No Trespassing Authorship, Intellectual Property Rights, and the Boundaries of Globalization docx

AUTHORSHIP, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS, AND THE BOUNDARIES OF GLOBALIZATIONtraces three main themeswithin the scope ofcultural ownership: au-thorshipasoneofthebasic featuresofprint cu

THE GALT-COBLENTZ BOOK FUND

STANFORD UNIVERSITY

AUTHORSHIP, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS, AND THE BOUNDARIES OF GLOBALIZATION

traces three main themeswithin the scope ofcultural ownership:

au-thorshipasoneofthebasic featuresofprint culture,theuseof

intellec-tualpropertyrights asa privileged instrument ofcontrol, and,finally,

globalizationasa preconditionunder which bothoperate.

Underwrit-ten by rapid technological change and increased global

interdepend-ence, intellectualproperty rights aredesigned to protectaproduction

thatisnolongerindustrial,butinformational

No Trespassing tells the story of a century of profound change inculturalownership.Itbegins withlatenineteenth-centuryEurope,ex-

ploringcultural ownershipinanumberofsettingsacrossbothspatialand temporal divides, and concludes in today's global, knowledge- based society. Hemmungs Wirtentakesaninterdisciplinaryandinter-national approach, using a widearray ofmaterial fromcourt casesto

novelsforher purposes.FromVictorHugo andthe1886Berne

Conven-tion tothetranslationofPeterH0eg'sbestseller Smilla'sSenseofSnow, Hemmungs Wirtenchartsahistoryofintellectualpropertyrights and

regulations.Sheaddresses therelationshipbetween author andtor, looksatthe challenges tointellectualproperty bythearrivalofthephotocopier, takes into account the media conglomerate's search for

transla-content as a key asset since the 1960s, and considers how a Western

legal framework interacts withattempts to protect traditional edge and folklore NoTrespassing is essentialreading forall whocare

knowl-aboutcultureandthe future regulatorystructuresofaccesstoit.

(Studies inBook andPrintCulture)

EVA HEMMUNGS WIRTENisanassociateprofessorinComparativetureat Uppsala University, where shealso holds aSwedish Research CouncilPostdoctoral Fellowship 2002-2006

Litera-EVA HEMMUNGS WIRTEN

Authorship, Intellectual Property Rights, and

the Boundaries of Globalization

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS

London

Toronto Buffalo London

PrintedinCanada

ISBN0-8020-8835-X(cloth)

ISBN0-8020-8608-X (paper)

Printedonacid-freepaper

NationalLibrary ofCanadaCataloguinginPublication

HemmungsWirten,Eva

Notrespassing:

authorship,intellectualpropertyrightsandthe

boundariesof globalization/Eva HemmungsWirten

(Studiesinbook andprint culture)

Includes bibliographicalreferencesandindex

ISBN0-8020-8835-X(bound) ISBN0-8020-8608-X(pbk.)

1.Intellectual property 2.Authorship 3.Copyright I Title II Series.

Z552.W472004 352.7'49 C2003-903964-1

University ofTorontoPressacknowledgesthefinancialassistance toitspublishingprogramoftheCanadaCouncilfortheArtsandthe

OntarioArts Council

University ofTorontoPressacknowledgesthefinancialsupportforitspublishingactivitiesoftheGovernmentofCanadathroughthe

Book

-for saving my day, every day

-Preface ix

Introduction:

ThePursuitofProperty 3

1 WearingtheParisianHat:

Constructing theInternationalAuthor 14

5 From the 'Intellectual' to the 'Cultural':

Can There BePropertywitha 'Difference'? 100

6 Genies in Bottles andBottled-Up Geniuses:

Two CasesofUpsetRelativesanda PublicDomain 125

Notes 149

References 191Index 215

nessing hypertrendy gone charmingly hyperoldas immediate as it is

powerful

Beineix's ceuvre received widespread acclaim. Its tongue-in-cheektreatment offamiliargeneric ingredientsinstantlyrejuvenated the hard-boiled traditionofAmerican movie classics andfilm noir Briefly, thestoryrevolvesaroundayoungpostalworker'sinfatuationwith opera

in generaland thesinger Cynthia Hawkins - played by Wilhelmenia Wiggins Fernandez - in particular. He is so obsessed by her that he

secretlyrecordsoneofherperformances, even though sherefusesherpermissiontodoso.Norecord ofher voiceexists;onlytheunduplicable immediacy of recital is on offer-

irreplaceable, unique As the storyprogresses and the couple become romantically involved, things get

out ofhand Intended forpersonaluse only, the pristine recording is

aggressively hunted down by Taiwanese thugs representing the so-law-abiding music industry. Accidentally, it crosses paths with a

not-surveillance tapedisclosingthepolicecommissionerasheadof a

pros-titutionring,and suddenly our herofindshimselfdrawnintothedark

underbelly of Paris,pursued from all quarters The soundtrack made

an oddinternationalhitoutofthearia inCatalani'sLa Wally(1892),and

wherecolours, clothes,andinteriordecoratingevokedthestylish1980s

to come, as if leapingdirectly out ofone ofthe French much adored

bandesdessinees

Duetoitscultstatus fora generationofwhichIwasdefinitely apart,

seeing Diva in Paris almost twenty years after its initial release

pro-duces exactlythe nostalgic feelingofdeja vu Ihad cometo expect.Yetthe film also triggers a rather different kind of recognition. In retro-

spect,my enjoymentis nottied only to lustfuldigging inthe

archeo-logicalbitsandpieces of a period's form, narratology,andfashion.AsI

watchtheaccountofa bootleg recordinggoneastray,Isuddenlyrealizethat Diva prophesied oneof themorepressingconcerns ofcontempo-

raryculturallifetwo decadeslater

-namelyIPR, orintellectual

prop-ertyrights.Behindhisextremeaesthetization of a prettystraightforwardstory, Beineix probed a territory about to undergo a dramatic recon-

figuration:he showed us howanewinfrastructureofownership made

possible by a fusion of technology, information, culture, politics, and economics could looklike.

There isno doubt inmy mind thatthe late-night screening of Diva inParis inJuly of2000 helped shapethisbookinto itsfinalform.WhenI

began my work two years earlier, I envisioned a very different end

product,onethatwould be an accountofthechangingconditions for

publishingunderglobalization. Iknewearlyon that intellectual

prop-erty rights neededtobe a part ofthatstory,but somewhere along the

way thatsummer in Paris I shambled not only on Diva, but perhaps more importantly onVictorHugo, and suddenlythe perspectiveofone

chaptergrewinto thatof theentiresix.

