them of outdoor play essential for healthy development This critique helped spark a shift toward a whole‑child approach to education—focusing on social, emotional, physical, and cognitive growth—not just the brain—and acknowledged that homework often steals time children need for non‑school learning activities.
Education has shifted away from rote drill-and-recitation toward cultivating students’ problem-solving abilities (Cooper & Valentine, 2001) At the same time, the use of homework to strengthen memorization is being questioned, with a growing emphasis on developing problem-solving skills, student initiative, and a genuine interest in learning (Vatterott, 2009, p 2).
Methods
The homework debate remains a hot topic across the United States, with no clear consensus on whether students are assigned too much homework or if homework is even necessary for student achievement Perceptions among teachers at a rural high school in the foothills of North Carolina mirror this divide: many identify as homework traditionalists who view homework as essential for improving student achievement, while others hold progressive views that see little value in homework for achievement Progressive teachers argue that students should be able to learn what they need during school hours, and they describe much assigned homework as busy work that interferes with students' ability to hold part-time jobs, participate in extracurricular activities, or spend time with their families.
Most teachers take a middle-ground stance on homework, uncertain about its overall effectiveness and which homework types, if any, actually improve student achievement This study addresses these uncertainties by examining the impact of different homework approaches on learning outcomes and identifying which strategies are most beneficial for student performance.
Restatement of the Study Problem
After participating in a required schoolwide book reading and group discussions on Vatterott’s (2009) book Rethinking Homework: Best Practices that Support Diverse
In the target high school's discussions on homework, teachers were divided over its purpose and impact on student learning and achievement The conversations were dominated by polarized positions: anti-homework teachers argued that homework is unnecessary and typically assign little to none, while pro-homework teachers maintained that homework is essential for student learning, often assigning 45 minutes to an hour of work each night Beyond the overall stance on homework, participants debated which types of homework assignments are most effective for boosting student achievement, revealing disagreements about optimal design and its role in learning outcomes.
Chapter 3 describes the quantitative and qualitative instruments used in this mixed methods research to determine answers to the issues identified in the anti-homework versus pro-homework debate among teachers at a rural high school in the foothills of North Carolina These tools collect both numeric data and in-depth insights, enabling a comprehensive examination of teacher perspectives on homework practices The instruments are designed to address the five research questions that emerge from this division, guiding data collection and analysis in the rural North Carolina setting.
The research setting is highly relevant to this study because the organization’s stakeholders—all of whom either work at, attend, or are parents of students at the target high school—share direct ties to the school This proximity provides firsthand insight into school practices, culture, and student experiences, strengthening the context and credibility of the findings By situating the study within a setting where stakeholders are embedded in the very environment being studied, the research captures authentic perspectives and contextual nuances that might be overlooked in more distant settings.
Completed on August 15, 1977, the target high school sits on a 100-acre site in North Carolina’s western foothills It serves about 1,543 students in grades 9–12, based on the 2017–2018 enrollment data Students come from a rural community whose families are primarily employed in manufacturing and service industries.
At the time of the study, the student body was predominantly White, with 1,389 students (91%), 77 Hispanic students (5%), and 62 students (4%) from other ethnic backgrounds, totaling 139 minority students (9%) The population included 818 males (53%) and 725 females (47%) Figure 3 presents the ethnic composition of students from the target school and their percentages.
Figure 3 2017-2018 Target High School Ethnicity/Race Data
In the 2017-2018 data from the target high school for grades 9–12, there were 99 classroom teachers Of these, 95 (96%) were fully licensed, 30 (30%) possessed advanced degrees, and 23 (23%) were National Board Certified Regarding experience, 58 (58%) had 10+ years, 29 (29%) had 4–10 years, and 12 (12%) had 0–3 years.
1 What differences in academic achievement exist among students assigned no homework compared to those assigned homework?
2 What differences in academic achievement exist among students assigned primarily preparation homework compared to those assigned primarily practice homework?
3 What perceptions of stakeholders (teachers, students, and parents) exist about the impact of homework on student learning?
4 What perceptions of stakeholders (teachers, students, and parents) exist about the impact of homework on the personal development of students?
5 What perceptions of stakeholders (teachers, students, and parents) exist about the impact of homework on family relationships?
The researcher utilized a convergent parallel mixed method design for this study
The convergent mixed methods approach is among the most familiar strategies in mixed methods research, spanning both basic and advanced study designs In this design, researchers collect quantitative and qualitative data simultaneously, analyze them separately, and then compare the results to determine whether the findings converge, diverge, or complement each other (Creswell, 2014, p 219) Figure 4 outlines the steps involved in this approach.
Figure 4 Convergent Parallel Mixed Methods Design Illustration (Crabtree, Magil,
To investigate homework and student achievement, the study employed a convergent parallel mixed-methods design to justify collecting both quantitative and qualitative data on the same or parallel constructs, enabling triangulation of findings Homework and student achievement were quantified through teacher, student, and parent surveys and supplemented with teachers’ EVAAS student growth scores from the 2015–2016 and 2016–2017 school years The same concepts were also examined qualitatively through open-ended responses from teacher, student, and parent surveys to provide deeper context and interpretation of the numerical results.
Data were collected and analyzed to determine whether relationships existed between the survey results and EVAAS data The analytic results were interpreted and documented in Chapter 5, in a report that directly compares the two databases The findings indicate whether the two information sources converge or diverge, reflecting the alignment or discrepancy between survey measures and EVAAS data (Creswell, 2014).
Mixed methods research design strengthens study validity by integrating qualitative and quantitative data collection to examine the same topic This triangulation of data enhances the robustness of findings and deepens understanding by leveraging diverse methods Fitzpatrick, Sanders, and Worthen (2010) highlight the advantages of a mixed-methods approach, noting that it can improve validity, broaden understanding of diversity, and accommodate a wide range of design, data collection, and analysis options (p 386).
The conceptual framework of this study was based on the research conducted by
Cooper (1989), along with Lee and Pruitt (1979) and Foyle (1984), conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis on homework and academic achievement, finding that homework is associated with higher achievement, though the overall effect is modest The result was significant for proponents of homework, indicating a measurable benefit even if the magnitude is small In 2006, Cooper et al published a review of newer studies that showed a stronger link between assigned homework and achievement in the newer data, but the gains appeared to be largely concentrated at the high school level Despite the breadth of research like Cooper’s, the question of whether homework reliably drives student achievement remains unclear, echoing debates that have persisted for more than a century.
Lee and Pruitt (1979) classified homework into four purposes—preparation, practice, extension, and creativity Foyle (1984) conducted the first experiment using this taxonomy at Emporia High School in Kansas, examining preparation and practice with 131 tenth-grade American History students to determine which type produced greater achievement The study found that both preparation homework and practice homework increased student achievement compared with students who were not assigned homework, with only minor differences in achievement between those assigned primarily preparation versus primarily practice homework (Foyle & Bailey, 1986, p 187).
This 1989 study at a target high school analyzes whether assigning homework is associated with higher student achievement versus no homework, compares preparation homework and practice homework from Lee and Pruitt’s (1979) taxonomy to see if one type yields greater achievement, and investigates perceptions of teachers, students, and parents about homework’s impact on student learning, personal development, and family relationships The study’s conceptual framework is tightly aligned with its purpose, research questions, literature review, and instruments, ensuring coherence across the investigation.