It isa great privilegetobeabletofollowsuch newdirectionsandto

witnesshowa project insome sense takesonalife ofitsown 'Going withthe flow' would not have beenpossible,however, ifnot for the

support of a number of organizations and individuals Through its

committee 'GlobalProcesses ina EuropeanPerspective,' theSwedish CouncilforPlanning and CoordinationofResearch(today theSwedish ResearchCouncil)setthingsinmotion byoffering financial aswell as

moral support for the project in 1998-9 A generous Knut and Alice

Wallenberg Foundation grant for recently graduated female scholarsallowed me theluxury oftime andtravel whenI needed itthe most,

anda postdoctoral scholarshipfromtheSwedish Foundationfor

Inter-nationalCooperationinResearch and Higher Education (STINT)ledto

an invaluable stayatthe University ofNorthCarolina atChapelHillduringthe2001-2 academicyear.Fortheirjointinvitationleadingupto

University Program in Cultural Studies and Professor Joanne Card Marshall at theSchool of Informationand Library Science Early en-

couragement from the Department of Literature, Uppsala University,

where theprojectwasoriginallyconceived, must berecognized,andI

acknowledge both the Centre for Cultural Policy Research and the

SwedishSchool of Libraryand InformationScience,Goteborg

Univer-sityandthe University Collegeof Boras,forsupportexpressedinmanydifferentwayssince 1999.In20021was awardedafour-yearpostdoctoralfellowshipbytheSwedish ResearchCouncil,whichfacilitatedthefin-ishing toucheson thebook and aboveall,makesit

possiblefor meto

continue to explorea fieldthat fascinates me andthatholds so many

challengingavenuestopursue

During the past four years I have had the opportunity to presentparts ofmy manuscriptatvariousseminars andconferencesinSweden

aswell as abroad.Ratherthanlist allsuchoccasions,Iextenda

collec-tivethankstoallwho have given methe opportunitytovent aworkin

progress, a crucial, yet sometimes overlooked, element of academic

research.Obviously,Ihaveincurred thegreatestdebttothosepersons

various stages ofcompletionor simply given me faiththat one dayit

would materialize into a book, particularly Jonas Ebbesson, Anders

Frenander, Jenny Johannisson, Carl Josefsson, Lars-Goran Karlsson,

Dick Kasperowski,Claes Lennartsson, Jan Nolin,AnnikaOlsson,Henry

Olsson, Veronica Trepagny,andGeir Vestheim.My husbandPerhas,asalways,been my mosttrusted reader.Anyerrorsofjudgment,lapsesin

styleorcontent,shouldofcoursebeattributed tome, and mealone

AsPeterStallybrassand Allon White so accuratelynote: '"place"is

not merely a name but something like a mode of discursive

produc-tion.'1I amacutelyawareofthefactthatmy own 'discursive

produc-tion' owes a tremendous amount to some great places where I have been fortunate to spend time writing this book. They include theBibliotheque NationaledeFrance,siteFrancois Mitterand/Tolbiac,and

theUNESCOlibrary inParis;theRoyalLibraryinCopenhagen; andtheStockholm University Library and the Royal Library in Stockholm However, it was the impressive resources at the Walter Royal Davis

andthe Kathrine R Everett Law atthe

NorthCarolinaatChapelHill,thatreallymadeallthe difference tothe

wayIwasabletoconduct myresearch

Finally,credit where credit is most profoundly due Idedicate this

book to mythree daughters, whosepresence in mylifemakes

every-thing possibletobeginwith.

AUTHORSHIP, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS,

AND THE BOUNDARIES OF GLOBALIZATION

THE PURSUIT OF PROPERTY

The sequenceofevents depictedinthepagesthatfollow unfoldsinlatenineteenth-century Europe and is then traced up to today's global,

knowledge-basedsociety.AsIexploreculturalownershipinanumber

ofsettingsacrossbothspatialand temporaldivides,threeoverlapping

interlocutoryspheres serveasbackdropformyundertaking:authorship

asoneof thebasic features of print culture;intellectualpropertyrightsasthe privileged instrument of control exercised over the multifariousresourcesproduced bythefirst;andfinallyglobalizat ionasthecondition

under whichthesetwooperate.

Before concentratingon eachcategoryandtheirmutualtions, letus considersomeofthe reasonsforchoosingprint culture to

interconnec-frame the overall concerns ofthis book An undertaking of this kind would perhaps be better served if it pivoted around more Diva-liketopics,suchasthe challengesto themusicindustry a laNapster Con-

sideringthatsomuchofourculturalconsumption nolongerislimited

totheofferings of print culture,whyis itplacedcentre stage?Ousted,

unseated, dethroned - why should we care about books, magazines,

printed material at allwhen there are any number of other cultural

forms poised much more centrally to deal with these matters? Few would probablydisagreewiththesuggestionthatifthereever wereaprivileged position for the printed word, then it is unquestionably one underfire.Am Iattemptingasearch-and-rescue operation, then,

lookingto reinstatethe printedwordinall itsoldpomp andglory?Or

is it rather the reverse - afinal act of

scooping soil onthe coffin of

something long readyfor burial? Neither option sounds particularly

desirable

superficial level. Evenifwe concedetothesideliningargument,printcultureallowsus,perhapsbetterthanothermediaforms,tohistoricize.

Ifthisinturnneeds furtherclarification,we can makea casethatit is

simplybecause ofthehistoricallegacyof print culture; becausewe may

evaluate and follow its

trajectories through time; because it is a slow

medium where changes and transformations brought on by, for

in-stance,new technology may worktohighlightthe conflictsandclashes

of a long tradition in flux, that we are capable of saying something grounded inthe experience ofthe longhaul. Printcultureand author-ship insist on being understood historically; using this to our ad-

vantage will, in turn, add to our knowledge of globalization, as it

demonstratestheneedtoputspecificeventsseenasinherently porary into the necessary perspectives of time and place. The same argumentsthatcan be launchedagainst thevalidity ofprint culturecan

contem-be usedinitsfavour

value, originality, hierarchization, imitation,and copying, that makes

print culturesoinvitingas afieldofinquiry.Not onlyisthisrelevantto

publishing, authors,andcritics,butinfactitapplies tothe entirefield

ofprint,including thosewho makeittheirbusinesstostudyit- fromalong-standingpreoccupation withtextuality inliteraturestudies tothematerial concerns ofbookhistory.Thesescholars directlyorindirectly

devote themselvestoissuesofimmaterialandmaterialvalue,and hence

also moral and economical worth and property.1 To focus on print

culturerather than anyother culturalformisnot tounduly favourit,

but merely to underscore that a certain nucleus must be present in

orderforustobetterunderstandthe presentfromitspast

Forms of legal control in printculture longpredate the arrival ofthe

'author' atwhat MichelFoucaultfamously termsa'privilegedmoment

ofindivualization/2Prior tosuch an appearanceattheendofthe

eight-eenth century, printers and publishers were generally the first

copy-rightowners throughthe granting ofprivileges

3

personality, then the notion of theauthor as a self-contained, unique

individualwhose works must be judged bytheir intrinsicvaluealoneis

a new invention concomitant with the advent of the author as an

-Pamela,Clarissa,TomJones,TristramShandy - what Mark Roselabels 'therecordof apersonality/ isbut oneexpressionofhowauthorshipandlegalownership begantocoexist.4

Authorship andintellectualpropertyrights arefromthevery

begin-ning fundamentally paternalistic and gender-biased discourses that

continuetoappointtheowner,author,andproprietorasaman,a'he.'5

This strand ofthought -authorshipexpressed in terms of aromantic,

individualisticconception oforiginalcreationinfluencedby andrated from the mundane by inspiration that comes from within (a

sepa-man) -iswidelyacceptedasthevery foundationofmodernintellectualpropertydoctrine.

6

In order to understand the underlying principles behind modern

intellectualpropertyrightswe mustlooktohistory.Inchapter1,Victor

Hugo's opening speechattheCongresLitteraireInternational in Paris

1878,which would subsequentlylead totheformationofthe

Associa-tion Litteraire etArtistique Internationale (ALAI) andindirectly to the

Protection ofLiteraryandArtisticWorksin 1886,7highlights anumber

ofthemesthat willresurfaceduringthefollowingchapters.Thealebehindthe international controlofintellectual propertyrights thatHugo helped orchestrate is a tremendously important feature to ad-

ration-dressbecauseitprovides astructureby which we can understandthe

emerginginternationalizationtaking placemore thana centuryagoas a

thing apart from, yet also reminiscent of, what we will encounter inglobalization

A majorincentivebehindtheconstruction of theseearly international

conventions wasthe question oftranslation.Bytakinga closer look, in

chapter2,atthetwoEnglish-language versionsofPeterH0eg'sbestsellerFr0ken Smillasfornemmelsefor sne (1992), I will highlight two major

itineraries.Thefirstrelatestothe question ofwherethe limits ofship are drawn andto whomthe textbelongs, translator orauthor or

author-both.The second addresses theissueofintellectual propertyrights as

an instrumentofculturalimperialism,whether Frenchattheendofthenineteenth century orAnglo-Americanatthebeginningofthe twenty-

guidance weare dealing notonly with anindividual,a person.To be

Foucault, as a function profoundly 'transdiscursive'

8

innature, pleenough tocarryoverintocomputer programming,software pro-duction, geneticand/or

sup-corporations, collectives, even perhaps residing in prehuman creatorancestors.9

Clearlythisfunctionactsasaninterpretativeinstrumentallowing us

toprobethemanycontradictorytenetsofintellectualpropertyrights oftoday, but it does not limitthe possible uses and strategies to which

authorshipcan bedeployed. Whatisimportantin theend istherefore

not somuchtheidentificationofauthorship,butthevarying and

some-timesconflictingusesto whichit is

beingput.Thestrengthofship resides thusin its flexibility, its capacity tobe used for different

author-ends by different agents One thing is certain: the relationships ploredin thefollowing chapterswillroutinelypitculturalandfinancial

ex-investments against one another Our object of shady can be VictorHugo or the infrastructures ofinformation technology,butsomeone is

alwaysclaiming rightfulownership ofthepropertyinquestion,be it

Media-Corporations (TNMCs).

In chapter3,thebook moves forwardtoexplorethecriticalfeatureof

technologyasan agentofchangein reference to intellectual property,

using the copier as a case study Represented by Chester Carlson'sinvention xerography and the machine itself, this is not such a far-

fetched choice asitmightinitiallyappear.Usingthe copiertoillustrate

how an instrumentforreproduction functionstodecentrethenotionoftext, reproduction, and copy enables interesting correspondencesbe-tweentechnological innovation,textual categorization,andregulatoryframeworks.

Under the influxofglobalization, intellectual property rights takes

onanewurgency.Asaconsequence, powerinthisfieldisassignedtothosewho havetheabilitytodenyaccesstocertain resources,orwho mayfenceinspecifictypes of valuableknowledge.10In chapter4, 1turn

myattention to therelationshipbetweenconglomeratization,content,

and convergence inorder to describe the increasingly important nomic motives behindintellectualpropertyrights,arguingthatcontentownership andprotectionmust be seenasoneoftheincentivesbehind

eco-theradical restructuring ofpublishingsincethe1960s.

Whynotthen, inlightofthe subjectmatteranditshistorical legacy,

usethemore commonly known termcopyrightratherthanintellectual

property rights todenote the regulatoryregime that safeguards

con-tent?Therearetwo mainreasons.Currently thescopeoftheAgreement

onTrade-RelatedAspectsof IntellectualProperty Rights (TRIPS),which

withthe Berne Convention keyinternationaltexts

on intellectualproperty rights, includes copyright and related

rights,

trademarks, geographical indications, industrial designs, patents,

layout designs (topographies of integrated circuits),protection ofdisclosed information,andcontrolof anticompetitivepractices incon-

automatically include copyright,andwhile copyright indisputablyhas

farmore incommon withprint culture than,

say,geographical

indica-tionsandintegratedcircuits,what would seem anapparentlyobvious

choice ofwords can still be debated For one thing, while the ences between the French Droit d'auteur - Urheberrecht in

differ-German, Upphovsmannaratt inSwedish,Diritto diautore inItalian- on oneside,andtheAnglo-AmericanCopyright,ontheother,shouldnotbeexagger-

ated, they are often seen as two very differentlegal stancesvis-a-visintellectual property.11Astheystem fromthetraditionsofcivillaw and

common lawrespectively,Paul EdwardGellerinsteadspeaksof shipnorms andmarketplacenormstostressthedifferences inapproach

author-12Forexample,theFrench andcontinentaltraditionrecognizesthemoral

rights of the author,

Farfrom merejudicialcosmetics, the implicationsofdroitd'auteur

andcopyrightontheinternationalagendaofintellectualpropertyrights

aswellasbeingepistemologicaltoolsusedtodecipher the eventsthatIdiscussinthisbook must somehow be contendedwith.Onbalance,therelationshipisbetterperceivedasdialectical,providing a usefulframe

withinwhichthevariousbattlesregardingintellectualpropertymay be

concretized.15Asaconsequence,intellectualpropertyrights

-proprieteintellectuelle in French - denoting the legal rights which result from

intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary, and artisticfields, simply represents a more neutralchoice ofterminology

16

Sec-ondly,andaswillbecomeclearertowardstheendofthebook, manyof

the current tendenciesinintellectualpropertyrightsmust berethought

outside therealmof traditionalcopyright

Theconflicts that arisefromtheclashbetweenanon-Western viewofculture and theWesternauthor-based romanticidealis fertile ground

for a number of questions regarding the limits and

possibilities ofintellectualpropertyrights That disagreements ensue when youseek

to protectand preservecompletelydifferent assetsfromtheones held

bytheTNMCsisapparentifweconsider theeffortsof,amongothers,

the United Nation's World Intellectual Property

Organization(WIPO)tosecurefolkloreandtraditionalknowledge(TK)within the framework of intellectualproperty rights and TRIPS The

internationalcommunity here facesone of itsmost provocative

chal-lengesto date,whichleadsmetolookmorecloselyatthepossibility of'cultural'propertyrightsinchapter5.

Oneofthebasicpremisesofintellectualproperty protection concerns

the relationshipbetween theimmaterialand the material Article2 ofthe Berne Convention does not make fixation mandatory, but it is

generally the casethatexpressionsandnot ideas assuchare protected,

andthussomesortofmaterial conditioningbecomesnecessary.17

While

itwould seem that my emphasis on theimmaterial as themain asset

soughtforprotectionisproblematicbecauseofthisproviso,thisisonly

oneofseveral inconsistencies thatearmarkintellectualpropertyrights

Takemusic:notonlyrecordsbutalsoliveperformancesareproduced, somethingthatmakesitfundamentally different fromthe functionof

book/text,whichis stillconsumed mostlyindividuallyandinsilence

'Although material objects (records, compact discs, cassettes) are

in-deedtraded/ Steve Jones argueswhen,ina highly illuminatingway, he

illustratesthe rapportbetweenthe materialandthe immaterial in specttomusic andintellectualpropertyrights, 'whatgives thosecom-

re-modities valueistheabstractedobjectof copyright- namelymusic.'18

ParaphrasingJones,contentisthe abstractedobjectof copyrightinthisbook In the end, both the term intellectual property and copyright fall

short of rendering this important feature, which is more accurately

captured by the Swedish term used for intellectual property rights:

Immaterialratt(law of the immaterial/intangible)

We can deem intellectual property rightsthe successful-orfailed,depending on our position -administration of a set of contradictory

tenetsofwhichthecorrelationbetweentheimmaterialandthe materialrepresents only one part A subset of other conflicting facets is therelationshipbetweenprivateprotectionandpublicgood;theproblem-

aticbalancebetweenrightsandobligations;the ambiguities surfacing

asfree tradetreatiesareelaborated on thebasisof strengthening

mo-nopoliesinthenameof globalfreetrade;andthe question of piracy or

copying infringements as either attempts to undermine a nationally

importantindustry orsimplyasaformofflattery.

19

In thefinalchapter,Iwilluse twosetsof upsetrelatives,theestateof

MargaretMitchellandagreat-greatgrandsonofVictorHugo -thefirst

of whom were engaged in

litigation against the 2001 publication ofRandall's The Wind Done Gone With

andthesecondstirringadebateinFranceoverthe publication, also in

2001,ofCosetteouletempsdesillusions,afollow-uptoLesMiserables-to

recapitulate these conflicts in respect to one of the most important

featuresVictorHugoraised in his1878 speech:'ledomainepublic.'

Thethird andfinalsphereunderpinningthisinvestigationis

propertyrights Despite themanyoptionsthatcometomind when we

setoutto defineitscharacteristics,one in particularovershadowsthealternativeson wheretobeginpeelingits

layers.Itconcernsthe

impor-tanceofspatiality.Whyisthisnotionof

spatialitysocentral to

when wetalkaboutglobalization,werefertovarious formations thatmayormaynotbeabsolutelynew tousbut whicharemadepossible

by a rapidity, intensity, and scope of mind-boggling proportions If

pushed to be more specific, we will no doubt exemplify those with

significant increases in flows of

capital, culture, people, and labour,now organized, maintained, and developed independent of nation-

state logic and in large partdue to sophisticated technology And as

they takeshape and comeinto focus,wewillperhaps concurthatallof

these configurations demonstrate new kinds of spatial networks and

interdependencies

We can view itas a buzzword or agree that it is the cliche of our

times,20butglobalizationundeniablydenotesaveryspecifictemporal

experience in which increased migration, mobility, and transborderflows ofmoney andculture arecommonplace Wearepresented with

events that have substantial spatial connotations, where questions of

ex-tendedspace, spatialityandplace areforegrounded.21 In trying tocome to

terms with the repercussions of these processes, we are offered the

possibility of thinkingdifferentlyabouttheworld.Hencetheunderlying

assumptionofthisstudy,equallyconcernedthenwiththemore

meas-urableandtangibleelementsof globalization, aswiththeirpotential to

places

22

Working with globalization in this context means acknowledging

that itactually denotes something very real while also remembering

that it is a powerful epistemological representation that impinges on

the wayinwhich we have come to understandothers and ourselves

Oneofthe reasons we can speak ofglobalization atall isbecause we

think ofourselves asliving in a globalized world Seen from such an

angle, thereishardlyadiscussiononglobalization thatisnotrelated to

a geopolitical frameworkof some kind As I think willbecome clear,

choosingthisperspectivemeans implementing newanalytical toolsfor

the understanding of the material conditions by which any cultural

commodity and/orpracticeisproduced, consumed, andregulated.But

it will also alter our interpretation of the same processes. If we are

tobelieveDavid Morley - and Ithinkwe should -thehumanities and

reconfigurationinthelast twentyyears, froma primary concern with

periodization and temporality, to arrive at theconclusion that events

havenotonlyatemporal butalsoaspatialform.23Withacertainlogic,

this means that authorship and intellectual property must both be

considered sites of

temporal andspatial contestation.24

Just as shipmust be understoodininterplaywithamultitudeofinfluences,so

author-will intellectualpropertybesubjectedtotheworkofcultural contexts

To a large extent, the history of international intellectual property

rightsisoneofexpansion -intermsof subject matter, intermsof politicalreach,andintermsofthe lengthforwhichthemonopolyofin-tellectualproperty rightsisaccorded,something which hasfluctuatedsubstantiallyovertime The Berne Conventionspecifies the lifeofthe

geo-author andfiftyyearsthereafter.However, duringthe1990s,two major adjustments relevant for the arguments that ensue occurred The European Union extended copyrighttothelife oftheauthor andsev-

enty yearsthereafterfrom1July 1995andintheUnitedStates in 1998,

theCopyright TermExtensionAct (CTEA),betterknownastheSonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act, extended copyright by twenty

yearsfromfiftyyearstoseventy yearsfor individuals,and from

seventy-fiveyears to ninety-fiveyearsforcorporateauthors, evenretroactively?5

Ensuringincreasedinternationalharmonizationisthe one majorraisond'etre forthemanyconventionsinthefield,from BernetoTRIPS,andyet,

intellectual propertyrights arestillbound byterritorialityandnationallaws.26

How then, more precisely, does globalization relate to authorshipand intellectualproperty?James Boylesuggeststhatintellectualprop-

ertybears thesamerelationship totheinformationsocietyor

globaliza-tion as the wage-labour nexus did to the industrial manufacturing

society ofthe1900s.27Thus, inatimeofspatialinterdependence,

intel-lectualproperty regimes areseenassafetynetsdesignedto protectthe

rather than industrial,butwhich more importantly is transborder and

oblivious to nation-state regulation. This means that the protection ofassets that flow quite easily across and beyond bordersbecomes im-

perative,something whichinturndrasticallyaltersthe basis ofconduct

for all those drawn into such an orbit.28 Some of the basic buildingblocks of international conventions in the field, such as the crucial

elementofnational treatment, are todaypressured by the decreasing

importanceofthenation-stateandthespatialcomplexitiesof

globaliza-tion.29 The inherent contradictions of intellectual property rights are

those in control ofthis regulatoryregime have theupper hand in the

knowledge-basedsocietyisthereforehardlyanexaggeration.30

Because of its critical importance in this spatial interdependency,

intellectualpropertyrightsisaninstrument

-possibly themost

impor-tant today - of what Susan Strange calls structural power, and ofparticular interest must therefore be the boundary between what is

allowedtocountasintellectualpropertyatall,and whatisnot.31What determines thisisaform ofarticulationthat decideshow thingsshall

be done and howrelationshipsand frameworks should beshaped,and

it iscontinuouslyreworked onaborderlineof interplaybetweenstates

and markets Inthis overall matrix, SusanStrange defines four turesofpower: security,production,finance, and knowledge.32

struc-While

she underlinesthattheknowledgestructuremight bethemost

impor-tantandleasttheorized,one couldcertainlyarguethatthe

distinctive-ness of the knowledge-based economy is that in it knowledge has

becomeproduction and vice versa and hence that the two should be viewedasfundamentallyinterrelated.

Globalizationprompts ustorecast thisstructuralpowerintooneofspatialpower, onethatbindstogether theveryclosewiththefaraway

in such a way as to causeboth to operate within a complex logic of

interdependency.Itwould bea majorerror tounderestimate the

pres-ence of structural and spatial power, but equally dangerous not to

surmisethattherecan betransformation orexchangesinthepositions

of those holding and vying for it If we subscribe to a contextual

historical analysis, we must accede thateven power itself is a

contin-gentthing

Authorship,intellectualpropertyrights,andglobalizationarethethree

main around whichthe ofthisbookare Ihave

already posited these three as representing a contested terrain upon whichthe challenges concerning the ownershipofcontemporary key

resourcesareplayedout.

As my workprogresses,Ihopetostayclearofat leasttwofallaciesin

thinking ofthemtogether.The first isnottoperpetuateanyfalseand

unconstructive separation betweenthese intersecting spaces. Because

of the nature of the subject matter itself, which is equally fluid and

changeable,thiswould benot onlya mistake,butvirtuallyimpossible

to pull off. Instead, I have tried to opt for a more holistic approach,

underscoring thesimilarities, correspondences,and linkagesbetween what on thesurfacemight appearas separateand evencontradictorysystems ofreference My second manoeuver has beenfocused onnotfallingintothehabitof oversimplifying the taskofassigningpowerto

any pre-and/or overdeterminedapparatus. Havingsaid that, Ithink

there is evidence to suggest that the balance intellectual property is

supposedto uphold betweentheright toaccess(public) andtheright

toownership(private)isdislodgedintheintellectualpropertyregimes

of the global economy and the information society. This is why it is

importantnotonlytoremainintherealmofthoseinpower, butalso to

consider the appropriationof intellectualpropertyby groupsstrivingforarticulation Very few thingsspeakofpowerto thesameextentas

ownership, butinthiscaseitshould never be judgedtoo quicklyinan

oversimplified or monolithically one-directional manner The

theoreti-cal outlook of this study is substantially informed by Stuart Hall'sparticular useof 'above' and 'below/ which refers to the nation-state

and can be seen as related to the concepts 'global'and 'local.'33From

my ownperspective,Iwouldalsoliketothinkthatit ispossibletousethe terms 'power' and 'agency' in the same manner and that thesevariouslevelsmust always be keptinmind.

In light ofthis, I hopeI have made it clear at this point that what

awaits the readerisnotanexercise in legal scholarship Whileclearly

intellectualpropertyisofparamount concerntothepracticeandtheory

material found elsewhere Consequently I am indebted to a body of

work concerned withthecultural, economic, andpoliticalsignificance

of intellectualproperty.34 Influencedby and hopefully contributingtothis fieldinprogressshouldthusbe regardedasworkingwithin- and

ontheborderof-anumber of looselyneighbouring academic

litera-ture studies, law,aswellastheevenlargerand morefluidconcepts of

andtheinformation asweare

deal-ing with a phenomenon that moves in and out of several

intercon-nectedyetattimesalsoindependentspheres, different disciplinesand

epistemologies contribute to anevolving critical perspective Despite

thedrawbacks thatmight be involved,the most rewarding plinaryworkofalltendstosurfacewhen you haveto,asSusanStrangeoncesaid,'learnbylooking overthefence.'35

interdisci-The law -as incourtcases,statutes,laws,internationalconventions,

and thevarious external discoursesrelating to these -is treated as a

social construct,contingentandinterpretable, subject tothesametype

ofinterferences, manipulations, and appropriations asany textin the

more conventional meaningof the word The enduring popularity of

court-room drama ontelevisionisbutone simple exampleofthe fact

thatthelaw(especiallyperhaps commonlaw)alsocomes witha

perfor-mative dimension, one whichisdifficult, ifnot impossible,to captureafter the fact. The crucial pointis thatwhile weoften find ourselvesconfinedto documentary evidence in textual form in order to render

certain events,the performative aspectofwhat happensin acourtroom and the relationships between those present, remains absent in this

study.YetIrecognizethat, asShoshana Felmanwritesonthe dramatic

fainting of a witness during the Eichman trial, 'the dramatic can be

legallysignificant.'

36

In combining these approaches, I subscribe to a reading of legal

doctrineas culturaltext.37While'text'therefore refersbackto anumber

ofvarious access pointsofwhichprint culture,authorship,and

intellec-tualpropertyrightsonly represent threepossibilities,mybasic point is to reject any idea of the law as fundamentally different in

stand-nature than any other construction that operates on the basis of guage.38Whileitmayseektoeliminate theslippages ofinterpretation

lan-andsubjectivity and strive to obviate ambivalence, thereisno securepositionfrom where conventions orcasesregardingintellectualprop-

erty rights transcendintoabsolute objectivity. Inthisrespect,law and

literature are strikingly similar in their reliance and emphasis on the

primacyof interpretation.39

Ifirmly believethatthere isand needs tobea groundedfocus and competenceinan undertakingofthiskind,butIamequallyconvinced

thatcultural textsofany kind - bethey laws,novels,advertising copy,

or policydocuments -create asetof interpretableconnectionswhere,

inDoreen Massey's words,'thematerialandthediscursiveinterlock.'40

In the chaptersthatnow awaitthereaderIhavetriedtofuseboththese

intoacoherent whole

WEARING THE PARISIAN HAT!

CONSTRUCTING THE INTERNATIONAL AUTHOR

Our story first begins on 17 June 1878, the year of the ExpositionUniverselle.ThesceneisParis,and morespecificallyoneofthenumer- ous conferences hosted by that

city during the year in question: the

Congres Litteraire International Initiated by the Societe des gens de

lettresde France,1thehonourofdeliveringtheinauguralspeechisset

aside for one man and one man only: Victor Hugo. Now, trying to

pinpoint the exactbeginningsofmajorhistoricaltrajectoriestoaprecisedate andlocation constitutes ofcourse a hazardousenterprise. We all

know that historyisnotmade upoftemporalsnapshots.Still,Hugo's speechisanexcellent startingpointfrom wheretheoverallconcernsof

thisbook can beexploredfurther.Notonlyishe aboutto articulatehis

concerns regarding the lack ofaneffective internationalregime

over-seeing la

propriete litteraire, his stature as a respected internationalist

makesthisintoanissuenotonlyforauthors,butforthe civilizedworld

atlarge.Afterall,whobetter toputintowordsthenascent

comprehen-sionofinterconnectednessandinterdependenciesformingattheendofthenineteenth century thana man known,read, and respectedon all

continents?Whobetter to articulatetheworld?

Seventy-six years old, Hugo is so intimately intertwined with theturbulenthistoryof nineteenth-century Francethatone canhardlytell

where onebeginsand theother ends.Lookingintherear-viewmirror

of the past, Hugo can survey a career spanning every literary genre

known to man: novels, essays, poetry, plays, speeches, an immense outpouringofcreativity that included ableartwork Withouta doubt,

full-fledged cultural icon. Hugomania was a contemporary affliction that

cameinthe of conceivable proofof fromthe

import to France of foreign pirated copies of his books to the alleged

spottingoffakeHugo'satvariousEuropeancities.2Superhumanlyized in a way inconceivable to anypresent-day author, the creator of

idol-Notre-DamedeParis(1831) andLes Miserables (1862)ishero-worshipped

almostbeyondcomprehension.PascaleCasanovaclaimsthatlikeVoltaire

beforehim and Andre Gideafterhim,Hugoincarnateswhatshecalls'le

mandarin intellectuel/ She continues to explain that such a person empowered bya largeaudienceto legitimize subjectsrangingfromthe

matters-exercises influencefar

beyond what heactuallyknows, what he

writes,and even beyond what hesays.3

Accrued since his early thirties, his fame undoubtedly produceda

verydistinctconsciousness regarding the value ofhisthoughts,actions,

and words He was motivatedinequal partsperhaps byhiskeensense

of thedemandsofthebook market andhisself-inflatedliteraryego.If

weare tobelievehisown sonCharles,'Nothingis lost.Everything ends

up in print/

4

Needless to say, the value of property - and especially

literaryproperty-is

something Hugo canrelateto.

Politically,Hugo's life is achronicle ofsteadfastinvolvementin mesticandinternationalaffairs. Occasionallyhe sidedwiththeestab-

do-lishment;in 1871 he became a memberof theNationalAssembly and wouldintimeeven betitledSenator.Sometimeshispositionwas more unorthodox: his lifelongopposition tothe death penalty; his involve-ment inthe John Brown /Harper's ferry incident in 18595 (rendering

himstatusasa nationalheroinHaiti);andhis largelyself-inflictedexilefollowing the 1848 revolution.Returning to Parisafter nineteen years

ontheChannelIslandscan bedescribedonlyas ahomecoming

compa-rable toa publichappening.Historyhasitthatbecauseof the ousreception awaitinghim and thefour public speechesdemandedof

tumultu-him on his way, it took two hours to traverse the city on the day

following theproclamationoftheThird Republic -5September1870 from his arrival at Gare du Nord to his temporary quarters near theEtoile.6

-Strikingly adept at managing a successful synthesis of his varioustraits-author,

political activist,national superhero,andist-intoonecoherent

international-representation,Hugoisachameleon who changes

colours with the backdrop But a better exponentof peace, progress,

and the virtues of Western civilization celebrated by the World Fair

than the white-bearded colossus chosen as keynote speaker by the

isunthinkable

Despiteagradualdeclinein the internationalimportance and impactof

theFrench languagesincethebeginningofthecentury,

late-nineteenth-century French literature and authors continued to be read and spected in Europe and beyond, in translation and in the original.7

re-Making a living from that talent was something else entirely. From

those who, like Hugo,profited greatly fromtheirbooksto those who

barelyscraped by, authorship was apath one did not choose lightly

Someauthorssurvived thankstoasecondprofessionascivilservants,

otherswerefortunateenoughtosecure patronage.Hugo's own

trajec-toryonthebook market andhisascendancyinculturaland economical

standing matchesthe changing conditionsofthe market itself. In the

earlystagesof hiscareerhereceivedfinancialcompensationintheform

of personal subsidiesfromLouisXVIII.8Atthatpointprimarilyknown

asa poet, Hugo sees hisearnings increase exponentially asthe older

systemofliterarypatronage becomeslesssignificantandanewliaison

betweenauthor, publisher,and reading publicdevelopsinto the

busi-ness norm The advent and gradual supremacy of the novel as thepreferred literary genre of a new reading public benefits an entire

generationof writers,and must be seenas coincidentalwithincreasedefforts at copyright legislation, and economic control.9 This ultimategeneric successstorywas, however,not limitedtothebalance sheetsof

publishers orthewalletsofauthors: thenovel was the perfect vehicleforthenation-state topromoteitself.10

Ithas been suggestedthatthetwo Frenchwriterswho were mostateasewiththeworkingsofthebook marketat thistimewere Hugo and GeorgeSand.11 They werealso, togetherwith Balzac,notoriously dis-

loyaland changed publisherswithouthesitation ifthey feltthat their

books were not promoted enough or sufficiently endorsed.12 When Hugo'spublisher Hetzel-a compatriotinexilewhopublished Napoleon-

insufficient for Les Miserables, the author promptly took hisbusinesselsewhere.13

Hugo and Sand knew howtoprofitfromtheconditionsof

the emerging mass market, as they were adept at using the many

possibilitiesofreissues,magazinepublication,and cheapeditionsnow

de-scribe asmedia savvy.Both were extremelyprolific,producedin

sev-eral genres,andtheirfinancialandculturalcareerswerehardlyworse

during animpressiveperiodof time.Hugo madehisdebut with Odesat

twentyin1822and he diedin 1885;Sand, who debuted withIndiana in

1832,diedin1876attheageofseventy-two

Withthisnew market anditswell-knownattributes

-revolutionaryprintingtechnology,risingliteracy,communication andtransportationnetworksfacilitatingwider andbetter distribution- camethepossibil-

ity of increased financial gain, at least to those who knew how to

harness the capriciousbeast.Unfortunately,therewasalsothe

unpleas-antsideeffectofveryrealfinancialloss.Lostrevenues duetopiracy or

cheap editions produced outside France - Balzac complained mentlyinaletterthat

vehe-'Belgium had ruined French literature'14

-

pre-sented abonafidepredicamentforFrenchnineteenth-centuryauthors

BeforeitspublicationinFrance,Flaubert'sMadameBovaryfirstsurfaced

inapartialversionintheRevuedeParis,andtheninanequally

incom-pleteGermanedition.BalzacaswellasMerimee sawtheir texts

prema-turelyappearinginBelgium.15

economic rights of the author in respect to his labour Daniel Defoe

raised the issue inAn Essay on theRegulation ofthePressin 1704, and England isalsogenerally accreditedwiththefirst 'real' copyrightlaw withtheso-calledStatute ofAnnein 1709.16The almost uniformprefer-enceforthesamebest-selling writers-

Scott,Bulwer-Lytton,andens in England, and Dumas, Sue, and Hugo on the French side - showed how mostofEuroperead thesameauthorsatroughlythesame

Dick-time.17No wonder then, that these successful novelists arehighly vested in the questfor international copyright legislation and against

in-infractions in whatever form Together with Dumas, one ofthe most widelyreadandtranslatedofthe above,Hugoisnostrangerto piracy

Hence,thereisnothing remarkable aboutthefactthathe should choose

tospeakof copyright

As we know,therewas nointernationalcopyrightlegislationineffect

atthetimeofHugo'sspeech.Ageneraloverviewwill disclose different

national systems, or rather specific territorial frameworks. Bilateraltreatieswere becomingincreasinglycommon, beginning withtheGer-

man-Prussian agreementsin 1825 When the multilateral Berne

Con-ventionwas signedin 1886,anumberofbilateral treatieswerealready

inforce: Franceledwiththirteen, followedby Belgium withnine,and Spain witheight

18

In theabsenceofuniformregulatoryframeworks,authors' dealings

with businessacumen Hugo,Balzac,and

Sand all had contracts allowing the publisher the licence to publish

a certain workfor a limited period. This period could be quite brief,leaving the writeratliberty torenegotiate withthesame publisher orwithanew oneforadditionalreprints.Butitcouldalsolastforseveral

ranfor eightyearsand rendered theauthor alump sumof Fr 250,000(Fr300,000 accordingtoothersources),allowing the publisherto print

asmanycopies asheliked duringthat period.19 In1835, Hugosigned

an agreement withthe publisherRendueltoreceiveFr 60,000for 11,000

copies ofNotre-Damede Paris fora period ofthreeanda half years,a

sum that included six volumes of plays.20 Due to this contractual

alreadyin his late thirties. Hisbest yearslayaheadofhim andpairedwiththefactthatFrance had no incometaxbefore theFirstWorld War,

he wasa well-to-domanindeed Atthe timeof his deathin 1885, hisestatewas worth somewhere aroundfour millionfrancs.21

Hugo commences,notbyalludingdirectlytothequestionof property,

but byascertaining temporality He marksout 1878 as anexceptional

year,onethat willseewar andstrifedefeatedbyprogress.Theoverturepaints alargerpictureforthe audience,relegatingeverythingpertain-

ingtomorematerialconcernstothewayside.As we havealreadyseen,the economic ramifications ofbeing subjected to various formsof

racy presents aquandarytotheinternationalcommunityofwriters that

pi-must beresolvedatallcosts.But aninternationallegislationoncopyright

is stillanunattainablereality.Onceagainthecallforsuchalegislation

comesasadirectresponsetoincreasedtravel,expandingmarkets,new

formsofdistribution,more advanced productionfacilities, alloftheselogisticalfactorsnowalteringtheproduction and consumptionofprint.

Giventhattheneedfora regulativeframeworkofthiskindprovides a

strong incentive for Hugo, his speech is economically, legally, and

culturallymotivated.Asall-importantasthis lineof reasoningis, it is

stilldownplayed Hugooptsforanother approach

He opens bycontextualizing,usingallhispersonalunderstandingof

thepolitical past and present to stir the emotions ofthe audience Inmany ways,it isaprofoundlyideologicaladdressskilfullyneutralized

by theauthor's emblematic Hugo is uncontested as a

representative of Franceand Utopianinternationalism, no one would

think toquestionhisobjectives Considering thatthe 1878World Fair

program,22 Hugo steps in as a secular replacement substituting one message - intendedto lurethemassesintotheopium-induced,trance-

likestateMarx had warned about - withanother,wherereason,

level-headedness, andintellect are called for. Butthere isnothing remotely subduedordistanced inHugo'spresentationashe paves thewayforhis ownoutlookonliterary property. Hesmooth-talkshis listeners in

ordertosecuretheirapproval; thoseassembledinParis are referred to

asthemostcelebrated oftalents,seenastheforemostrepresentatives of

their respective nations, even accredited 'ambassadors of the human

spirit.'

23

Before a word is said on property perse, Hugo introducesseveral

recurring topics thatform the basis of his programmatic declaration.

Firstandforemost,his entire projectrestsuponthecementingoftureandcivilizationintoone bedrock foundation by whichtheprogress

litera-ofanationcan be measured bythequality ofitsliterature

Effortlessly

he thenactivatestheidea of theuniversalandinfusesitwitha

tremen-dously powerfulconnotation,aswhen heexhortshisaudiencetomake

it clear to legislators thatliterature is not somethinglocal, but

some-thing universal.24 There is a very particular spatial dimension to thecentrality of the term, constructed on the repetitive interlacing ofseveralcomponents One suchpiecein hisgiantpuzzleistherightsoftheauthor equated withuniversalrights,preceding an adamantsug-gestion of the undeniable and imperative affiliation between these

two terms and that of copyright or literary property The author asproprietorisanalogoustotheauthoras a free man Denytheauthor

the fruits of his labour, and you deny him his independence as a

humanbeing.25

Sucha stipulation is conspicuously gendered, as MelissaJ.

relationship to intellectual property rights was nothing ifnot

schizo-phrenic; on the one hand, they were in many instances successfulnovelistswho couldclaim authorshipandthus aformofownership; on

theotherhand,theycould simultaneouslybe deniedtheright toown

individual property. When Harriet Beecher Stowein 1853 fullysoughttostopan unauthorized GermantranslationofUncle Tom'sCabinpublished byF.W.ThomasforGerman immigrantsintheUnited

unsuccess-States inStowev. Thomas, her accessto thecourts

-theacclaimedwriterof thebookinquestion- was by wayofthetruelegal subjectofthe marriage: herhusband.26

As words flow fromthemouthofthisFrenchgod-likefather

figure,

not ahint ofuncertaintycan bedetected asfaraswhomit allconcerns;theuniverseofthe universalismale.Hugo'sopinionswouldnotmake

senseto theaudienceunless theyunderstoodpropertyitselfas universal,

and therefore it follows automatically: if the author is universal, so

musthis property be. The Congres convenes for this very reason: to

explore the possibilities ofspatial organization and international

col-laboration, to make literary property into something geographically

controllable.Finally,thereisthecomplicated argumentthatthe sal can be understood in terms of the national -

univer-Spain conjures up

Cervantes,EnglandShakespeare,ItalyDante, FranceVoltaire- andof

course, vice versa.Thealliancebetweenauthorsandnationsrestsona

complexbinarylogic.Ontheone hand,designatedaheritageshared by

usall,theseconsecrated authorsare archetypicallyneutered,

impercep-tibly stripped of their individual nationalities. Concurrently and inacontradictory U-turn,theyareinfusedwithquintessential national quali-

tiesallowingShakespearetoexpress the soulofEngland andVoltaire to

embodyFrenchness.27

Larger-than-lifemythsorflesh-and-blood individuals?Thelimelight

position oftheauthorintheconstructionofthenation-state ishardly

accidental,and calling on the aforementioned writers is hence an

in-genious move by Hugo Suchasit is,hisappeal goes beyondthemere summoning of national pride and exaltation; it achieves the added

benefit of underscoring to the participants that their presence is not

motivated by baseself-interest.They haveamutualgoal: todefend and

protectalegacy Thevalue ofthis heritage,Hugoargues,isperpetual

and thereforeitcannot be measured.Inoneinstant,he divertsattention

from or possible anxietyforthe pecuniaryaspects oftheir own

ambi-tionandredirectstheirinterest totheelevated question ofnation-state

symbolism As he establishes the overarching impetus of his

invoca-tion,theroomfillswithanticipation.

indi-vidualsandasacollective,writersare specialpeople,andtheymust be

treatedassuch Singled out as occupyinga function outside the

drab-nessofeverydaylife,theyshould be judged byaspecialyardstick.The

extraordinaryqualities thatenablemenofletterstoput human

experi-ence andexistence intowordsiswhat makes them moreuniversalthan everybodyelse-a

logicof reasoningthat will reemergein other

con-texts pertaining to the history of international copyright legislation.

The Kentucky senator Henry Clay, who stubbornly - and mostly in

vain-lobbied theU.S.

Congressinsupportofinternationalcopyright

for many years during the mid-nineteenth century, once said: 'Of allclasses ofourfellow-beings, there isnone thathasa better rightthan

that ofauthorsand inventors to the kindness, the sympathy, and the

protection ofgovernment.'28InHugo's booktheauthorisalsosomeone withextraordinary powers, someone who can and should spearhead

society'sdevelopment, who mustintervene toavoid war betweentions, who stands as the ultimate promoter of rational progress and

na-innovation Because of Mark Twain's investment in American

private publishing interests cloaked in the rhetoric of noble publicservice,'29 a description almost tailor-made for Hugo as well Many

yearsearlierWilliam Wordsworthexpressedhisconcernforthewayin

which ownership andauthor'srightswere beingneglectedbytion, writing in 1819: 'It appears to me that towards no class of his

legisla-Majesty's Subjects arethe lawsso unjustand oppressive.'30

Using

authors was an obvious course of action for successful century writers. Charles Dickens worked hard to convince both theBritishand American governmentstolegislateagainstthewidespread andaccepted useofpiracy. DuringhisfirstAmericantourof 1842,he

nineteenth-failed,however,toengagethesupportofAmericanauthorsin hiscause

againstpiracyandithas even been suggestedthat hiscrusade against

theAmericanpublishing industrymight haveexacerbated thesituationratherthan helpedtoremedyit 31

On this day in question, the author materializes dressed in avery

specificattire,arguingthat hiswork should be understoodprecisely as

labour, and thus inherently objectifiable into a very specific, fixed,

determinable thing. It is intellectualandit isliterary,butregardless ofwhat youcallit,propertyit still is.Any remainingessentialistnotionof

theauthorasa self-contained entitywhoperpetuatesI'artpour I'art is

anideology impossible to maintain and contradictorytotheobjective

ofthe gathering The wish tosafeguard and protect literaryvalue, to

keepthe individualized,canonized authorintactand the

correspond-ingambitiontolegislate,toseekinternationalstandardsandtreatiesfor

theimplementationofsuch anideologyisadichotomydisplacingthe

authorintwoworlds

However, Hugois formuch more thantheprotection ofthe

material object, 'the book/ He entices laughter from his audience

when

-playingonthe solidnessoftheobject- he makesa jokethat'the

bookisdifferentfromthethought;asbook,it isseizable,soseizableas

tobe sometimesseized/32Separating thebook(material)from thought

(immaterial) is a strategy consistent with the author/nation versuspropertyapproachallowinghimtoaskforthe recognition of theauthor's

right topropertizehimselfandhisideas.Forall itsmateriality,propertyis

becomingincreasingly immaterial.Andthisisoneofthemore

impor-tantmovesinHugo'saddress:totakewhat cannot beheldand makeit

into matter,askingthatitberecognizedassuch.33

Thathisown work would besingularly well suitedforthetransferral

to screen and stage a century later, is a thing in the future To latetwentieth-century cultural consumers, Notre-Damede Paris is perhaps

bestrememberedinitsincarnation asseveralHollywoodfilms,oneof

them a Disney animation, and Les Miserables as a musical fixture on Broadway andintheshapeofmoreorlesssuccessful filmadaptations.

As wereturntoVictor Hugointhefinalchapterofthisbook, wewill

see how such contemporary transformations of Hugo's works have

stirred heated debate in France over the appropriate treatment of a

nationaliconandhistexts

Uptothispointin hissolo presentationHugo managestodeliver his

speechinasombertone,and then heseamlesslymovesintotheareaofactuallegislativesuggestions.Asifcertain thatthepillofwhat hehasto

offer willbeinfinitelyeasier toswallowifaccompanied bypassionate

supplication,he now makesa halt in hisproposalsandthetimbre ofhis

voicechanges onceagain.Quiteabruptly, thereisa high-pitched

excla-mation: 'Ah!Light!Alwayslight! Lighteverywhere!'34

Obviously,we have no documentationofhis movements; hisfacialexpressionsandgesturesthatday eludeus Intheabsenceof pictures

we can only guess how he came across on the podium Perhaps he

tiltedhishead,madeamovementasiftoindicate thathe suddenly saw

lightseepinginthroughthewindows, perhaps he simplyletthe

audi-ence imagine itforthemselves But ina remarkablyeloquentshift,he bypasses all trace of materialistic Hugo, and every singlehint ofthe

subjectmatter (property)isinstantlyeradicatedandforgotten.

Typical for the construction of the communication is that its toneoften sounds deeply sentimental, sometimes crystal clear, and then

suddenly turns ostentatious and embellished beyond belief In some

sense the resultofthemanysides Hugotries togivehisstory,by and

the impressionremains ambiguous.Old-fashioned, outdated,over

-absolutely.Afascinatingtestamentto amasteroratoratwork,

apiedpiperwho knewexactlyhowtoworkacrowdintoafrenzy

-yes,that too PriscillaParkhurst Ferguson describeshis style as relianton

'antitheses, the outsize, even grotesque images, the litaniesof names andevents' to create'thelinguisticresourceby which herecasts historyintolegend/35As he swings from one aspectofproperty rights -theundeniable rightsof the author-to another-

concrete proposals for

remunerationtoheirsandfamily-toa third- how can welearnfrom

the experiences of the Paris revolutions to prevent them from ever

happeningagain,thistime on aninternational stage?- heiscarefulnot

to

tip the scale too much in any direction Balancing on a tightrope

betweenthe analytical and themegalomaniac,this combination -themasterful bringing together of

incongruous parts- is

precisely what makes his communication so powerful Another description of itsdistinctivenesswould betosaythattheaddresstriesuneasilytobridgethe widening precipice between literary generations, descending romanticism on the one side and ascending modernism onthe other

The romantic poet andthe bourgeoisnovelistarebothpresentinHugo, andthey struggleforspacein hisdiscourse.

The'illumination'paragraphiswithout doubt oneofthemost openly

allegorical parts of hisspeech.As suchitillustrateswellHugo'sability

tocombine andbuildhiscaseonelectrifyingand emotional metaphors.

Slowly, his soliloquy gains momentum and places him firmly onto romantic soil. In a highly poignant frame of mind, he associates the

anticipated beam of lightwith one nation: France Theluminosity of

France guarantees not merely the projected success of internationalcopyrightlegislationbutthatofhumanprogressin general. Hisargu-ment was backed up byaction:Francehadtakensteps in adecreefrom

1852 to unilaterally extend its laws to all works published abroad,

without any demand for reciprocity in relation to the protection of

French worksin other countries Itwas aninspiredattemptto settheinternational agenda on literary property, claiming altruism and

universalism whilesimultaneously 'shaming' other countriesinto

fol-lowingthe French example.36FrancoMoretti's suggestionthatduring

the time 'England became an island' France proved less insular, is

another argument in support of French internationalism. Moretti

locates the (relative) disappearance of foreign novels to the British

literary market in the 1790s and the late 1820s In the first instance,

thereasonisduetothe negativeimpactoftheFrenchrevolution,andin

the second, to the factthat adomestic now

sentsstrong competiton.Comparingthenumberof translatedbooksin

nineteenth-century English reading libraries with those in French

equivalents shows that they develop in two diametrically opposed

directionsovertime:theEnglishreadinglibraryreduces thenumberof

translations, whereas the French increases them Moretti then accumulates more evidence to support his case by arguing that non-

Englishlanguageliterature- and

particularlyperhaps French -arrives

lateinto Englishtranslation; The CharterhouseofParma appeared

sixty-twoyearsafteritsoriginal publication,MadameBovary twenty-nine.On

the otherhand,hisexamplesofFrenchtranslationsofEuropeanwriters

- suchas theRussian classics- show thattheyappear almost twenty

yearsaheadoftheirEnglish counterparts.37For Hugo,thereisno doubt

thatFrancesetsthestandardforwhatitmeanstobe cosmopolitan and

thusforwhatintellectualpropertyrightsshouldbe:

France isin favourof thepublicgood France risesonthehorizonofall

peoples Ah!, theysay,itisday,Franceishere! (Ouilouil Bravosrepetes.)

Thatone can haveobjections to Franceis surprising,butthereit still is:France has its enemies These are the enemies of civilization itself, theenemiesofthebook, theenemiesof freethought,theenemiesofemanci-

pation, ofexamination,of deliverance,thosewhosee indogmaaneternalmasterandinmankindaneternalinsignificant.38

We are leftwithhyperbolic rhetoric and theobvious associations

be-tween France, the universal, enlightenment, and evolution To be an enemyofFranceistobe an enemyofcivilization Hugo,saviour ofthe

disenfranchised, draws blatantly on his personal myth to entice the

congregation; theromanticcultofhisself-promoted genius,his

experi-enceinexile,evenhisstandingintheestablishment, everythingcan be

usedtoprovehis point Toaddress the challenges of theinternational

economics that now need to be harnessed forthe author - and kind -to profit,thecrowdisonce moreplacedonhisemotionalrollercoaster.This timeagainstwar and famine: 'Letus deliver them blow uponblow.Hateagainsthate!Waragainst war!' exclamationstowhich

man-theaudience responds with'sensation.'39Thesearethemeasures, Hugo

argues,by which we can do so much more than beat piracy and the

appalling neglect for author's rights; we can actually clean up the

sewersofmodernsociety.Ifweare tobelievethetranscript,thecrowd

is ecstatic; frequent parenthical outbursts of approval punctuate key moments: 'Bravo!''Acclamationunanime.'